Results and discussion Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Ecological Economics:Vol36.Issue1.Jan2001:

tionally an agricultural census was performed IF- PRI and EAP, 1995. The study period covered a period of about 20 years, from 1975 to 1995, and change of land use was assessed over a period of 40 years from 1955 to 1995 using aerial photographs.

4. Results and discussion

During the research activities a variety of indi- cators appeared to evaluate if development pro- cesses move to sustainablity. The identified indicators relating to change of land use, soil degradationrehabilitation, water availability and quality are shown in Table 2, and those relating to production systems, economic and social per- formance, and institutions are presented in Table 3. The main sources of information and the gen- eral tendency towards sustainability or not are given in comparison to the vision or target for each indicator, as defined by locals and re- searchers. The general framework of indicators is further described in Section 4. In Sections 5 and 6, an attempt was made to draw up a whole picture of the multi-faceted development tendencies in the watershed and community, and to identify the implications of natural resource policy designs for mountainous regions. 4 . 1 . Landscape mosaic Spatial and temporal databases derived from aerial photographs and topographic maps have been used to assess the changes in land cover and landscape use patterns over a 40-year period using deforestation rates and landscape patterns as pro- cess indicators for ecological sustainability Table 2. Land use dynamics and landscape change pat- tern are described in detail in Kammerbauer and Ardo´n 1999. There were clearly two distinct periods of land use development in the La Lima watershed, the first, 1955 – 1975, being an agricul- tural expansion phase with a deforestation rate of 1.2 per year. This consisted of occupying the space from the relative flat central area to the steep, more peripheral areas in the watershed until natural physical and ecological constraints were encountered, mainly slope inclination and thin soils. Forested areas were cleared and converted into agricultural areas, population increase and migration movement being the driving force for this change. The second period 1975 – 1995 can be considered a period of agricultural intensifica- tion and diversification, the driving forces consist- ing of technological transfers, access to agricultural extension services, improved access to local markets, subsidized agricultural input prices and limited private forest property rights due to forest regulations. Consequently, the deforesta- tion rate decreased to 0.6 per year, forest use was more extractive and dense forests were con- verted to sparser forest and forests with pasture; the demand for firewood being the main causative factor. Moreover, the landscape pattern changed, with the number of forest patches decreasing and their size increasing, which resulted in a lower shape complexity of the landscape, especially due to the relatively large and closed crop areas. This landscape pattern in combination with steep slopes was more prone to erosion and landslides, which subsequently occurred. Table 1 Summary of study methods used in the La Lima watershed Described in detail Methods Mapping of land uses Ardo´n et al. 1996b; Kammerbauer and Ardo´n 1999 Paniagua et al. 1999; Communal and group workshops Zelada 1995 Ramirez 1996; Zeledo´n Individual interviews 1996 Watershed transept studies Co´rdova 1996 History of agricultural plots Paniagua et al. 1999; Falck and community et al. 1996a,b Pesticide residue analysis Kammerbauer and Moncada 1998 Paniagua et al. 1999; Soil parameter analysis Zeledo´n 1996 Nutrition pattern and Flores 1996 weight measures of children Ardo´n et al. 1996a Inventories of flora and fauna Water management Flores 1995 Table 2 Examples of indicators on land use change, soil characteristics and water availability and quality identified and assessed in the La Lima watershed a Source Category Tendency Indicator Deforestation rate Landscape Aerial photograph First high, now reduced, but deforestation still occurs − and autochthonous mosaic GIS Number of land use patches Reduced number of forest patches − Minimummaximumaverage patch GIS Forest and agricultural patch sizes increased + size GIS Shape complexity Shape complexity decreased − Land use area in slope inclination GIS and Increased number of agricultural plots in great slope inclinations − autochthonous Autochthonous Biodiversity Fauna decreased −, flora constant 9 Autochthonous Soil fertility Appropriate for soil potential 9 Soil color for land use decision Laboratory and Soil acidity and aluminium toxicity Small changes 9 statistic analysis Soil protection and macro nutrient Laboratory and Reduced in plots after abandonment −, improved in natural vegetation successions + statistic analysis availability Laboratory and Reduced in plots after abandonment −, Organic reserve and nutrient retention statistic analysis improved in natural vegetation successions + Field data and Soil vegetation cover Improved in vegetation successions in abandoned plots + autochthonous Soil compaction Field data and High in abandoned plots − autochthonous Field data and Soil depth Reduced in sloped areas − autochthonous Pesticide laboratory Organochlorine compounds from past uses 9 Number of pesticide residues Statistic analysis Pesticide load index Low in soils and not related to current applications 9 Vegetation successions as soil fertility Autochthonous Improved from grass, shrub to forest association + indicator Water source flux Field data High in the rainy season +, low in dry Water dynamics season − Field data Water demand Increasing demand for irrigation water 9 Autochthonous Abundant + but polluted − during rainy Tap water flux and quality season, scarce − but clean + during dry season Pesticide laboratory Some organochlorines and organophosphates Number of pesticide residues − Statistic analysis Low in dry season 9 , higher in rainy season Pesticide load index − Autochthonous Limited access for irrigation −, damages in Water use and management conflicts the tube system − a Valuation results: + improving or positive in relation to the defined sustainablity target; 9 not changing or neutral; − declining or negative. Human intervention has to a certain extent produced a simpler mosaic landscape, although it remains highly complex with diversified land use types, totaling 18 land use categories mostly ma- nipulated by human activities. Many ecological phenomena are sensitive to spatial heterogeneity and fluxes of organisms, materials and energy within spatial mosaics Pickett and Cadenasso, 1995. Habitat fragmentation is a consequence of deforestation impacts on habitats of wildlife spe- cies and diversity Tilman et al., 1994. Local people noticed the loss of forests and reported the significant effect on the wildlife by reduced forest areas; certain animal species and plant species are Table 3 Examples of indicators on production systems, economic and social performance and institutions identified and assessed in the La Lima watershed a Indicator Tendency Category Source Autochthonous Crop diversity High in traditional crop varieties and horticulture crops Production + systemsextractive activities First increasing +, now constant 9 Autochthonous Production area Yields Improved + though fertilizer and pesticide input − Autochthonous Organic soil Low − Autochthonous and laboratory analysis enrichment Home gardens Autochthonous High diversity +, low production − Autochthonous Increased demand −, increased distances for Forest recollection − extractive resources Field data Biodiversity Shannon–Wiener-index high in traditional agricultural index plots + Hunting Autochthonous Reduced offer of wild animals − resources Autochthonous and Increased costs − with the elimination of subsidies Input prices Economic and social Centralbank performance Output prices Increased prices + with liberated market prices Autochthonous and Centralbank Labor costs Constant 9 Autochthonous Autochthonous Increased number of plot experiments + New production technologies Nutrition status Some subnutrition in children − Field data Autochthonous Diet Low diversified − composition Autochthonous Access to Improved, less absenteeism + primary education Various actors in the past +, now reduced − Autochthonous Extension Institutions service access Property rights Formally not defined −, but customary rights + Autochthonous and cadastral maps Mediania contract as joint venture production and Contract Autochthonous labor + system Land markets Autochthonous Informal and easy access + Access to credit Autochthonous Formally very low −, bank guarantees not available +, mainly informal + Low −, mainly for emergencies +; not for Autochthonous Savings investments − Improved to neighbor communities and city + Market access Autochthonous Man in production 9 , women in household with Field data Management decisions taking limited power over resources − a Valuation results: + improving or positive in relation to the defined sustainablity target; 9 not changing or neutral; − declining or negative. now found less frequently. It is suspected that local water regulation is affected by less water retention in the watershed during the rainy sea- son, which has caused flood damage due to heavy rain in past years. 4 . 