Women`s struggle against gender discrimination as seen through the major characters in Khaled Hossein`s a Thousand Splendid Suns - USD Repository
WOMEN’S STRUGGLE AGAINST
GENDER DISCRIMINATION
AS SEEN THROUGH THE MAJOR CHARACTERS
IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
LUCIA ERI STYANINGSIH
Student Number: 064214066
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
WOMEN’S STRUGGLE AGAINST
GENDER DISCRIMINATION
AS SEEN THROUGH THE MAJOR CHARACTERS
IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
LUCIA ERI STYANINGSIH
Student Number: 064214066
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2010
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to The Almighty God,
Jesus Christ for His blessing and guidance since through the year especially in
the process of finishing my thesis.I am particularly grateful to Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum, my advisor for her great understanding and patience in supporting me during the writing process of this thesis. I also wish to express my gratitude to my co- advisor Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum for giving advice on this thesis.
I would also like to show my proper appreciation to all lecturers of English Letters Department and to all of the staff of Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
My greatest gratitude is also dedicated to my beloved parents and sisters. My father: Karyono Wignyotanoyo, my mother: Sri Wiryanti, S.Pd, my sisters:
Agustina Dwi Widyaningsih and Fransiska Dina Aryanti. Thank you so much
for the love, prayers and support you have given me.My sincere gratitude goes to Alex Budiyanto, S.T. for his caring, support, tender love and great patience.
To all my classmates of Sastra’06 especially Siska, Via, Mella, Ionk and Elis, thank you so much for the great friendship and care for all these times.
Finally, to anyone whom I do not mention here but have given me a hand, I want to say thank you.
Lucia Eri Styaningsih
TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................ ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ………………………………………….. iii
Lembar Pernyataan Persetujuan …………………………………….. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………… vi
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………. viii
ABSTRAK ………………………………………………………… ix
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ……………………………....
1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………….
5 C. Objective of the Study …………………………………
5 D. Definition of Terms ……………………………………
6 CHAPTER II: THEORITICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies ……………………………..
7 B. Review of Related Theories ……………………………
9
1. Theories of Characters and Characterization ……
9 2. Theories of Setting ……………………………..
12 3. Theories of Gender …………………………….
13
th th
C. Review on the Late 19 and Early 20 Century of Afghanistan ……………………………………………..
15 D. Theoretical Framework ………………………………..
19 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study ………………………………………
21 B. Approach of the Study …………………………………...
22 C. Method of the Study ……………………………………..
23 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS
A. The Portrayal of the Two Major Characters ……………
25 1. Characters of Mariam ………………………….
25 2. Characters of Laila …………………………….
36 B. The Description of the Society ………………………...
47 1. The Description of Time and Place ……………..
47 2. The Characteristics of the Society …………….
53 C. The Struggle Against Gender Discrimination Reflected through Mariam and Laila …………………………….
61
1. The Struggle to Get Freedom of Choice in the Society …………………………………………
61
2. The Struggle to Get the Same Opportunity in
3. The Struggle to Equality between Wife and Husband in Marriage …………………….
76
4. The Struggle to Get the Same Position in front of the Law ………………………………………
82 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ……………………………….
84 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………..
88
ABSTRACT
Lucia Eri Styaningsih (2010): Women’s Struggle Against Gender
Discrimination as Seen through the Major Characters in Khaled Hosseini’s A
Thousand Splendid Suns. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University.The thesis discusses the novel of Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid
Suns. The novel is worth-discussing because it deals with modern woman issues
which also happen in many societies. The novel presents Mariam and Laila as the main characters who struggle against gender discrimination in Afghanistan.
There are three objectives in conducting this research. The first objective is to reveal the characteristics of the major characters. The second one is to know what kind of society the author describes in the novel. The last objective is to know the struggle against gender discrimination reflected through the major characters.
In conducting the thesis, the writer employs library research. Primary data are gained from the novel, A Thousand Splendid Suns. Whereas, the secondary data used in answering the problems are collected from some relevant and supporting references. The writer also applies the socio-cultural historical approach proposed by Rohrberger because literary work cannot be separated from its civilization in every period. In additional, the theory of gender is utilized to know the struggle against gender discrimination reflected through the major characters.
