Positive Parenting 002

Positive Parenting

Andrea Seay, RN, MS, PPCNP-BC, Wyona M. Freysteinson, PhD, MN, and Judith McFarlane, RN, DrPH, FAAN

Andrea Seay, RN, MS, PPCNP-BC, is Professor of Nursing, Lone Star College CyFair, Cypress, TX; Wyona M.

Keywords

Correspondence

CONCLUSION.

A major tenet of nursing is on the health promotion and well-being of all persons. Nursing, as a profession, should aim to protect particularly at-risk populations, and few populations are as vulnerable as children. ^bs_bs_banner

Classen, & Johnson, 2013; Damashek, Nelson, & Bonner, 2013; Prather & Golden, 2009; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children’s Bureau, 2012; Widom, Czaja, Bentley, & Johnson, 2012). At an estimated consistent rate of approxi- mately 81% in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012, parents are the reported perpetrator of this type of abuse each year (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children’s Bureau, 2012). U.S. statistics are utilized to illustrate the prevalent problem of child abuse and neglect. Sup- porting literature is included from both an international and interprofessional perspective to comprise a more universal definition of positive parenting for child abuse prevention and for family health promotion research.

Positive parenting is a concept that may have far- reaching implications and should be adequately defined. Finding the key attributes of positive parenting may also hold the key to the possible prevention of child abuse. Child abuse is an unresolved problem and has serious consequences that range from an increased risk of behavioral problems, such as young criminal behavior (Prather & Golden, 2009), to the physical injuries and possible death of a child (Damashek, Nelson, & Bonner, 2013). While the numbers of children who were reported as victims of child abuse and neglect have declined from 716,000 in 2008 to 686,000 in 2012, child abuse and neglect continues to be a prevalent problem. In 2012, a nationally reported estimate showed 1,640 children died from abuse and neglect (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children’s Bureau, 2012). Child abuse results in an aftermath of problems, including injuries, death, and/or long-term emotional and health difficulties for adult survivors (Corso, 2012; Dalton, Greenman,

This analysis provides a definition of positive parenting. The key constructs found within this definition build a foundation for further research to develop measurable outcomes for positive parenting skills. These variables can also assist with research aims geared toward interventions to promote positive parenting.

Published literature and Google search on the worldwide web.

Freysteinson, PhD, MN, is Assistant Professor, Texas Woman’s University, Houston, TX; and Judith McFarlane, RN, DrPH, FAAN, is Parry Chair in Health Promotion & Disease Prevention, PI—Mother Child Study To Inform Practice & Policy, Texas Woman’s University, Houston, TX, and Visiting Professor, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.

SOURCES.

The Walker and Avant’s concept analysis method was applied to this analysis.

METHODS.

While parenting has been researched and explored in both the professional and public realms, elements of the current key constructs involving the positive parenting of a child are still missing. The aim of this article is to define the concept of positive or “good” parenting to further extend research toward child health promotion knowledge across disciplines.

AIM.

Andrea Seay, RN, MS, PPCNP-BC, Lone Star College CyFair, Cypress, TX E-mail: anbishop@twu.edu; abpnp@yahoo.com

Child abuse, child health promotion, child rearing, concept analysis, parent–child relationship, positive parenting

Introduction

A “vulnerable child” is one who is dependent on another individual for basic needs and safety, as well as powerless over the condition of his or her environment or circumstances (ACTION for Child Protection, Inc, 2003). Nurses have the ability to intervene and make a difference in the health and well-being of children by aiding parents with the appropriate skills and education to effectively parent their children. The most effective way to protect a child’s safety is to prevent abuse. The most common consequence of child abuse is often the resulting unhealthy adult, assuming that the child survives the abuse (Corso, 2012; Dalton et al., 2013; Prather & Golden, 2009; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Mater- nal and Child Health Bureau, 2011; Widom et al., 2012). Widom et al. (2012) conducted a prospective investigation of the physical health outcomes of abused and neglected children in a 30-year follow-up study. These researchers found that children who had suffered from sexual abuse had an increased risk of hepatitis C and oral health problems. Childhood neglect predicted increased hemoglobin A1C, oral health, and vision problems in adulthood. Adult survivors of any type of child abuse were also at risk for unhealthy behaviors (such as smoking), mental health problems, lung disease, and malnutrition. Dalton et al. (2013) depicted the relationship and intimacy difficulties for the adult survivor of abuse. According to Corso (2012), our nation will suffer if a large number of abused children become unhealthy and potentially nonproductive adults who suffer from the physical, psychological, and/or sociological effects of abuse. Therefore, the prevention of child abuse should be a priority.

