Bhakthi Tyagaraja
TYAGARAJA &
THE THEORY OF RASA
Anthony Raj
CLASS OF 2013-14, DAKSHINACHITRA.
INTRODUCTION
Natya Sastra (circa 100 BC) enumerated eight rasas. Rasa, in effect,
stood for a “consciousness altering experience”, which was beyond
normal human emotions.
Abhinavagupta (circa 1000 AD) strongly canvassed for inclusion of
Shanta as the ninth rasa, and declared it the Rasa of Rasas. Hence the
term Navarasas. In his view, Bhakthi (Spiritual Devotion) was only an
appendage of the Shanta Rasa. It was suitable only for sthothras, and not
as the main theme of a major poem or drama, much less a Rasa.
But the debate did not end there. This essay explores the impact of this
debate on art, architecture, music and in particular on Tyagaraja and his
composition, by juxtaposing many theories and presenting them as a
hypothesis for enunciation of the theory of Rasa possibly
in a modern vernacular.
RASA, THE NECTAR OF ARTISTIC EXPERIENCE
In different contexts, the term Rasa appears in Vedic and Upanishadic
literature. The usage variously associates the word with a liquid
energizer, an elixir, a consciousness altering substance (though not
explicitly hallucinogenic). In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the word “Rasa” is
used in a metaphysical sense, and equated with the Ultimate Reality. The
full scope of the connotations can be understood from its lexicographic
interpretation. The Sanskrit dictionary (Monier Williams) has the
following entry: Sap or juice of –plant; juice of fruit; any liquid or fluid;
the best or finest part of anything; essence; marrow; elixir; potion;
seminal fluid of Shiva; charm, pleasure or delight; the taste or character
of a work, the feeling or sentiment prevailing in it. All these connotations
are germane to understanding the connection between Raga and Rasa.
Bharata’s theory held that a Rasa is the developed and relishable state of
a permanent mood (Sthayi Bhava), which results from the interplay of
many attendant emotional conditions (Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Sanchari
Bhavas, being the Vyanjaka or suggesting elements) on the on the sthayi.
Rasa is the suggested delight experienced by an enlightened member of
audience (sahardaya), through his ability to abstract and generalise the
emotional experience, beyond individualities. Rasa was the sole artistic
experience of the spectator, which the artist, the characters and the
actors were not capable of sharing. This theory seemed to have survived
undisputed for a millennium.
Mr.Deepak Raja in his book “Khayal vocalism – continuity within change”
writes: “The Indian aesthetic tradition views the sensory experience as a
pathway to the emotional, and the emotional as a pathway to the
1
spiritual. This reflects the fundamental transcendentalism of Hindu
thought. All art is, therefore, validated by a single dominant criterion – its
ability to elicit an emotional response. This criterion acknowledges that,
at its most intense, the experience of beauty evokes a response that
transcends its qualitative aspect, and acquires a mystical quality. This
defines the potential of the artistic endeavour, and its reception, for
personality transformation and spiritual evolution. At the intermediate
aesthetic level, however, the tradition allows for the classification of
works of art on the basis of the quality of the emotional response. The
name given to these qualities is “Rasa”, a metaphorical expression
derived from the Sanskrit “Rasa” = extract/ essence/ juice.”
In the words of Alessandro Dozio, “The Hindustani and Carnatic classical
idioms have both a sophisticated semantic of pitch based on the concepts
of swara and raga. They also share the simple but powerful scheme of the
rasas believed to encompass the overall range of human emotions. .. The
Indian theory of rasas has the bearing of a fully structured architecture
built on systematic enquiry into probably every aspect of the question,
from the corporeal reaction of the spectator to his psychological
disposition, from the setting of the event to the metaphysical implications
of the aesthetic experience... Abhinavagupta added contributions of his
own reviving the idea of the ancestral memories (vasanas) resonating in
the consciousness of the subject of aesthetic experience to the causes,
effects and transitory manifestations (bhavas) as prerequisite for the
perception of rasa. The French musicologist Philippe Bruguière noticed
how Abhinavagupta held that the rasika (sahrdaya) does not fully identify
with the aesthetic object of the experience and that the remaining
distance between them is the space where the ancestral memories
(vasanas) flow to mix with the imaginative faculty of the hearer. The
emotional content of the work of art is thus brought forth - producing
pure delectation, the amazed ravishment (camatkara), which is the
ultimate aim of the aesthetic experience.”
BHAKTHI RASA: THE NEW DEBATE
Even before Abhivanagupta, Bhatta Lollata (c. 900 AD) saw Rasa as a
“heightened form of emotion”, rather than as something fundamentally
distinct. He also held that the characters in the play, the artist and the
actors could experience Rasa – views diametrically opposed to Bharata
and Abhinavagupta.
King Bhoja of Rajasthan (circa 1100 AD) is reported to have developed
Lollata’s theory further, and this became the foundation for Vaishnavites
interpretation of Bhakthi rasa.
Circa 1250, Hemadri in his Kairelyadipika, enumerated the theory of
Rasa in relation to Lord Vishnu, whose Bhakthas were identified both as
vibhava ( characters in the story) as well as those who experienced the
rasa.
Rupa Goswami (circa 1500 AD, a co-founder of the Gaudiya Vaishanvism
along with Chaitanya), in his Bhakthirasamrasindhu, went much further
and enthroned Bhakthi Rasa as the Rasa of Rasas. Thus the Theory of
Rasa moved from the realm of “rasa as an aesthetic experience’ to the
level of ‘spiritual experience’, suddenly acquiring a tinge of theology.
2
THE ESSENCE OF BHAKTHI RASA
Rasa, therefore, came to be recognised not merely as aesthetic delight
but an experience of spiritual delight, which supersedes all other
experiences. Goswami held that there was a hierarchical ranking of rasas
based on their intensity. He reclassified the prevalent 12 Rasas into two
categories: (a) Primary Rasas (5 in number), and (b) Secondary Rasas.