The result of the analysis shows that the major characters struggle against gender discrimination. They show some characteristics that make them different from other women in the patriarchal society they are living in. Mariam is described as an obedient woman. She is also imaginative, patient, honest, critical and wise. This characteristics form her to obey almost all the rules for women in her society although actually she criticizes those rules to show her struggle against gender discrimination. Unlike Mariam, Laila is described as attentive, smart, courageous, confident and independent person. These make her aware of her rights as a woman in the society. Laila shows something different to the society that women are not a weak creature. Mariam and Laila struggle to get freedom of choice in the society, to get the same opportunity in education and career, to get equality in marriage and they also struggle to get the same position in front of the law.
ABSTRAK
Lucia Eri Styaningsih (2010): Women’s Struggle Against Gender
Discrimination as Seen through the Major Characters in Khaled Hosseini’s A
Thousand Splendid Suns. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University.Thesis ini membahas tentang novel karangan Khaled Hosseini berjudul A
Thousand Splendid Suns. Novel ini layak untuk dikaji karena berkaitan dengan isu
tentang wanita yang juga terjadi di berbagai masyarakat. Novel tersebut menampilkan Mariam and Laila sebagai tokoh utamanya yang berjuang melawan diskriminasi gender di Afghanistan.
Ada tiga perumusan tujuan dalam menulis skripsi ini. Yang pertama adalah untuk mengungkap karakteristik kedua tokoh utama. Yang kedua adalah mengetahui karakteristik masyarakat yang dideskripsikan oleh pengarang. Tujuan terakhir adalah untuk mengetahui perjuangan melawan diskriminasi gender yang direfleksikan melalui kedua tokoh utama.
Dalam melaksanakan penelitiannya, penulis menggunakan studi pustaka. Data primer skripsi ini diperoleh dari novel, A Thousand Splendid Suns. Sedangkan data sekunder yang digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan diatas diperoleh dari beberapa referensi yang relevan dan mendukung. Penulis juga menggunakan pendekatan sosio-kultural-historis yang dikemukakan oleh Rohrberger sebab karya sastra dalam pembahasannya memiliki nilai sejarah.
Selain itu digunakan juga teori gender yang berguna untuk mengetahui bagaimana perjuangan melawan diskriminasi gender direfleksikan melalui kedua tokoh utama.
Hasil analisis memperlihatkan bahwa kedua tokoh utama berjuang melawan diskriminasi gender. Mereka memperlihatkan karakteristik yang berbeda dengan wanita-wanita lain dalam masyarakat patriarkal dimana mereka tinggal. Mariam digambarkan sebagai wanita penurut. Dia juga memiliki sifat imajinatif, sabar, jujur, kritis dan bijaksana. Karakteristik ini membentuknya untuk selalu mematuhi hampir semua peraturan untuk perempuan di masyarakat walaupun kenyataanya dia mengkritisi semua peraturan tersebut untuk menunjukkan perjuangannya melawan diskriminasi gender. Berbeda dengan Mariam, Laila digambarkan sebagai seorang yang penyayang, cerdas, pemberani, percaya diri dan mandiri. Karakteristik ini membuatnya selalu sadar akan haknya sebagai seorang wanita dalam masyarakat. Laila memperlihatkan sesuatu yang berbeda kepada masyarakat bahwa wanita bukan makhluk yang lemah. Mariam dan Laila berjuang untuk mendapatkan kebebasan dalam memilih dalam masyarakat, kesempatan yang sama dalam pendidikan, kesetaraan posisi dalam pernikahan, dan mereka juga berjuang untuk mendapatkan posisi yang sama didepan hukum.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Men, consciously or unconsciously, have oppressed women. Allowing
women little or no voice in the political, social, or economic issues. By not giving voices and value to women, men have therefore suppressed the women. Men have made women the ”non-significant Other”. Female is not male, and therefore becomes “the Other” (Bressler, 1990: 42).
In reality there is still much gender discrimination. Until nowadays, in many places, women’s position is lower than men. In the Western countries like United State and England, the government and society has permitted the equality between men and women. However, in the Middle East countries like Egypt, Arab, Pakistan, and Afghanistan women’s position are lower than men. It means that women have no enough power in the society.
National identity in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, and recently Afghanistan is being molded on the basis of the Islamicisation of civil society, and severe curtailment of freedom for women (Loomba, 1998: 226). This is the real situation of women who live in those countries.