2 . Soil fertility As further shown in Table 2, a number of soil fertility indicators were identified, and farmers have their own system by which to classify the fertility and utility of soils. These perceived physi- cal and ecological properties of the soils tend to dictate how farmers are to use the land. Colored soils are commonly considered suitable and used for agricultural and horticultural production, black soils being the most fertile. Pulverous soils are considered particularly appropriate for pota- toes, whilst gravely soil is only suitable for forest. In the central and lower part of the La Lima watershed with low slope inclinations, deeper and richer soils can be found, used extensively for horticultural production, whereas in the periph- eral zones with steeper inclinations one finds shal- lower, less fertile soils used for the traditional corn-bean production and are left mainly under forest. Individual plant species are used to indi- cate soil fertility, such as Sal6ia carwinsky, Sar- a6ia sp., Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pteridium aquilinum, and Veronica deppeana. Their presence in the agricultural plots indicate high or remaining soil fertility. The farmers try to enrich soils with crop residues and these are supposed to have major effects on efficiency in nutrient cycling. Neverthe- less, fertility declines after a certain number of production cycles and plots are abandoned. In addition, vegetation succession stages are used as indicators for soil status, both for its degree of degradation and rehabilitation after plot abandonment. Five vegetation-types were identified: “ two different grass associations jaragua´ grass and grama grass, “ a grass-shrub association montecillo, “ a shrub association guamil and finally, “ a secondary mixed forest. Peasants classified jaragua´ grass plots as highly degraded, grama grass as degraded land but with some residual fertility, and guamil and montecillo plots as improved soils. Mixed forest plots were considered as the climax stage in the vegetation succession. Cluster analysis supported the link between vegetation stages and the respective soil characteristics Paniagua et al., 1999. This system of determining the potential degree of fertility and infertility by vegetation successions appeared as a workable method of identification and it was sup- ported by physico-chemical analysis of the soils. The information derived from factor analysis al- lowed for the construction of simplified soil fertil- ity indicators for scientific purpose, capable of representing more complex physical and chemical data: soil acidity and aluminium toxicity index, soil protection and macro nutrient availability index and an organic reserve and nutrient reten- tion index. 4 . 3 . Water dynamics Water availability, both for drinking and irriga- tion purposes, was a principal factor to attract farmers from nearby communities. Most house- holds are connected to the potable water system based on gravity, which was constructed in 1994. A group of indicators related to water dynamics Table 2 have been identified and assessed. They focused on water availability, demand, quality and management conflicts on the watershed level. The availability of drinking water and water for irrigation purposes varies throughout the year, from being abundant during the rainy season to being scarce during the dry season. In the house- hold, women use the pressure of tap water flux, color and taste as indicators, hence taking into consideration water that contains mineral sedi- ments contaminated during the rainy season. In terms of pesticide contamination, spring water proved to contain three organochlorine com- pounds as well as chlorpyrifos, but these were detected only in the rainy season Kammerbauer and Moncada, 1998. Therefore, the issue of wa- ter supply is somewhat problematic, as there are few options in terms of obtaining water for drink- ing purposes. The creek and the lagoon waters at the bottom of the La Lima watershed contained nine and 14, pesticides, respectively, which is sig- nificantly more pesticides than in the drinking water. The pesticide residue patterns are, how- ever, only slightly related to the current pesticide application in use in these production systems and are due to past uses of organochlorine in agricul- ture and household sanitation. Nevertheless, downstream users may be affected by agrochemi- cals used in the La Lima watershed. Different kinds of management conflicts can be observed as water fluxes in the creeks are reduced during the dry period. Farmers compete for irrigation water for their horticulture plots, as clear rules for the assignments of irrigation water are not estab- lished. Further conflicts are reported in operation and maintenance of the potable water system and the fee collection arrangement for water use. 4 . 