Bharata’s original 7 rasas (excluding Shringara) were now ranked second
to the Primary rasas, which were: (1)Shantha (peacefulness) or
Suddharasa, (2) Prita (veneration) or Dasyarasa, (3) Preyas (mutual love
or camaraderie) or Sakhyarasa, (4) Vatsalyarasa (nurturing love) and (5)
Madhurabhakthirasa (Passionate love), the new avatar of the original
Shringara Rasa.
Madhurabhakthirasa came to be recognised as the ultimate perfection
among all rasas. All relationships between the Supreme One and his
devotees makes it the sweetest of all forms of love, going beyond
temporal things (laukika), becoming transcendent and touching the
farthest reaches of alaukika. The experience of rasa became available to
all: the author, the actor, the bhaktha and the characters in the work of
art.
Rati, originally considered the sthayi bhava of Shringara, now became
associated with the five predominant rasas. It is ultimately manifested
fully in the heart of the bhaktha in this world as it is in heaven above.
Rati,the sthayibhava, thus stands for our permanent relationship with
god. By constantly turning one’s mind towards the Deity learns to
recognise all the various factors which either intensify or distract from
this divine love. Gradually, the devotee learns how to transform the
emotion (bhava) of ordinary desire (kama) into the pure and selfless love.
His sadhanas become spontaneous expressions of love, leading to tasting
pure essence of Love (rasa). Sattvikabhavas become markers of intense
devotion.
THE IMPACT OF ADVAITA
This new thinking, combined with the tenets of Vaishnavism, not only
impacted the theory of rasa; it even blasted a lot of old-world thinking
out of shape in the 1600s.
Most monumental of its effect was felt in temple architecture itself. Pika
Ghosh portrays how the curvilinear-towered Nagara-type temple, popular
throughout North India for more than a 1000 years was found
increasingly unsuitable for the newly Vaishnavite Bengal. Gaudiya
Vaishnavite movement inspired by Chaitanya (1486-1533) had led to a
new devotional community in the XVII Century. The new tradition of
collective worship through song and dance (samkirtanam) needed a
suitable space. (Similarly, the expanding Muslim population needed a
space appropriate to their congregational prayers.) Local Vaishnavite
Hindu rulers used this opportunity to patronize an innovative style of
monuments to express their role within the new political more. The
sanctum sanctorum no longer occupied the centre space. The mantapam
took more prominence and became almost central to the new
architecture. The Brahminical rites were reserved to the eastern corner
of the complex, leaving the priest to himself. These new navaratnaratnam temples announced the arrival of a new vernacular, through the
3
use of elements drawn from the region’s distinctive vernacular
architecture. The rapid spread of the Ratna temples through the XVII and
XVIII Centuries bore witness to its success.
In effect, this meant the demolition of hierarchical, caste-based order in
the presence of the deity, and implicitly in the society at large. All human
beings were considered god’s children equally, and irrespective of caste
or creed. This seriously questioned the social order prevalent in India for
many millennia. This enlightened philosophy changed everything it
touched. Temple architecture, Devotional Music, and society at large.
MUSIC & BHAKTHI MOVEMENT
Indian music tradition is supposed to have shared a single, common
heritage across India, for more than a thousand years, until the Islamic
invasion. Thereafter, central Asian music seems to have pervaded the
North Indian tradition, and it eventually came to be called Hindustani,
with much less Hindu in it. However, the Bhakthi movement injected a
new life into Hindustani music, with the arrival of Jayadeva and Meerabai
among others.
Meanwhile, the South Indian Music tradition, became heavily influenced
by the Bhakthi movement. Bhakthi rasa is now the very foundation of
Carnatic music. This was mainly thanks to the Kannada Haridasa
movement of Vyasaraja, Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa and others, the
roots of which were sown during the Vijayanagar Empire, almost as a
protest movement against the Mughul invasion. Thus the South Indian
music tradition came to be known as “carnatic”, deriving from the
colonial misspelling for Kannada. The great Kannada composer
Purandara Dasa (1480-1564) came to be known as the Sangitapitamaha
or 'Father of Karnatik music'.
TYAGARAJ : THE MAN & THE MUSIC
Tyagaraja (1767-1847) is the uncrowned king, the patron, the new Guru
and the very soul of Carnatic Music. To my mind, the Bhakthi Movement
and the Concept of Bhakthi Rasa reach their pinnacle in his
compositions. There are volumes and volumes of praise written in honour
of Tyagaraja, most of which is more lyrical than knowledgeable.
Dr.V.Raghavan’s is an erudite exception. His understanding of
Tyagaraja’s kirtis is truly inspirational. Here is a very brief summary of
what he has to say: Sri Tyagaraja’s life was a confluence of spirituality,
saintliness and sangita. The harmony of these find expression in every
syllable of his sahityas. Rama was his Ishta Devata, and Ramabhakthi his
very breathe. He considered Rama the best of the ten incarnations, the
Poornavatara. His kirtis are described as drakshapakam (grapes),
because of their simplicity, sangita gnanam and embedded bhakthi. He
thought of Rama as his foremost listener, calling him Rasika Siromani.
Knowledge and realization of Nada is itself bliss and salvation. To him,
Rama was the very embodiment of the ambrosial essence of Nada.
Tyagaraja saw himself as a master spirit combining in himself
the Bhakthi of Prahlada, the music of Narada and the vakpatutva of
Valmiki. In philosophical pursuit, he was an advaitin, while also an
ardent Bhaktha.
4
According to the Sruti Magazine, to Tyagaraja is attributed the origin of
the current pattern of the Kriti, consisting of Pallavi, Anupallavi and the
Charanam. His innovation and forte is the art of Sangatis, the variations
he worked on the Pallavi (opening line), which unfolded the moods and
feelings as well as the contours of the melody in newer shades and
phases.