Montagu in her book, The Superiority of Women, states that men have power over women. They control women in many ways and let them to be dependent to men. People assume that women cannot do work better than men do
To release themselves from this wrong assumption women have to realize that they are not inferior. Women have to be aware of their rights. After centuries living under oppression, women start to react against gender discrimination. Women struggle to gain their rights. They want to get the equality between men and women. As a woman, the writer is interested in observing deeply about discrimination of man and woman.
The writer takes a novel titled A Thousand Splendid Suns which is written by Khaled Hosseini in 2007, to be explored because the relationship between the main characters with the society and the people around them in the novel has arisen interest to the writer. This is the story of two strong Afghan women of different ages from different areas. They are Mariam and Laila. They represent the women in Afghanistan. There is the imbalance relationship between men and women within which women are positioned to be subordinate to men. They do not get many rights in their life as women. They do not get their rights because of the environment around them, like the family and the society especially in the difficult political times that moment.
Khaled Hosseini is one of the examples of male writers who are interested in women’s issues. Hosseini's depiction of Mariam and Laila's plight would seem a sadly accurate version of what many Afghan women have experienced. Mariam and Laila live under gender discrimination in the society. As in reality Afghanistan is an Islamic country, women who are living in Afghanistan get severe curtailment of freedom as what Loomba has stated before.
In the novel, the author does not only focus on the two main female characters but he also describes the situation in Afghanistan in 1954-2003 when the story took place. Jacobs and Robert state that the setting influence characters. The surroundings where the characters live in portray the characters themselves (1987:191). This novel reflects the way of life and way of thinking of the society in Afghanistan in 1954-2003. There are many volatile events of Afghanistan's last thirty years. Political unrest, deteriorating law and order situation, years of wars have left Afghanistan bleeding and made millions of Afghanis homeless and destitute. The two major characters, Mariam and Laila also suffer from it. The government pressure and religious movements became the great influence to the society and characters in the novel. The writer is interested in two major characters who are struggling against gender discrimination.
According to Wellek and Warren there is a relationship between literature and society that “literature is an expression of society (1963:95). It means that the author inevitable expresses his experience and total conception of life. The situation and condition of the society may also express in the literary work as the setting of the story even as the author’s critical view toward the society. By reading a literary work, readers can learn about the social life and its values and the social issues in a certain period.
There are many regimes in Afghanistan; one of the most crucial times in the novel toward women’s condition is under Taliban reign. Since the Taliban became a military and political force in late 1994, women and girls in Afghanistan were systematically discriminated against and marginalized, and their human rights were violated. This resulted in the deteriorating economic and social conditions of women and girls in all areas of the country, in particular in areas under Taliban control. Women and girls continued to be severely restricted in their access to education, health care facilities and employment.
In A Thousand Splendid Suns, through Mariam and Laila’s characters the novel reveals the struggle against gender discrimination which is applied in the modern era in the novel. Both of them struggle to get their rights in their life and brave to face bad situation toward women in Afghanistan especially in the crucial political time under Taliban.
From the reasons conveyed above, the writer is interested in analyzing Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns from gender study’s point of view.
The writer will analyze Mariam and Laila’s personality to see how they struggle to get their rights that reflects the struggle against gender discrimination. As Mariam and Laila shows different personality toward the women’s condition in Afghanistan. They are brave against old thought that exists in the society which positions men as the center power and women as weak creatures that always dependent to men. They want to break those wrong assumptions. The writer gets the struggle against gender discrimination through the major characters based on their characteristics, their way of thinking and the way they struggle against the patriarchal society where they live in.
B. Problem Formulations
This thesis will discuss the idea of feminism in Khaled Hoseini’s A
Thousand Splendid Suns. Therefore based in this literary work, the problem
formulations which will help focus the discussion are:
1. How are the major characters of A Thousand Splendid Suns presented?
2. How is the society in which the characters live described in the novel?
3. How is the struggle against gender discrimination reflected through the major characters?
C. Objectives of the Study
In this study, there are three objectives of study. The first, the writer wants to reveal the description of the major characters in the novel. The author describes the major characters in specific way.
The second objective is to know what kind of society the author describes in the novel. The writer wants to know the situation and circumstances that become the background of the major characters.