4 . Production systems and extracti6e acti6ities The indicators that have been drawn on pro- duction systems and extractive activities are shown in Table 3. The principal agricultural activ- ity is basic grain production for home consump- tion as well as horticultural production for the local Tegucigalpa market. Agricultural plot sizes vary, with 63 of the plots ranging between 0.1 and 1.5 ha. About 60 of the agricultural plots are under permanent cultivation, principally of corn, bean, potato, tomato, onions and garlic, which meet both subsistence and market needs. The traditional production system is an integrated corn-bean association on the hillsides on soils, characterized by medium to low nitrogen, low to high phosphorus, high potassium and low to medium organic matter contents. Different vari- eties of corn and bean are used at different alti- tudes above sea level. To mobilize nutrients, most plots are burned at the end of the dry season. Because of the loss in fertility, these plots are abandoned after approximately 5 years of produc- tion. Under the demographic and economic pres- sures, the shortened cycles of fallow for nutrient and soil regeneration are often not sufficient to maintain the productivity of this traditional sys- tem. Yields are low, compared with modern pro- duction systems, and major management problems include soil erosion and landslides at hillsides, the invasion of weeds and some organochlorine residues in soil. However, from an ecological standpoint, the traditional cropping system favored a high plant biodiversity index Shannon – Wiener on the plots, which ranged from 0.82 to 0.91, with a low incidence of plagues on crops. Biodiversity is important since it affects biogeochemical processes, which themselves influ- ence soil nutrients, plant diseases and weed inva- sion. Further, farmers perceive the invasion by wild animals and the limited access to irrigation water as problematic. The intensive production pattern of horticultural cash crops for local mar- kets fosters a low biological diversity in the plain of the watershed, where labor, irrigation, fertilizer and pesticide inputs are relatively high. Animal production is of little importance and is mainly restricted to cattle ranching for traction purposes in plugging and transport, pigs and other minor animals for autoconsumption. Home gardens have been reported in 70 of households, with an average area of 400 m 2 , containing a high diver- sity of fruit trees 13 species, vegetables seven species, tubercles three species, medicinal plants 11 species and ornamentals 28 species. In most cases the home gardens do not receive major management attention and it is reported that most products are used for home consumption. Additional economic activities include the produc- tion of coffee and some wild berries and fruit collected by women from shrubs and forest areas for home consumption, marmalade production and some local sale. These products enrich the basic bean and corn nutrition. The main extractive activity in the forest is fire wood collection with a preference for oak and pine wood species to be used in the loam ovens. Fuel wood is the only energy source in the water- shed. Average extraction rate at watershed level is estimated in 1285 m 3 : 800 t firewoodyear from nearby forests, abandoned areas and agri- cultural plots in the watershed area, with an aver- age time of 1.4 hweek per household spent on extraction. A total of 50 of households report access difficulties and suffer from some scarcities. The La Lima watershed is composed of 341 ha of broadleaf forest, pine forest and sparse pine forest with pasture, and an annual growth rate on these soils can be estimated at 5 tha, which means a total tree biomass growth above ground in the watershed of 1700 tyear. Assuming that only 50 of tree growth is available for fire wood, extrac- tion rate and growth rate are more or less at equilibrium, but obviously threatened when de- mand increases. 4 . 5 . Economic and social performance The local population uses different economic and social performance indicators. Special atten- tion was given to the traditional corn-bean pro- duction system Table 3. An economic analysis of these systems showed different results depending on the location in the watershed with an ex- tremely high variation in economic performance, depending on yields, fertilizer and labor inputs. With regards to the opportunity costs for labor paid on a contract basis in the region, production systems located in the mountainous areas had a negative return − 300, while in the plain area, net utility return was positive + 200. Exclud- ing labor opportunity costs, the net returns were positive in all cases, varying extensively from 18 to 600 depending on yields at the different locations. A major part of the production is used for home consumption while a minor part is commercialized in nearby communities. The in- tensive horticultural production systems generate a significant higher net return of 250 including opportunity costs for labor, and selling the pro- duce at the market places in Tegucigalpa has been the main source of monetary income. Farmers’ strategies for improving economic performance consist in identifying improved pro- duction systems. Farmers experiment with natural fertilizer, new crop varieties, seed selection, im- proved pasture and crop associations. It was re- ported that they establish small plots with these new technologies and make a comparative analy- sis in production results. For minimizing risks they only adopt these modified production sys- tems relatively slowly at a wider scale. Since a major part of the production