“His lyrics reveal great depth of knowledge of the scriptures, epics,
legends, purana, musical expertise, his humility as well as self-respect,
introspection, and sense of humour,” says
Ludwig Pesch.
THE SONG: NIDHI CHALA SUKHAMA?
Pallavi
nidhi cāla sukhamā
rāmuni sannidhi sēva sukhamā
nijamuga palku manasā
Is [possessing] wealth a greater pleasure
or is service in Rama's presence a greater pleasure?
Answer me truthfully, O Mind!
Anupallavi
dadhi navanīta kṣīramulu ruciyō1
dāśarathi dhyāna bhajana sudhā
rasamu ruciyō
Are curds, butter and milk more tasty? Or,
is the nectarine essence of meditation on and
bhajana of Dasaratha's son more tasty?
Charanam
dama śamamanu2 gaṅgā snānamu
sukhamā
kardama durviṣaya kūpa snānamu
sukhamā
mamatā 3 bandhana yuta nara stuti
sukhamā
sumati4 tyāgarāja nutuni kīrtana
sukhamā
Is a bath in the Ganga of self control
and tranquility more comforting?
Or, is a bath in the well of evil sense-objects comforting
Is extolling of humans fettered in egotism comforting,
or is singing on the pure-minded Lord
praised by Tyagaraja comforting?
THE GIST
O Mind! Tell me honestly which induces unalloyed bliss? Is it
material wealth or the wealth of the Lord's darshana and service at
His shrine?
Which is more delicious? Is it the taste of milk, butter and the
curd? Or is it the nectarine (the Rasa) experience of meditation and
worship of Rama, the son of Dasaratha, more delicious?
Will wallowing in the slush of the dirty well of carnal pleasures
bring more pleasure, than the divine tranquillity experienced by
one who has controlled his senses is as refreshing as a bath in the
Ganga?
Does flattering or praising a mere mortal bloated with arrogance
and self-conceit bring more happiness than the height of bliss
brough by singing the glory of the eternal and compassionate Lord?
TEXT & CONTEXT
Many of Tyagaraja’s great songs owe their existence to particular
incidents in his life. The above song has a very famous history. It is
believed that the Tanjavur ruler, hearing of the illustrious Tyagaraja,
5
invited him to his court, and wanted him to sing in his praise. For
Tyagaraja, performing at the palace meant performing at the king's
pleasure and not purely in the worship of the Lord. It meant praising a
mortal (narastuti). Tyagaraja, predictably, refused the king's offer and
sang this great song to the astonishment and delight of his family and
disciples.
In this song, he asks us what happiness can mere wealth (nidhi) bring.
Worldly wealth will perish and even intellectual attainments lead only to
rebirth. Can nidhi, bring more happiness (sukham) than the pleasure of
being in the presence of Raama (Ramuni sannidhi)?. Contemplation of
the Lord is all the gangasnaana (the purifying bath in the holy Ganga)
we require for our salvation. This sweet, simple and short song probes
and prods us, through a series of questions, to experience Ramabhakthi
and delight in its pleasures. He does not even bother to give us the
answers. Tyagaraja is convinced, without an iota of doubt, that we shall
find the answers. Choose any composition of Tyagaraja at random, and
you will run into such enlightened thoughts, except for the Raga and the
Words.
The very best of Tyagaraja is always found in his Telugu kritis. To some
scholars, his Sanskrit kritis, including some of the Pancharathna Kirtis,
are too verbal and too scholarly. I presume we must attribute this to the
gradual evolution of Tyagaraja, simultaneously as a composer and a
bhaktha. I believe Nidhi Chala Sukhama is perhaps the first major
milestone, where simplicity of language, humour in wordplay, extensive
knowledge of the Upanishads and Musicology, unshakeable faith in his
Lord and the deepest of love man is capable of – all come together so
powerfully and so sweetly and so simply. My sweet lord!
To crown it all, Tyagaraja developed the Tyagaraja Mudra which marks
the end of all his compositions with such signature sign offs: sumati
tyagaraja, dhurina tyagaraja etc. One would think the man had a big ego.
You cannot be more wrong. Here “Tyagaraja” stands essentially for Shiva
(Lord Tyagaraja), who along with the other members of the Trinity,
achieved their divine status by worshipping Rama.
With sumati tyagaraja, he signs off with the thought that Tyagaraja’s
(shiva’s) kirtanas give us the ultimate bliss or alternately, shiva’s
kirtanas in honour of Rama bring the ultimate bliss. Tyagaraja
considered himself a man of real wisdom, and the correct perception of
the comparative value of things (sumati). He always saw himself as
Rama’s most ardent devotee and took upon himself the duty of educating
us on the higher values of life, and to admonish and appeal to us to seek
bliss through Ramabhakthi. When he alludes to himself as dhurina
tyagaraja – he considers himself as capable of carrying the burden of
leading, educating and uplifting us.
We could never find a more loving, capable teacher.
THE RAGA & THE RASA
The raga is the very soul of music. Ragas constitute the greatest glory of
Indian music. Each Raga has its own distinct character. Anybody singing
it should make the listeners comprehend the personality of that Raga, the
sthayi (aided by Vibhava, Anubhava and the Sancharis) of the song and
relish the sweetness (rasa).