The third objective of this research is to know the struggle against gender discrimination presented through the major characters as the result of their struggle to face the condition in the society which positions men as the central power and women as weak creature that always dependent to men.
D. Definition of Terms
There are some terms to be explicated in order to gain clear explanation and avoid misunderstanding to the readers. The terms are:
1. Discrimination Negative behavior directed toward some group. Discrimination as the term used here, is behavior that is unfair to a group target. Discrimination can be practiced by an individual or an institution. In most instances, discrimination is directed against a relatively powerless group by members of a powerful dominant group.
2. Gender Gender refer to ways of seeing and representing people and situation based on sex difference (Goodman, 1996 : vii). While Maggie Hum states gender as “ A culturally-shaped group of attributed and behaviors given to the female of the male” (1990: 84)
3. Character According to the Glossary of Literary Terms, character means the person presented in a dramatic or narrative work who is interpreted by the readers as being endowed with moral and dispositional quality that are expressed in what they say, the dialogue and by what they do the action. (Abrams, 1981:20)
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW In this chapter, the writer focuses on various studies and theories related to
the literary work discussed. It includes the reviews from many critics and some theory of character and characterization, setting, and gender.
A. Review of Related Studies
Rosalina Dau, one of the alumni of Sanata Dharma University writes a thesis based on gender study. Her thesis which entitled Ideas of Feminism
Revealed through the Main Character in Chewlow’s Not Married Not Bothered
emphasizes on the struggle against gender discrimination that the main character does. Rosalina Dau shows the struggle of the main character in the novel named Riley Gordon against patriarchal society as can be seen in the following quotation.
Riley Gordon is truly aware of her rights. She does not let people especially the patriarchal society; tell her how it is to be a good woman. Unlike women around her who are so much influenced by the patriarchal society’s point of view about women. She defines herself as an independent woman. Riley Gordon frees herself from the bound of domestic duties that have been identical to women for centuries (Dau, 2008:2). Riley Gordon also shows that a woman can stand independently without a husband especially for the women living in Great Britain as seen in the following quotation.
Riley Gordon has highlighted what is means to be a spinster not because the circumstances but because of her own choice. Riley is an independent heroine who dos not think that as a woman she needs to be accompanied
Another study of gender can be found in the thesis of Ratri Widyaningrum who was the student of English Letters of Sanata Dharma University entitled Idea
of Feminism in Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar. The thesis emphasizes the struggle
against gender discrimination through the main character named Esther Greenwood.
Esther breaks all of the traditional rules that a female in her time should have been following. She is trying to break out the mold of the traditional woman. She never intended to gt married, hates the idea of serving man, and always tries to have carrier on her own (Widyaningrum, 2003:49).
Esther is described as independent and brilliant which shows women’s strength. She thinks that she deserves to be treated equally as men. She thinks that women have freedom to do what they want. Esther believes that she will never be equal with the importance of a male in the society. All Esther wants is to have visible rewards for her efforts, and to be treated equally with men.
Hanita Soraya who was the student in English Letters in Sanata Dharma University also writes a thesis based on the study of gender entitled The Ideas of
Feminism Seen in the Characteristics of Mrs. Clandon and Gloria in Shaw’s You
Never Can Tell. Hanita Soraya analyzes the struggle against gender discrimination
in the society through the two main characters in one of Shaw’s works. A part of the analysis can be seen in the quotation below.
Feeling oppressed by her husband’s bad temper, Mrs. Clandon realized to change her life. She decided to divorce from her husband. Mrs. Clandon’ decision of leaving her husband is in favor of independence to decide what she wants for her life. Other character, Gloria tries to keep her relationship with Valentine in her own way. She shows her liberty in deciding what she wants to do dealing with her relationship (Soraya, 2005:50-51).
The two main characters Mrs. Clandon and Gloria show their quality of being independent in their life. Mrs. Clandon is really sure that she can live her life without her husband. Gloria becomes an educated woman and have characteristics like have principles, dares to express her opinion and ideas that shows women’s strength. Both of them reveal the struggle for gender equality through their personality.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. Theories of Characters and Characterization
Robert and Jacobs say, “Character in literature generally and in fiction specially, is an extended verbal representation of a human being, the inner self that determines thought, speech, and behavior. Through dialogues, actions and commentary, the author captures some of the interaction of character and circumstance” (1987:119).