Negative or bad parenting is a primary cause of child abuse. To clarify, parenting is difficult. It is not an easy task. Parenting does not come with instructions. Awareness and teaching of positive or good parenting can be achieved. Equipping parents with the necessary tools to engage in positive parenting as needed is a necessity to possibly prevent child abuse and its devastating effects. Some of the elements within the concept of positive parenting exist currently in parenting programs from Child Health Partnerships (Jayaratne, Kelaher, & Dunt, 2010), home visitation programs, and social service programs (Kendrick et al., 2000). However, a review of the literature did not reveal the existence of an instrument specifically designed for the measurement of positive parenting skills. The aim of this article is to create an applicable definition of positive parenting in order to depict key constructs for the effective measurement of positive parenting outcomes, and to give a foundation for the development of future positive parenting programs to prevent child abuse.

The concept of positive parenting was explored through the relevant disciplines of education, nursing, sociology, psychology, and child health and development. Literature was reviewed in the databases of PubMed, PubMed MeSH, ERIC, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, SocINDEX, and EBSCO Host databases. Keywords used were positive parenting, parenting, tools, instruments, and education. There were 120 articles analyzed. Eighteen articles were included in the concept analysis. The inclusion criteria were the articles that included information pertaining to the measurement and/or definition of the key construct(s) of parenting or positive parenting. Articles that discussed child abuse prevention mea- surements, parenting styles, and/or parental risk factors were excluded. As these 18 articles did not contain concrete definitions of parenting, a Google search was also conducted by placing positive parenting and definition in the Boolean terms. This search ren- dered 1,350,000 results. Five applicable definitions were revealed and included from reputable and cred- ible sources. The inclusion of these definitions was limited to the first five pages of sources from the Google search in order to avoid redundancy.

Six of the articles from the literature review were quantitative research studies that evaluated how parenting skills and/or the ability to form a bond with the child affected the parent–child relationship. Berry, Cash, and Mathiesen (2003) explained the values of the Strengths and Stressor Tracking Device assess- ment tool through a literature review. These researchers conducted a study on 53 families within the Child Welfare System and tested how well the tool assessed caregiver skills and child well-being. In another study, Gavin et al. (2002) evaluated the involvement of 109 young disadvantaged fathers in the care of their children. Their findings suggested that paternal involvement was directly related to the father’s romantic relationship with the child’s

Positive Parenting A. Seay et al.

Review of the Literature

Quantitative Research

mother. If the father was not romantically involved with the mother of the child, then the father did not bond with his child. The father did not display caring behaviors or form an attachment. Therefore, future research needs to focus on improved paternal bonding with children whose parents are not involved in a romantic relationship.

This relationship between parent and child was further explored with the remaining four quantitative articles discussed. These articles explored the effect of the relationship and communication of the parents on the health and well-being of their children. Marshall, Golley, and Hendrie (2011) utilized existing parenting tools to assess the relationship between parenting and child dietary intake. In a study of 93 children aged 4–13 years with their parent/caregiver, the findings supported the inclusion of strategies focused on the ability of parents/caregivers to change a child’s or children’s dietary intake. LeCuyer-Maus (2000) conducted a study on 60 mothers of healthy 12-month- old infants. Longitudinal data were collected when the infants were 12 months, 24 months, and 36 months of age. The findings suggested that a positive relationship between maternal sensitivity and responsiveness is linked with a teaching-based versus power-based limit setting. also examined the effect of a positive relationship on discipline/limit setting. The study evaluated 2,582 parents and their fifth- and sixth-grade children. The findings supported the value of parental warmth to lessen the severity of harsh discipline on the child or children. Last, a study on communication styles and the relationship quality of Latino (n = 90) and European (n = 20) mothers and their teenage children suggested that positive maternal responsiveness was related to higher relationship qualities between the dyads. Findings support further research “for a broader definition of positive parenting” (Nadeem, Romo, Sigman, Lefkowitz, & Au, 2007, p. 154).