6
According to Deepak Raja, “the Raga is the fundamental principle
governing Hindustani music. It is the primary focus of musical studies,
primary material for crafting in performance, the primary object of
aesthetic appreciation, and the primary validation of the musical
endeavour.” According to the Rasa theory, the aim of the artistic
endeavor is to induce, in the spectator’s mind, a heightened awareness of
one of the Sthayi Bhava-s, which are innate dispositions and latent
energies common to all humans. The simultaneous activation of any of
the Sthayi Bhava-s in the work of art and in the spectator’s mind
constitutes the experience of Rasa. Against this backdrop of the Rasa
theory, the musical culture has accepted the notion of a Raga as a
melodic representation of an emotional idea. And, indeed, some Rasa-s –
such as Hasya (comic), Raudra (furious), Bhayanaka (terrible) and
Bibhatsa (odious) -- are now recognized as being beyond the
representational reach of music as an art form. By implication, Rasa-s
that constitute the special territory of music, are also identified.
Performances are valued for the clarity of aesthetic intent, and its
translation into experience for the audience.
Tyagaraja composed most of his songs in medium tempo, as befitting the
Bhakti mood. This particular song is conceived in the Kalyani Raga,
considered the ‘Queen of Ragas’. Kalyani is designed to elicit the tender
touch of a mother. Named after the supreme goddess, it is the 65th
Melakartha raga, and said to belong to the (eleventh) Rudra or the Face
Chakra. Believers in the Chakra theory hold that the Rudra Chakra
“houses our ability to become what we wish to become”.
Kalyani ( “auspicious ) is one of the “grand” ragas, along with
Sankarabharanam, Thodi, Kalyani, Kamboji and Bhairavi. It is
considered suitable for singing at all times of day, and is presented as the
main raga in many concerts, with elaborate Alapana, Neraval and
Manodharma Swaras. It is commonly held that Kalyani encapsulates
emotions which help us experience the delight of Shringara (as per the
old menu), Vatsalya and Bhakthi rasas. In the light of Goswami’s theory,
the soulful combination of the svara, the raga and the kirti must help us
relish the suga of all the five Predominant Rasas. The variety, the depth
and the myriad feelings it is capable of portraying has made the Kalyani a
perennial favourite of composers and performers for centuries. The Tamil
Pann equivalent of Kalyani is Arumpalai. Kalyani is also featured in
Hungarian Music.
The Indian ear is very well tuned to Kalyani and it is no wonder that
composers capitalize on this. It has provided inspiration to multitudes of
composers, both classical and film songs Illayaraja is reported to have
exploited the versatility of Kalyani to the maximum.
Tyagaraja’s Nidhi Chala Sukhama itself is considered as a masterpiece in
Kalyani. Though there are a number of theories about various ragas and
their resultant rasas, it is known that a single raga can evoke a wide
gamut of feelings, different sthayis resulting in different rasa
experiences. It all depends on the versatility of the singer at a given
moment. For the purposes of this study, I have chosen the version sung
by M.S.Subbulakshmi, a 28-minute ode to joy. Just look for it in Youtube,
and not in the shadowy, grimy auditoriums of the music sabhas!
7
NIDHI CHALA SUKHAMA?: Through the Prism of the Rasa Theory
ABHINAYA: The dramatic presentation is Vacika . The kirti is sung in a
question and answer mode, where the composer leaves it to the listener
to provide his own answers to the questions raised by him. The kriti
consists of the Pallavi, the Anupallavi, the a Charanam.
PRAKRTI: Telugu
ALANKARA: The song is sung in Kalyani Ragam, in Madhyama Svara, to
bring about the Bhakthi and Sringara elements.
STHAYI BHAVA : Rati.
VIBHAVA (The context): Annoyed with gifts offered by the King.
(JugupsA), and the effect of worldly pleasures which will lead to sin and
rebirth.
ANUBHAVAS: The desire to live a life of simplicity and spirituality
(Bhakthi) in the eternal presence of the Deity and to reach Mukthi
SANCHARIS (transitory moods): Amarsa (Indignation), Mati ( Self
Assurance), Vitarka (Deliberation), remembrance of all the pleasures of
Ramabhakthi.
PRADHANA RASA: The predominant mood (Rasa) is clearly MadhuraRasaBhakthi, with shades of Shringara, Bibhatsa, and Raudra. But these
are overcome at the end by the realisation of love for the lord.
CONCLUSION
The brief review of the Rasa Theory clearly indicates that there is a need
to redefine it in the contemporary context and in modern text. It also
demonstrates the inclination to put the cart before the horse, as it were.
The implicit conflict between the theorists and artists reminds us of the
case of chopping one’s foot to fit the shoe. Does theory come first or the
performance? Should the experience of the sahardaya be defined and
limited by theoretical framework? Or should his experience redefine the
theory of rasa for our times?
REFERENCE BOOKS & ARTICLES
William J.Jackson; Tyagaraja: Life & Lyrics; Oxford University Press;
1991.
Dr.V.Raghavan; Collected Writings on Indian Music – Vol. II;
Dr.Raghavan Centre for Performing Arts, Chennai, 2007.
S.V.Krishnamurthy; Know Your Thyagaraja, Vol.I; T.R.Publications,
Chennai. 2000.
8
Ludwig Pesch ; The Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music ,
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Deepak S. Raja, Khayal vocalism – continuity within change; DK
Printworld, New Delhi,2009
Deepak S. Raja, Psycho Acoustics (from an upcoming book)
Phil Hine; Rasa Theory, (http://enfolding.org/wikis-4/tantra-wikiwikis4tantra-wiki/tantra_essays/rasa-theory/
Buchta & Schweig; Rasa Theory; work in progress.
Alessandro Dozio; The Indian concept of rasa and the Western system
of keys: A short essay about the emotional meaning of the musical
experience; Summer 2013.
Pika Ghosh, Space & the New Temple Vernacular of SeventeenthCentury Bengal, Traditional & Vernacular Architecture: Proceedings of
the Seminar, 6-12 JANUARY, 2001. Edited by Subashree
Krishnaswamy. Published by Madras Craft Foundation.
http://lyrical-thyagaraja.blogspot.in/2009/10/raga-sudharasa.html ;
October 4, 2009.
Sruti Magazine Online, July 19, 2012 .