EM. Foster in his book Aspect of the Novel states two types of characters. They are “round” and “flat’ character. “A round character has many realistic traits and is relatively fully developed by the author… it may be considered as dynamic: that is they demonstrate their capacity to change or to grow (1987:120-121). As contrasted with the round character, “flat characters are essentially undistinguishable from their group or class, therefore they are not individual but representative” (1987:121).
Meanwhile, Roger B. Henkle divided characters into major and minor characters. The characters that are observed most often in the story can be considered as major characters. These characters are given a good deal of attention and then shored into the background or off scene as attention turns elsewhere (1977:90). The reader will give his fullest attention to these major characters because, if he understands them, he presumably understands the focal experiences of the story. The major characters perform the key structural function in the story. Meanwhile, minor characters or the secondary characters in the story perform more limited functions. They can function in various ways; as elements of society that makes up the human context as average or normal points of reference, as foils to the major characters or they can be symbols of aspects of the governing state of being (1977:100).
Characters in a story are different from one another because they have certain personalities and ‘physical attributes’ that distinguish them. According to Murphy, there are nine ways in which an author characterizes his/ her character in a novel:
1. Personal description The author can describe a person’s appearance and clothes. Here the author describes the character in details.
2. Character as seen by another Besides describing a character directly, the author can describe the character through other’s perspective and opinion. Through this, the readers may get a reflected image.
3. Speech The author gives a description of character through what the character says.
The author presents some clues to character whenever he states his or her opinion.
4. Past life The author gives the readers some keys or clues to any event that have helped to shape a person’s character, so that we can learn something about the character’s past life.
5. Conversation of other The author describes the characterization of a character through conversation of others and their saying to him. It gives the readers clue to the characters of the person spoken about.
6. Reaction The author can give us a clue to a person’s characterization by letting us know how that person reacts to various situations and events.
7. Direct comment The author can describe or comment on a person’s characterization directly.
By giving comments explicitly, the readers will understand what kind of person he or she is.
8. Thought The author can give us direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about.
Here, the readers have a privileged position to come to the in most thoughts of a person in a story.
9. Mannerism The author describes the character through his mannerism or his habits (1972, 161-173).
The nine methods above are the ways that the author gives to make the readers understand the characters in the story. Usually, an author does not use one of these methods exclusively, but generally blends them skillfully.
2. Theories of Setting
Abram defines setting of a narrative or dramatics work as “the general, locale, historical time, and social circumstance place. The description of the place should reflect the conditions and geographical circumstances of that place” (1981:75). Leo Hamalian and Frederick R. Karl state that setting does not always mean place and time, but it also means people’s attitude in a certain time and place (1978:516). Jacobs and Robert state that the setting influence characters. The surrounding where the characters live in portrays the characters themselves (1987:191).
Murphy in Understanding Unseen gives his opinion by stating that the setting of the novel is the background against which the characters live out their life. Usually setting concerns with the place and time in which the characters live. These can give a great effect upon their personalities, actions and way of thinking (1977:141).
According to Wellek and Warren there is a relationship between literature and society that “literature is an expression of society (1963:95). It means that the author inevitably expresses his experience and total concept of life. The situation and condition of the society may also express in the literary work as the setting of the story even as the author’s critical view toward the society.
3. Theories of Gender
Gender is a special characteristic of either man or women that is socially and culturally constructed (Fakih, 1996: 8). In almost all societies, it is assumed that women are weak and sickly creatures. They are less intelligent, uncreative, emotional, and irrational in thinking. On the contrary, men’s characteristic is considered as strong, intelligent, rational, and physically powerful. It is claims that men are superior while women are inferior because of these qualities.
From the past, women are treated unfairly in society. They received prejudge mental statement of their being female. People assumed that superiority is determined biologically. In society, people interpret pregnancy, birth, and nursing as great burdens and it makes women fell that they are placed to an inferior position by their biological functions (Montagu, 1953: 38). The traditional presumption builds gender discrimination. It brings disadvantages to women particularly. Gender discrimination restricts the opportunity of women to develop their intelligence and skills, and as a result, women lack of opportunities to develop their potentials in many spheres. Moreover Montagu says that the society has conditioned women to accept the concept that they cannot do better than men.
It makes women oppressed and they hesitate to change and accept the challenge to omit the gender inequality.