Literature Review

Qualitative articles were also reviewed to further explore the key attributes needed for the concept of positive parenting. Each article included information on the reasons why a person makes a choice to be a parent. Coulson, Oades, and Stoyles (2012) explored the concept of a calling to a parent, and explored the cultural, religious, and freewill standpoint of this

calling through 11 qualitative interviews with mothers

and fathers. The research supported how a calling to a parent was associated with positive outcomes in parenting. The authors suggested future research should strive to enhance this concept in parents through interventions. In Inanda, South Africa, Meyiwa (2011) used a qualitative secondary analysis approach to evaluate how a person does not have to be a child’s biological parent in order to effectively parent the child. Participants of the study parented orphan children who were infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and/or had a deceased parent due to HIV or AIDS. Findings showed that a strong sense of commitment to the well-being of the child correlated with participants’ ability to parent and to cope in parenting. Davis-Sowers (2012) conducted a qualitative analysis of children being raised by an African Ameri- can aunt rather than by their biological parent(s). The total comprised 35 participants. Findings revealed several themes of deciding to parent: “perceptions of a crisis, fulfillment of family obligations, personal iden- tities, faith in God, gendered expectations, and the role of the Black aunt” (p. 231). All of the qualitative articles focused on how the strength of a parenting relationship from a nonbiological mother or father was correlated with a sense of commitment and/or a sense of a calling to parent the child.

In order to encompass a wider realm of information within this concept analysis, five literature review articles that defined the different aspects of parenting were obtained. Bentley, Wasser, and Creed-Kanashiro (2011) focused their literature review on parenting skills related to feeding the child via an analysis on responsive feeding and child nutrition in low- and middle-income countries. The researchers discovered a common thread throughout their review of how positive responses from a parent during feeding of the child improved dietary intake. Walker and Kirby (2010) also focused their attention on a positive relationship between raising a child and early parenting practices in a literature review. The findings revealed that more evidence and research are required to establish a defini- tive link between early parenting practices and their effect on child outcomes. Duncan, Coatsworth, and Greenberg (2009) focused on all parent–child interac- tions in their literature review of a holistic view of parenting and developed a model of mindful parenting. The mindful parenting model included support of a A. Seay et al.

Positive Parenting

Qualitative Research

quality parent–child relationship in every interaction and communication between the parent and the child, especially in adolescents.

Methods

literature review also focused on the positive parent–child relationship. However, his focus was on the relationship between a parent and an adopted child. The review concluded that the strength of a parenting relationship is not determined by a biological relationship. Jones, Zalot, Foster, Sterrett, and Chester (2007) added a further foundation to this premise with their literature review on the co-parenting relationships of single African American mothers. These findings suggested that children and mothers experience increased favorable outcomes when they are able to co-parent with another adult (i.e., grandmother, father of the child, aunt, etc.).

Last, three papers selected for this analysis were calls to action due to the detrimental effects of negative parenting, and targeted suggested methods for strengthening parenting skills for positive child outcomes. These calls to action were not limited to the United States, but also occurred in Russia and the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, Gambles (2010) explored the meaning of parenting with the popular show Supernanny and the “Raymond Wil- liams’ (1961, 1977) structure of feeling approach” (p. 698). He analyzed New Labour policy documents related to parenting, an interactive parenting Web site, the show Supernanny, and 23 interviews of first-time parents. Gambles’ analysis revealed that parenting skills are necessary for effective nurturing to occur and for the positive development of children. Kuchmaeva, Maryganova, and Petriakova (2009) evaluated the social policy on child rearing in Russia to monitor the “family’s upbringing potential.” Their evaluation revealed that the basis for the implementation of a family social policy is the health and well-being of the child and the outcome of a healthy adult. Schor (2003) reported on a task force for the family in a journal from the American Academy of Pediatrics. He called to action pediatricians, as they are the parent’s first call for help when there is a need or difficulty with parenting a child. Schor concluded that a child’s physical health, emotional health, and cognitive functions are all related to the family’s health and ability to function successfully.

Walker and Avant’s (2010) method of analyzing concepts was applied to this concept analysis. The necessity of the concept of positive parenting was identified by the scarcity of literature containing an applicable definition of the concept and through the undeniable evidence of child abuse in our society. The prevention of child abuse and the health promotion of families can be achieved through positive parenting education programs and/or a developed tool to measure the positive parenting skills obtained through this analysis. Through Walker and Avant’s applicable methodology, defining attributes, a model case, a borderline case, a related case, a contrary case, an invented case, an illegitimate case, antecedents along with consequences, and empirical referents were utilized to create a new definition of positive parenting.