9
THE THEORY OF RASA
Anthony Raj
CLASS OF 2013-14, DAKSHINACHITRA.
INTRODUCTION
Natya Sastra (circa 100 BC) enumerated eight rasas. Rasa, in effect,
stood for a “consciousness altering experience”, which was beyond
normal human emotions.
Abhinavagupta (circa 1000 AD) strongly canvassed for inclusion of
Shanta as the ninth rasa, and declared it the Rasa of Rasas. Hence the
term Navarasas. In his view, Bhakthi (Spiritual Devotion) was only an
appendage of the Shanta Rasa. It was suitable only for sthothras, and not
as the main theme of a major poem or drama, much less a Rasa.
But the debate did not end there. This essay explores the impact of this
debate on art, architecture, music and in particular on Tyagaraja and his
composition, by juxtaposing many theories and presenting them as a
hypothesis for enunciation of the theory of Rasa possibly
in a modern vernacular.
RASA, THE NECTAR OF ARTISTIC EXPERIENCE
In different contexts, the term Rasa appears in Vedic and Upanishadic
literature. The usage variously associates the word with a liquid
energizer, an elixir, a consciousness altering substance (though not
explicitly hallucinogenic). In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the word “Rasa” is
used in a metaphysical sense, and equated with the Ultimate Reality. The
full scope of the connotations can be understood from its lexicographic
interpretation. The Sanskrit dictionary (Monier Williams) has the
following entry: Sap or juice of –plant; juice of fruit; any liquid or fluid;
the best or finest part of anything; essence; marrow; elixir; potion;
seminal fluid of Shiva; charm, pleasure or delight; the taste or character
of a work, the feeling or sentiment prevailing in it. All these connotations
are germane to understanding the connection between Raga and Rasa.
Bharata’s theory held that a Rasa is the developed and relishable state of
a permanent mood (Sthayi Bhava), which results from the interplay of
many attendant emotional conditions (Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Sanchari
Bhavas, being the Vyanjaka or suggesting elements) on the on the sthayi.
Rasa is the suggested delight experienced by an enlightened member of
audience (sahardaya), through his ability to abstract and generalise the
emotional experience, beyond individualities. Rasa was the sole artistic
experience of the spectator, which the artist, the characters and the
actors were not capable of sharing. This theory seemed to have survived
undisputed for a millennium.
Mr.Deepak Raja in his book “Khayal vocalism – continuity within change”
writes: “The Indian aesthetic tradition views the sensory experience as a
pathway to the emotional, and the emotional as a pathway to the
1
spiritual. This reflects the fundamental transcendentalism of Hindu
thought. All art is, therefore, validated by a single dominant criterion – its
ability to elicit an emotional response. This criterion acknowledges that,
at its most intense, the experience of beauty evokes a response that
transcends its qualitative aspect, and acquires a mystical quality. This
defines the potential of the artistic endeavour, and its reception, for
personality transformation and spiritual evolution. At the intermediate
aesthetic level, however, the tradition allows for the classification of
works of art on the basis of the quality of the emotional response. The
name given to these qualities is “Rasa”, a metaphorical expression
derived from the Sanskrit “Rasa” = extract/ essence/ juice.”
In the words of Alessandro Dozio, “The Hindustani and Carnatic classical
idioms have both a sophisticated semantic of pitch based on the concepts
of swara and raga. They also share the simple but powerful scheme of the
rasas believed to encompass the overall range of human emotions. .. The
Indian theory of rasas has the bearing of a fully structured architecture
built on systematic enquiry into probably every aspect of the question,
from the corporeal reaction of the spectator to his psychological
disposition, from the setting of the event to the metaphysical implications
of the aesthetic experience... Abhinavagupta added contributions of his
own reviving the idea of the ancestral memories (vasanas) resonating in
the consciousness of the subject of aesthetic experience to the causes,
effects and transitory manifestations (bhavas) as prerequisite for the
perception of rasa. The French musicologist Philippe Bruguière noticed
how Abhinavagupta held that the rasika (sahrdaya) does not fully identify
with the aesthetic object of the experience and that the remaining
distance between them is the space where the ancestral memories
(vasanas) flow to mix with the imaginative faculty of the hearer. The
emotional content of the work of art is thus brought forth - producing
pure delectation, the amazed ravishment (camatkara), which is the
ultimate aim of the aesthetic experience.”
BHAKTHI RASA: THE NEW DEBATE
Even before Abhivanagupta, Bhatta Lollata (c. 900 AD) saw Rasa as a
“heightened form of emotion”, rather than as something fundamentally
distinct. He also held that the characters in the play, the artist and the
actors could experience Rasa – views diametrically opposed to Bharata
and Abhinavagupta.
King Bhoja of Rajasthan (circa 1100 AD) is reported to have developed
Lollata’s theory further, and this became the foundation for Vaishnavites
interpretation of Bhakthi rasa.
Circa 1250, Hemadri in his Kairelyadipika, enumerated the theory of
Rasa in relation to Lord Vishnu, whose Bhakthas were identified both as
vibhava ( characters in the story) as well as those who experienced the
rasa.
Rupa Goswami (circa 1500 AD, a co-founder of the Gaudiya Vaishanvism
along with Chaitanya), in his Bhakthirasamrasindhu, went much further
and enthroned Bhakthi Rasa as the Rasa of Rasas. Thus the Theory of
Rasa moved from the realm of “rasa as an aesthetic experience’ to the
level of ‘spiritual experience’, suddenly acquiring a tinge of theology.
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THE ESSENCE OF BHAKTHI RASA
Rasa, therefore, came to be recognised not merely as aesthetic delight
but an experience of spiritual delight, which supersedes all other
experiences. Goswami held that there was a hierarchical ranking of rasas
based on their intensity. He reclassified the prevalent 12 Rasas into two
categories: (a) Primary Rasas (5 in number), and (b) Secondary Rasas.