Joan Robinson Acker strengthens her opinion. According to him, women are higher positions of power, that they earn less than men; they are present in a small proportion in the more prestigious occupations. Women are unequal to men in many ways, are differentially evaluate on the basis of sex, but this is irrelevant to the structure of stratifications system (1977: 495-7).
Magie Humm states that gender identity that differentiates men and women culturally, is socially constructed and can be challenged and changed.
Gender inequality begins very early in the patriarchal society through its dominant institutions (1992: 21).
Women are defined as ‘other’ or they are ignored, rendered, invisible and silent, if they do not fit the patriarchal scheme. Outside the dominant definitions of male dominated culture, women exist only as insane, inarticulate or irrelevant (Madsen 2000:18). Being a woman in patriarchal society means that accepting the fact that they will not be considered as a whole integrity. Women are considered as the second class citizens, and their presences only be considered as the minor role in patriarchal society.
Gender is social construct designed to limit the range of life choice available to humankind for the suitable operation of social institution. The position of women as the ‘other’ and ‘inferior’ as well as the imposition of compulsory heterosexuality resultant from this ideology of gender are responsible for that “negative socialization” which all women share (Birch, 1994:5-6).
th th C. Review on the Late 19 and Early 20 Century Afghanistan.
th th
Afghanistan in the late 19 and early 20 century was in transition regime.There were eight period of regime in the 1933 up to 2003. They were Rule of Mohammad Zahir Shah (1933 – 1973), Presidency of Mohammad Daoud Khan (1973 -1978), Communist Rule-pre Soviet invasion (1978), Afghan-Soviet War (1979 – 1989), Dr. Najibullah's Regime (1989 – 1992), Mujahideen government and civil war (1992 – 1996), Taliban Rule (1996 – 2001), and post-Taliban rebuilding (2001-2003).
th
Khaled Hosseini is one of the early 20 century Afghanistan famous and socialist authors. One of his great novels is A Thousand Splendid Suns. The writer in this chapter tries to present the sociocultural-historical background of the Afghanistan in those regimes which is the setting of the novel itself. In this period, the political, social and economic life of Afghanistan was in transition era.
Zahir Shah gave women equal rights under the constitution of 1964. Some women benefited, attending college and abandoning the veil, but for most women, little changed. Zahir Shah did little to improve the abysmal living conditions of the vast majority of Afghan. Life expectancy was 37 years, 1 in 3 children died in child birth, and illiteracy was 80-90. There were few paved roads, only one doctor for every 50,000 Afghans and electricity in just a few major cities. Unemployment was wide-spread and key government jobs and army positions went to the King’s family. Unions and political parties were banned (Moghadam, 1997).
The Prime Minister Mohammad Daoud did not want to repeat the haste and mistake of his predecessor Amanullah and declared veiling a “voluntary option”. By now women were expected once again to abandon the veil, marriages expenses were curtailed, and women were encouraged to contribute to the economy. The 1940s and 1950s saw women becoming nurses, doctors and teachers. In 1964 the third Constitution allowed women to enter elected politics and gave them the right to vote. The first Minister was in health department, elected to the Parliament along with three other women. In 1965 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a Soviet-backed socialist organizations was formed. The same year also saw the formation of the first women’s group, the Democratic organization of Afghan Women (DOAW). The main objectives of this women’s group was to eliminate illiteracy among women, ban forced marriages, and do away with bride price (Moghadam, 1997).
The 1970s saw a rise in women’s education, faculty in the universities, and representative in the Parliament. The year 1978 saw the rise to power of the controversial PDPA. It is during PDPA rule that rapid social and economic change, echoing some of the 1920s themes, was implemented and mass literacy for women and men of all ages was introduced. Massive land reform programs, along with abolition of bride price and rising of marriage age were also part of the PDPA agenda. In October 1978 a decree was issued with explicit intention of ensuring equal rights for women. Minimum age of marriages was set at 16 for girls and 18 years for boys. The revolutionary pace of social change caused concern among the mullahs and tribal chiefs in the interiors. They viewed compulsory education, especially for women, as going against the grain of tradition, anti-religious and a challenge to male authority. The PDPA’s use of force in bringing the changes to fruition, combined with a brutal disregard for societal and religious sensitivities, resulted in massive backlash from the rural population (Dupree, 1998).