is con- sumed locally, which itself constitutes the major basis for nutrition, the nutrition status of children and the occurrence of child diseases were used as indicators for social performance. The nutrition pattern of the community varied little throughout the year and consisted mainly of bean and corn products, with animal products being scarcely available and limited to milk and eggs for the children’s nutrition. One can assume that carbo- hydrates are abundant in this type of nutrition, but protein deficiencies have been observed. Min- erals and vitamins are provided in fruits through- out the year. In order to assess the state of nutrition of the community, the children’s weight and age was determined and compared with com- monly used normal distribution in clinical health monitoring. A total of 59 of the children as- sessed were of normal weight for their age, whereas 41 were underweight in the average range of 15, probably due to deficiencies in the diet composition. The most frequently reported child diseases were respiratory problems due to smoke from the loam ovens and the housing conditions. These social indicators, with others show that although economic welfare increased to some extent, the social conditions did not reach optimal levels. 4 . 6 . Institutions Institutions involved in the governance of re- source use are crucial in the context of sustainable development Berkes and Folke, 1994. Natural resource policies regulate and define the manage- ment framework at national and local level. Insti- tutions regulate formally and informally interactions within society and a variety of indica- tors can be identified like access to extension service, property rights, contract system, land markets, access to credit and markets, savings, management decision taking and gender issues Table 3. Forest and agricultural policies influ- ence land use. The forest regulations, agricultural price policies and transfer mechanism for produc- tion technologies determined forest resource ex- traction and agricultural intensification. Road construction permitted access and integration into the national market for local horticultural pro- duce. This improved institutional framework re- duced pressure on the forestland and the introduction of improved crops, fertilizer and pes- ticide input that subsequently had some negative environmental impact. Living conditions im- proved significantly at community level with a positive feedback on access for education, trans- port and some higher, but still limited investments in natural resources management e.g. erosion control, irrigation system, storage capacities. Limiting factors for increased production are the physical environment slopes, soils, water, etc., limited access to credit and saving capacities for investments. As land is not formally titled, guar- antees for bank credits are rarely available. A special organization form of production is the mediania, a production joint venture among two or more farmers in which one, for example, provides land and the other labor and materials and final yield is divided among them. A variety of shared arrangements among them are observed and it is a strategy to overcome restraints in capital, especially to purchase fertilizers and pesti- cides. Farmers with access to land, but with lim- ited financial resources or time to manage it, provide plots through verbal contracts to others who have limited or no access to land, which generates additional income for both of them. The mediania system provides a more efficient alloca- tion of limited production factors in the water- shed and results in a fairer distribution of welfare among households. In general it is recognized that rural women play an important role in the development pro- cess; yet women remain marginalized, and are the most affected by poverty. In the La Lima case women do not take an active role in the agricul- tural production process, and they seem to have little influence on decisions on natural resource management, although 43 of the women are owners of agricultural plots. They are involved in a very low degree of decision making regarding food production; whereas men make 93 of deci- sions, women only make 5. However, decisions relating to nutrition and clothing are made at equal parts 42 by women or men, or by both 16, and only decisions related to health aspects are taken quasi exclusively by women 93. De- cisions about savings are taken 58 by men, 21 by women and 21 by both. Obviously, women perform their tasks under considerable con- straints, with limited access to resources, technol- ogy, education, and training; as it is reported that only 26 of the women are realizing some com- mercial activity, and 38 are illiterate. Also, deci- sions at community level are taken nearly exclusively by men in community-based organiza- tions patronato, water committee, production committee, padres de familia, where women are scarcely represented.

5. Development paths and perspectives