Bharata’s original 7 rasas (excluding Shringara) were now ranked second
to the Primary rasas, which were: (1)Shantha (peacefulness) or
Suddharasa, (2) Prita (veneration) or Dasyarasa, (3) Preyas (mutual love
or camaraderie) or Sakhyarasa, (4) Vatsalyarasa (nurturing love) and (5)
Madhurabhakthirasa (Passionate love), the new avatar of the original
Shringara Rasa.
Madhurabhakthirasa came to be recognised as the ultimate perfection
among all rasas. All relationships between the Supreme One and his
devotees makes it the sweetest of all forms of love, going beyond
temporal things (laukika), becoming transcendent and touching the
farthest reaches of alaukika. The experience of rasa became available to
all: the author, the actor, the bhaktha and the characters in the work of
art.
Rati, originally considered the sthayi bhava of Shringara, now became
associated with the five predominant rasas. It is ultimately manifested
fully in the heart of the bhaktha in this world as it is in heaven above.
Rati,the sthayibhava, thus stands for our permanent relationship with
god. By constantly turning one’s mind towards the Deity learns to
recognise all the various factors which either intensify or distract from
this divine love. Gradually, the devotee learns how to transform the
emotion (bhava) of ordinary desire (kama) into the pure and selfless love.
His sadhanas become spontaneous expressions of love, leading to tasting
pure essence of Love (rasa). Sattvikabhavas become markers of intense
devotion.
THE IMPACT OF ADVAITA
This new thinking, combined with the tenets of Vaishnavism, not only
impacted the theory of rasa; it even blasted a lot of old-world thinking
out of shape in the 1600s.
Most monumental of its effect was felt in temple architecture itself. Pika
Ghosh portrays how the curvilinear-towered Nagara-type temple, popular
throughout North India for more than a 1000 years was found
increasingly unsuitable for the newly Vaishnavite Bengal. Gaudiya
Vaishnavite movement inspired by Chaitanya (1486-1533) had led to a
new devotional community in the XVII Century. The new tradition of
collective worship through song and dance (samkirtanam) needed a
suitable space. (Similarly, the expanding Muslim population needed a
space appropriate to their congregational prayers.) Local Vaishnavite
Hindu rulers used this opportunity to patronize an innovative style of
monuments to express their role within the new political more. The
sanctum sanctorum no longer occupied the centre space. The mantapam
took more prominence and became almost central to the new
architecture. The Brahminical rites were reserved to the eastern corner
of the complex, leaving the priest to himself. These new navaratnaratnam temples announced the arrival of a new vernacular, through the
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use of elements drawn from the region’s distinctive vernacular
architecture. The rapid spread of the Ratna temples through the XVII and
XVIII Centuries bore witness to its success.
In effect, this meant the demolition of hierarchical, caste-based order in
the presence of the deity, and implicitly in the society at large. All human
beings were considered god’s children equally, and irrespective of caste
or creed. This seriously questioned the social order prevalent in India for
many millennia. This enlightened philosophy changed everything it
touched. Temple architecture, Devotional Music, and society at large.
MUSIC & BHAKTHI MOVEMENT
Indian music tradition is supposed to have shared a single, common
heritage across India, for more than a thousand years, until the Islamic
invasion. Thereafter, central Asian music seems to have pervaded the
North Indian tradition, and it eventually came to be called Hindustani,
with much less Hindu in it. However, the Bhakthi movement injected a
new life into Hindustani music, with the arrival of Jayadeva and Meerabai
among others.
Meanwhile, the South Indian Music tradition, became heavily influenced
by the Bhakthi movement. Bhakthi rasa is now the very foundation of
Carnatic music. This was mainly thanks to the Kannada Haridasa
movement of Vyasaraja, Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa and others, the
roots of which were sown during the Vijayanagar Empire, almost as a
protest movement against the Mughul invasion. Thus the South Indian
music tradition came to be known as “carnatic”, deriving from the
colonial misspelling for Kannada. The great Kannada composer
Purandara Dasa (1480-1564) came to be known as the Sangitapitamaha
or 'Father of Karnatik music'.
TYAGARAJ : THE MAN & THE MUSIC
Tyagaraja (1767-1847) is the uncrowned king, the patron, the new Guru
and the very soul of Carnatic Music. To my mind, the Bhakthi Movement
and the Concept of Bhakthi Rasa reach their pinnacle in his
compositions. There are volumes and volumes of praise written in honour
of Tyagaraja, most of which is more lyrical than knowledgeable.
Dr.V.Raghavan’s is an erudite exception. His understanding of
Tyagaraja’s kirtis is truly inspirational. Here is a very brief summary of
what he has to say: Sri Tyagaraja’s life was a confluence of spirituality,
saintliness and sangita. The harmony of these find expression in every
syllable of his sahityas. Rama was his Ishta Devata, and Ramabhakthi his
very breathe. He considered Rama the best of the ten incarnations, the
Poornavatara. His kirtis are described as drakshapakam (grapes),
because of their simplicity, sangita gnanam and embedded bhakthi. He
thought of Rama as his foremost listener, calling him Rasika Siromani.
Knowledge and realization of Nada is itself bliss and salvation. To him,
Rama was the very embodiment of the ambrosial essence of Nada.
Tyagaraja saw himself as a master spirit combining in himself
the Bhakthi of Prahlada, the music of Narada and the vakpatutva of
Valmiki. In philosophical pursuit, he was an advaitin, while also an
ardent Bhaktha.
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According to the Sruti Magazine, to Tyagaraja is attributed the origin of
the current pattern of the Kriti, consisting of Pallavi, Anupallavi and the
Charanam. His innovation and forte is the art of Sangatis, the variations
he worked on the Pallavi (opening line), which unfolded the moods and
feelings as well as the contours of the melody in newer shades and
phases.