During the era of 1978 women were employed in significant numbers in Universities, private corporations, the airlines and as doctors and nurses but, for the nation as whole, it was a period of anarchy and destruction (Moghadam, 1997).
Beginning with the Soviet Union (Russia) occupation in December 1979, Afghanistan witnessed a decade long war. Fuelled by external forces, funding, and political interests by the United States, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and China, the Mujahideen fought against the Soviets. During the Soviet war, many civilians including numerous women and children were killed by the communist government and their Russian allies. However, in the Afghan capital and in some of the major cities under the communist government's control, women did get to enjoy some basic freedoms (Mendelson, 1998).
The Afghan countryside was the breeding grounds for these “freedom fighter”. Suspicious of the Soviet socialist agenda to annihilate the tradition culture and religion of Afghanistan, the Mujaheedin was able to gather forces to form their own revolutionary army. Their battle cry was in the name of Islam, emphasizing a reversal of all socialist policies including those that guaranteed women liberties through education and employment (Mendelson, 1998).
In 1989, when the Soviets left Afghanistan, the country was in disarray and became the site for civil war with the government transfer power in 1992. That year the Mujahideen took over Kabul and declared Afghanistan an Islamic state. The Mujahedeen entered Kabul and burnt down the university, library and school women were forced to wear the burqa and fewer women were visible on television and in professional jobs (Mendelson, 1998).
The period from 1992-1996 saw unprecedented barbarism by the Mujahideen where stories of killings, rapes, amputations and other forms of violence were told daily. The Mujahideen took Kabul and liberated Afghanistan from the Communists and the Mujahideen formed an Islamic State. Eventually a civil war broke out, and during this time, gross violations of abuses occurred not only against women but the population in general. Massacres and mass killings occurred and the war took on an ethnic tone. To avoid rape, forced marriages, young women were resorting to suicide (Mendelson, 1998).
Later in 1996, the same consortium (U.S.A., Pakistan, Iran and Saudi Arabia) supported the Taliban to encounter the “mismanaged” politics and “unexpected” brutalities of the Mujahideen. It was extremely short lived, and very soon the Taliban set up Amar Bil Marrof Wa Nahi An al-Munkar (Department for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice) to monitor and control women’s behavior. The Taliban made sweeping changes in the social order and used the radio to broadcast its new laws (televisions were banned). Daily, Radio Sharia reminded the citizens of their duty to the country and Islam, and listed the changes men and women needed to make to conform to the new fundamentalist regime. For women, this meant no longer being able to go outside except to buy food. If women did leave home they had to be accompanied by a mahram (male relative). Women had to wear the burqa and no makeup or fancy shoes. White shoes were forbidden since that was the color of the Taliban flag.
Women and girls could not go to school nor visit male doctors. Women, who were doctors and teachers before, suddenly were forced to be beggars and even prostitutes in order to feed their families. During the rule of the Taliban, women were treated worse than in any other time or by any other society. Not unlike the Mujahideen, the Taliban too indulged in forced marriages and rapes (Marsden, 2002).
In the late 2001, The United Front (aka Alliance) together with the United States attacked the Taliban and Al Qaeda, and forced them out of Kabul. The restrictions on Afghan women were officially lifted and they were allowed to once again work and go to school. Unfortunately, today, the abuses of women continue as the government is too weak to enforce many of the laws, especially in the rural areas, and in once Taliban supported areas (Marsden, 2002).
D. Theoretical Framework In conducting this research, the writer needs theories that have been stated.
The writer needs theories of characters from Robert and Jacobs, EM. Fosters and Roger B. Henkle. Those theories of character are applied to see how the characters are presented and to analyze those characters. Theory of characterizations from MJ. Murphy will be used to recognize the characters’ personality.
Theories of setting will be helpful in understanding the meaning of the term setting itself. Since, theories of setting will help the writer in connecting the significance of the setting towards the characters in the story.
The focus of this study lays on the struggle against gender discrimination therefore the writer uses theory of gender to scrutinize the struggle against gender discrimination in this novel. The theory of gender is important to support the struggle against gender discrimination of the main female characters in the novel.
Therefore the reader will understand the main female characters’ way of thinking, their view of life and what they actually want to do. The two preceding theories related to each other as well as the theories of gender. They cannot be separated for it is one unity to find and understand the point in this research.