An initial step in the evaluation of the concept of positive parenting was a review of the definition. Invest in Kids, a national organization in Canada, found that 30% of all children had social, emotional, or intellectual problems as a result of a lack of positive parenting. Kulkarni (2010), as a part of Invest in Kids, defined positive parenting through five defining prin- ciples: loving through warmth and nurturing, under-

standing of a child’s temperament with flexibility of the

child, reasonable with clear limits and discipline, protec-

tive by providing a safe environment, a teacher through

providing learning opportunities, and a model through demonstrating appropriate behavior and knowing himself/herself. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014) does not specifically define positive parenting. However, the agency does offer “positive parenting tip” handouts for each specific age group that incorporate anticipatory guidance for safety, education, development, and the establishment of a caring and understanding relationship with one’s child. Posi- tive parenting was defined in Europe as: an approach to child-raising that fosters a relationship between parents and children based on mutual respect, the facilitation of the child’s full development potential and on the ability to nego- tiate diverging interests in a non-violent and con- structive way. An emphasis on praising good

Positive Parenting A. Seay et al.

Call to Action

Definition

behaviour, setting clear rules, taking time to listen, working as a team, and of course, using positive disciplining instead of physical punishment. (Daphne, 2009)

Caring

To contribute to the defining attributes of this concept, it is important to note the interchangeable terms of parenting, caretaking, mothering, and upbringing found in the literature review. Another important consideration is that many persons identified as parents of the child were nontraditional parents. The traditional two-parent household consisting of a biological mother and father was not always the norm. The literature suggested that adoptive parents gay/ lesbian couples, or stepparents may also be good parents (Schor, 2003).

Numerous terms are applicable to the concept of parenting, and many variations of who may be a parent exist. In order for any parent to engage in positive parenting, the parent must display an interest in the child and must maintain a continual relationship with the child. This relationship is one of the defining attributes of parenting. stated that the parenting relationship with the child is “ulti- mately arbitrated by the child’s attachments rather than the priori pre-eminence of biological parent- hood” (p. 659). A parent who is unable to have this relationship is at risk for negative parenting, which may lead to child abuse. As a preventive measure, the health promotion of positive parenting should be addressed. The defining attributes of positive parenting, as determined from the literature, are that the parent must have a relationship with a child that embodies the following characteristics:

Care for the child in a responsive relationship sym- bolizing attachment (Bentley et al., 2011; Gavin et al., 2002), love (Davis-Sowers, 2012; Jones et al., 2007; Kuchmaeva et al., 2009), compassion (Duncan et al., 2009), warmth (Kulkarni, 2010; McKee et al., 2007; Schor, 2003), and affection (LeCuyer-Maus, 2000).

Lead the child by setting developmentally appropriate boundaries or limits with discipline (Berry et al., 2003; Davis-Sowers, 2012; McKee et al., 2007; Schor, 2003). This was also labeled in the literature as shaping, modeling and regulating a child’s behavior (Duncan et al., 2009; Kulkarni, 2010).

Provide by giving the child adequate food (Marshall et al., 2011; Walker & Kirby, 2010), shelter within a safe environment (Berry et al., 2003; Schor, 2003).

Teach by providing developmentally appropriate activities and play (LeCuyer-Maus, 2000) for cognitive stimulation (Gavin et al., 2002), appropriate expectations for learning activities (Kulkarni, 2010), socialization with friends (Kuchmaeva et al., 2009; Schor, 2003; Walker & Kirby, 2010), and the child’s atten- dance at school

Communicating

Communicate with the child through verbalization (Gavin et al., 2002), active listening (Duncan et al., 2009; Kulkarni, 2010), and respect (Nadeem et al., 2007; Schor, 2003).

Positive parenting definitions from national organiza- tions included key concepts such as teaching, understanding, leading, listening, providing safety, and giving clear and consistent discipline while respect- ing the child (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014; Daphne, 2009; Kulkarni, 2010). Through the incorporation of the above definitions with a review of the literature, Walker and Avant’s (2010) process for concept analysis to develop a more applicable definition was applied to the concept of positive parenting.