“His lyrics reveal great depth of knowledge of the scriptures, epics,
legends, purana, musical expertise, his humility as well as self-respect,
introspection, and sense of humour,” says
Ludwig Pesch.
THE SONG: NIDHI CHALA SUKHAMA?
Pallavi
nidhi cāla sukhamā
rāmuni sannidhi sēva sukhamā
nijamuga palku manasā
Is [possessing] wealth a greater pleasure
or is service in Rama's presence a greater pleasure?
Answer me truthfully, O Mind!
Anupallavi
dadhi navanīta kṣīramulu ruciyō1
dāśarathi dhyāna bhajana sudhā
rasamu ruciyō
Are curds, butter and milk more tasty? Or,
is the nectarine essence of meditation on and
bhajana of Dasaratha's son more tasty?
Charanam
dama śamamanu2 gaṅgā snānamu
sukhamā
kardama durviṣaya kūpa snānamu
sukhamā
mamatā 3 bandhana yuta nara stuti
sukhamā
sumati4 tyāgarāja nutuni kīrtana
sukhamā
Is a bath in the Ganga of self control
and tranquility more comforting?
Or, is a bath in the well of evil sense-objects comforting
Is extolling of humans fettered in egotism comforting,
or is singing on the pure-minded Lord
praised by Tyagaraja comforting?
THE GIST
O Mind! Tell me honestly which induces unalloyed bliss? Is it
material wealth or the wealth of the Lord's darshana and service at
His shrine?
Which is more delicious? Is it the taste of milk, butter and the
curd? Or is it the nectarine (the Rasa) experience of meditation and
worship of Rama, the son of Dasaratha, more delicious?
Will wallowing in the slush of the dirty well of carnal pleasures
bring more pleasure, than the divine tranquillity experienced by
one who has controlled his senses is as refreshing as a bath in the
Ganga?
Does flattering or praising a mere mortal bloated with arrogance
and self-conceit bring more happiness than the height of bliss
brough by singing the glory of the eternal and compassionate Lord?
TEXT & CONTEXT
Many of Tyagaraja’s great songs owe their existence to particular
incidents in his life. The above song has a very famous history. It is
believed that the Tanjavur ruler, hearing of the illustrious Tyagaraja,
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invited him to his court, and wanted him to sing in his praise. For
Tyagaraja, performing at the palace meant performing at the king's
pleasure and not purely in the worship of the Lord. It meant praising a
mortal (narastuti). Tyagaraja, predictably, refused the king's offer and
sang this great song to the astonishment and delight of his family and
disciples.
In this song, he asks us what happiness can mere wealth (nidhi) bring.
Worldly wealth will perish and even intellectual attainments lead only to
rebirth. Can nidhi, bring more happiness (sukham) than the pleasure of
being in the presence of Raama (Ramuni sannidhi)?. Contemplation of
the Lord is all the gangasnaana (the purifying bath in the holy Ganga)
we require for our salvation. This sweet, simple and short song probes
and prods us, through a series of questions, to experience Ramabhakthi
and delight in its pleasures. He does not even bother to give us the
answers. Tyagaraja is convinced, without an iota of doubt, that we shall
find the answers. Choose any composition of Tyagaraja at random, and
you will run into such enlightened thoughts, except for the Raga and the
Words.
The very best of Tyagaraja is always found in his Telugu kritis. To some
scholars, his Sanskrit kritis, including some of the Pancharathna Kirtis,
are too verbal and too scholarly. I presume we must attribute this to the
gradual evolution of Tyagaraja, simultaneously as a composer and a
bhaktha. I believe Nidhi Chala Sukhama is perhaps the first major
milestone, where simplicity of language, humour in wordplay, extensive
knowledge of the Upanishads and Musicology, unshakeable faith in his
Lord and the deepest of love man is capable of – all come together so
powerfully and so sweetly and so simply. My sweet lord!
To crown it all, Tyagaraja developed the Tyagaraja Mudra which marks
the end of all his compositions with such signature sign offs: sumati
tyagaraja, dhurina tyagaraja etc. One would think the man had a big ego.
You cannot be more wrong. Here “Tyagaraja” stands essentially for Shiva
(Lord Tyagaraja), who along with the other members of the Trinity,
achieved their divine status by worshipping Rama.
With sumati tyagaraja, he signs off with the thought that Tyagaraja’s
(shiva’s) kirtanas give us the ultimate bliss or alternately, shiva’s
kirtanas in honour of Rama bring the ultimate bliss. Tyagaraja
considered himself a man of real wisdom, and the correct perception of
the comparative value of things (sumati). He always saw himself as
Rama’s most ardent devotee and took upon himself the duty of educating
us on the higher values of life, and to admonish and appeal to us to seek
bliss through Ramabhakthi. When he alludes to himself as dhurina
tyagaraja – he considers himself as capable of carrying the burden of
leading, educating and uplifting us.
We could never find a more loving, capable teacher.
THE RAGA & THE RASA
The raga is the very soul of music. Ragas constitute the greatest glory of
Indian music. Each Raga has its own distinct character. Anybody singing
it should make the listeners comprehend the personality of that Raga, the
sthayi (aided by Vibhava, Anubhava and the Sancharis) of the song and
relish the sweetness (rasa).
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According to Deepak Raja, “the Raga is the fundamental principle
governing Hindustani music. It is the primary focus of musical studies,
primary material for crafting in performance, the primary object of
aesthetic appreciation, and the primary validation of the musical
endeavour.” According to the Rasa theory, the aim of the artistic
endeavor is to induce, in the spectator’s mind, a heightened awareness of
one of the Sthayi Bhava-s, which are innate dispositions and latent
energies common to all humans. The simultaneous activation of any of
the Sthayi Bhava-s in the work of art and in the spectator’s mind
constitutes the experience of Rasa. Against this backdrop of the Rasa
theory, the musical culture has accepted the notion of a Raga as a
melodic representation of an emotional idea. And, indeed, some Rasa-s –
such as Hasya (comic), Raudra (furious), Bhayanaka (terrible) and
Bibhatsa (odious) -- are now recognized as being beyond the
representational reach of music as an art form. By implication, Rasa-s
that constitute the special territory of music, are also identified.
Performances are valued for the clarity of aesthetic intent, and its
translation into experience for the audience.
Tyagaraja composed most of his songs in medium tempo, as befitting the
Bhakti mood. This particular song is conceived in the Kalyani Raga,
considered the ‘Queen of Ragas’. Kalyani is designed to elicit the tender
touch of a mother. Named after the supreme goddess, it is the 65th
Melakartha raga, and said to belong to the (eleventh) Rudra or the Face
Chakra. Believers in the Chakra theory hold that the Rudra Chakra
“houses our ability to become what we wish to become”.
Kalyani ( “auspicious ) is one of the “grand” ragas, along with
Sankarabharanam, Thodi, Kalyani, Kamboji and Bhairavi. It is
considered suitable for singing at all times of day, and is presented as the
main raga in many concerts, with elaborate Alapana, Neraval and
Manodharma Swaras. It is commonly held that Kalyani encapsulates
emotions which help us experience the delight of Shringara (as per the
old menu), Vatsalya and Bhakthi rasas. In the light of Goswami’s theory,
the soulful combination of the svara, the raga and the kirti must help us
relish the suga of all the five Predominant Rasas. The variety, the depth
and the myriad feelings it is capable of portraying has made the Kalyani a
perennial favourite of composers and performers for centuries. The Tamil
Pann equivalent of Kalyani is Arumpalai. Kalyani is also featured in
Hungarian Music.
The Indian ear is very well tuned to Kalyani and it is no wonder that
composers capitalize on this. It has provided inspiration to multitudes of
composers, both classical and film songs Illayaraja is reported to have
exploited the versatility of Kalyani to the maximum.
Tyagaraja’s Nidhi Chala Sukhama itself is considered as a masterpiece in
Kalyani. Though there are a number of theories about various ragas and
their resultant rasas, it is known that a single raga can evoke a wide
gamut of feelings, different sthayis resulting in different rasa
experiences. It all depends on the versatility of the singer at a given
moment. For the purposes of this study, I have chosen the version sung
by M.S.Subbulakshmi, a 28-minute ode to joy. Just look for it in Youtube,
and not in the shadowy, grimy auditoriums of the music sabhas!
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NIDHI CHALA SUKHAMA?: Through the Prism of the Rasa Theory
ABHINAYA: The dramatic presentation is Vacika . The kirti is sung in a
question and answer mode, where the composer leaves it to the listener
to provide his own answers to the questions raised by him. The kriti
consists of the Pallavi, the Anupallavi, the a Charanam.
PRAKRTI: Telugu
ALANKARA: The song is sung in Kalyani Ragam, in Madhyama Svara, to
bring about the Bhakthi and Sringara elements.
STHAYI BHAVA : Rati.
VIBHAVA (The context): Annoyed with gifts offered by the King.
(JugupsA), and the effect of worldly pleasures which will lead to sin and
rebirth.
ANUBHAVAS: The desire to live a life of simplicity and spirituality
(Bhakthi) in the eternal presence of the Deity and to reach Mukthi
SANCHARIS (transitory moods): Amarsa (Indignation), Mati ( Self
Assurance), Vitarka (Deliberation), remembrance of all the pleasures of
Ramabhakthi.
PRADHANA RASA: The predominant mood (Rasa) is clearly MadhuraRasaBhakthi, with shades of Shringara, Bibhatsa, and Raudra. But these
are overcome at the end by the realisation of love for the lord.
CONCLUSION
The brief review of the Rasa Theory clearly indicates that there is a need
to redefine it in the contemporary context and in modern text. It also
demonstrates the inclination to put the cart before the horse, as it were.
The implicit conflict between the theorists and artists reminds us of the
case of chopping one’s foot to fit the shoe. Does theory come first or the
performance? Should the experience of the sahardaya be defined and
limited by theoretical framework? Or should his experience redefine the
theory of rasa for our times?
REFERENCE BOOKS & ARTICLES
William J.Jackson; Tyagaraja: Life & Lyrics; Oxford University Press;
1991.
Dr.V.Raghavan; Collected Writings on Indian Music – Vol. II;
Dr.Raghavan Centre for Performing Arts, Chennai, 2007.
S.V.Krishnamurthy; Know Your Thyagaraja, Vol.I; T.R.Publications,
Chennai. 2000.
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Ludwig Pesch ; The Illustrated Companion to South Indian Classical Music ,
Oxford University Press, 1999.
Deepak S. Raja, Khayal vocalism – continuity within change; DK
Printworld, New Delhi,2009
Deepak S. Raja, Psycho Acoustics (from an upcoming book)
Phil Hine; Rasa Theory, (http://enfolding.org/wikis-4/tantra-wikiwikis4tantra-wiki/tantra_essays/rasa-theory/
Buchta & Schweig; Rasa Theory; work in progress.
Alessandro Dozio; The Indian concept of rasa and the Western system
of keys: A short essay about the emotional meaning of the musical
experience; Summer 2013.
Pika Ghosh, Space & the New Temple Vernacular of SeventeenthCentury Bengal, Traditional & Vernacular Architecture: Proceedings of
the Seminar, 6-12 JANUARY, 2001. Edited by Subashree
Krishnaswamy. Published by Madras Craft Foundation.
http://lyrical-thyagaraja.blogspot.in/2009/10/raga-sudharasa.html ;
October 4, 2009.
Sruti Magazine Online, July 19, 2012 .
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