Positive Parenting

Leading

Defining Attributes

Providing

Teaching

Model Case

The model case has all of the attributes found in the concept (Walker & Avant, 2010). The following is a model case for positive parenting: A. Seay et al. Lisa has a continual relationship with her 5-year- old daughter, Mikayla. Her caring is evident when she embraces Mikayla before leaving her each day at school. She provides for Mikayla by ensuring she has sufficient food, a safe environment, is well groomed and neatly dressed, and has appropriate medical care. Lisa also leads Mikayla by acting as a role model for her daughter by modeling appropriate behavior. This is further accomplished as she provides Mikayla with a consistent set of boundaries and with developmentally appropriate consequences when necessary. She teaches Mikayla by reading developmentally appropriate books, providing her socialization through her peers, and being actively involved in her learning activities. Lisa also communicates with her daughter in a responsive manner through both nonverbal and verbal communication, allowing Mikayla to feel lis- tened to and respected as a child. The model case includes all of the defining attributes of parenting: having a relationship with the child that includes caring, leading, teaching, communicating, and providing for the child.

A borderline case, on the other hand, contains many but not all of the attributes of the concept of study (Walker & Avant, 2010). The following is an example:

Lisa displays a loving relationship with her 5-year- old daughter, Mikayla. She cares for her through her loving attachment, as seen by her gentle embrace each day prior to dropping Mikayla off at school. Lisa provides learning opportunities through school and socialization activities with Mikayla’s friends. Lisa allows Mikayla to do whatever she pleases because she loves her so much. This includes playing in the street unsupervised, hitting her friends when she is angry, and eating whatever she wants. Lisa communicates with Mikayla in a loving manner, and provides food and shelter, and ensures Mikayla is always well groomed and neatly dressed. This meets the attributes of a loving relationship that embodies caring, communicating, and providing. However, the breakdown in the borderline case occurs as Lisa fails to lead her child by appropriate discipline with boundaries and by failing to provide a safe environment.

A related case is similar to the concept. However, it lacks many of the defining attributes (Walker & Avant, 2010). Parenting and caretaking are two related concepts that are similar, but differ. Caretaking may involve the care of any individual, regardless of age or relationship. It also does not involve the same defining attributes as parenting. The following is an example of this related concept:

Susie cares for her elderly mother, Dawn. She loves her mother, which is why she provides food, shelter, medical care, and a safe living environment. Susie communicates with her mother in a loving manner both verbally and nonverbally. When her mother feels the need to talk, Susie listens to her patiently and without judgment. While caretaking is a similar concept to parenting, it is different in that it does not involve the care of a child with the additional attributes of leading and teaching.

A contrary case is a very clear example of what the model case is not (Walker & Avant, 2010). An example of a contrary case is an actual case found utilizing a Google search with child neglect as the search term. The contrary case is based upon the story of a young girl named Danielle in the Tampa Bay Times (DeGregory, 2008):

She lay on a torn, moldy, mattress on the floor. She was curled on her side, long legs tucked into her emaciated chest. Her ribs and collarbone jutted out; one skinny arm was slung over her face; her black hair was matted, crawling with lice. Insect bites, rashes and sores pocked her skin. Though she looked old enough to be in school, she was naked – except for a swollen diaper. The mother’s statement was: “I’m doing the best I can.”

This is clearly not a case of positive parenting. The parent did not have a relationship with the child that included any degree of caring, teaching, communicating, providing for, and leading the child.

An invented case consists of taking the case out of its ordinary context into an invented one (Walker & Avant, 2010). The following is an example of an invented case of positive parenting:

Robots are good parents. They do an adequate job of caring for your child by providing food and teaching through various learning activities. Robots can also communicate with your child verbally and nonverbally. Although robots cannot actually listen, your child will not know the difference. Your child will also have a real relationship with your robot. This is the solution to “actual” parenting. Robots can be a time- saver so you can do all the things you had sacrificed prior to this innovative invention. This case represents positive parenting; however, it is not with a parent. Therefore, it is an invented case.

Positive Parenting A. Seay et al.

Contrary Case

Borderline Case

Invented Case

Related Case

In an illegitimate case, the concept is used incor- rectly and its meaning is distorted (Walker & Avant, 2010). For example, Dan loved his 4-year-old daughter, Elizabeth. However, he did not always agree with how her mother parented her. Dan felt her mother was not a good leader and did not discipline her enough. As Elizabeth approached her dad, she held her head down, wringing her hands, as she whis- pered, “Hi, daddy.” He told her mother, “See, she respects me. That’s called parenting.” Dan felt he exhibited good or adequate parenting by being a harsh disciplinarian. However, this is not what positive parenting entails. It encompasses a loving relationship between the parent and the child. This relationship is one where the child feels cared for by her father, while he shapes her behavior with positive reinforcement and modeling ideal behaviors. On the contrary, harsh discipline does the opposite and creates fear through negative reinforcement. This is an example of positive parenting used out of context and is an illegitimate case.

The antecedents of a case must be present in order for the concept to occur (Walker & Avant, 2010). The antecedent of positive parenting is a relationship between two or more people where at least one person is in the role of a parent and at least one individual is in the role of a child, regardless of age. According to Walker and Avant (2010), a consequence is an event or incident occurring as a direct result of the concept. Dumas, Lawford, Tieu, and Pratt (2009) indicated that a consequence of positive parenting is the emotional health and well-being of a young adult.

An empirical referent for the concept is an “actual phenomena that by their existence or presence dem- onstrates the occurrence of the concept itself” (Walker & Avant, 2010, p. 168). Empirical referents for the concept of positive parenting include the following:

1. A parent–child relationship that is “responsive to child’s needs and feelings and combines warmth and thoughtful, firm limit setting consistently over time” (Schor, 2003, p. 1567).

2. Children have developmentally appropriate opportunities for socialization, learning, and play (Daphne, 2009).

A new definition of positive parenting was created through a careful review of the existing literature and through a concept analysis utilizing Walker and Avant’s (2010) format. The definition is as follows: Positive parenting is the continual relationship of a parent(s) and a child or children that includes caring, teaching, leading, communicating, and providing for the needs of a child consistently and unconditionally. In the current literature, the instruments that exist for parenting program outcome measurement identify that at least one of the key constructs within this new definition must exist. For example, one article discussed the necessity of providing nutrition for the child (Bentley et al., 2011), while another article depicted the importance of communicating with the child (Nadeem et al., 2007). There were also several studies that concentrated on the importance of a positive relationship with the child (Duncan et al., 2009; Leon, 2002; Walker & Kirby, 2010). However, in order for an instrument to effectively measure positive parenting skills, all of the key constructs within this relationship found in the new definition should be addressed.

In conclusion, this definition and concept of positive parenting adds to the knowledge base for nursing. This concept analysis lays a foundation for further research to explore the meaning of positive parenting and to develop measurable outcomes for parenting programs. In addition, this concept analysis lays the groundwork for the development of a tool to measure A. Seay et al.

Positive Parenting

Empirical Referent

Illegitimate Case

New Definition

Antecedents and Consequences

Conclusion

positive parenting skills. This may be achieved by developing a method of measuring the key constructs of caring, teaching, leading, communicating, and providing found within the new definition. Parents who are educated and skilled in the key constructs of positive parenting may still fail to exemplify these constructs at all times. This does not mean that the parent is abusive. However, parents must strive to meet the key constructs of positive parenting at all times in order to avoid becoming potentially abusive to their child or children and causing devastating effects. Negative parenting, the inability to have a relationship with a child or children that includes the key constructs of positive parenting, is one of the root causes of child abuse. Providing parents with education on how to engage in positive parenting combined with the ability to measure these outcomes with a developed instrument will provide the tools necessary to reduce and/or prevent child abuse.

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Kendrick, D., Elkan, R., Hewitt, M., Dewey, M., Blair, M., Robinson, J., & Brummell, K. (2000). Does home visiting improve parenting and the quality of the home environment? A systematic review and meta analysis. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 82(6), 443–451. doi:10.1136/ adc.82.6.443 Kuchmaeva, O. V., Maryganova, E. A., & Petriakova, O. L. (2009). Monitoring of the family’s upbringing potential.

(2007). A review of childrearing in African American single mother families: The relevance of a co-parenting framework. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(5), 671– 683. doi: 10.1007/s10826-006-9115-0

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DeGregory, L. (2008, July 31). The girl in the window. Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved from http://www.tampabay.com/ features/humaninterest/article750838.ece Dumas, T., Lawford, H., Tieu, T., & Pratt, M. (2009). Positive parenting in adolescence and its relation to low point narration and identity status in emerging adulthood: A longitudinal analysis. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1531–1544. doi:10.1037/a0017360

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