Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol13.Issue4.1999:
The relationship between college experience and
academic performance among minority students
Terry Saenz
California State University,
George A. Marcoulides
California State University,
Ellen Junn
California State University,
Ray Young
California State University,
Keywords
USA, Higher education, Minorities,
Students, Integration, Modelling
Abstract
A number of factors have been
identified as important to the
retention and success of minority
students in American higher education. Foremost among these
factors are college experience
variables like academic integration and social integration. The
purpose of this study was to model
the relationship between college
experience and academic performance for minority students enrolled in an American institution of
higher learning. Using structural
equation modeling techniques, a
model of the college experience
consistent with past research was
proposed and tested. The results
provide support for the proposed
model. Implications of the findings
for improving research and practice in the field of educational
management are outlined.
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0951-354X]
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Introduction
A number of factors have been identified as
important to the retention and success of
minority students in American higher education. Perhaps the best-known conceptualization of student retention is Tinto's (1993)
theory of university departure, which identifies academic and social integration as the
two most important factors in the retention of
college students. Academic integration includes such variables as grade point average,
perceived intellectual development, and perceived faculty concern for teaching and
students. Social integration includes such
variables as self-esteem, extent and quality of
relationships with peers, and quality of
informal interactions with faculty. According
to Tinto (1993), these variables are especially
important for minority students who face
greater risks of dropping out of college than
their European American counterparts.
There is also considerable research about
student academic and interactive behaviors
in the learning environment that correspond
to Tinto's (1993) concepts of academic and
social integration. The use of effective study
habits has been associated with academic
integration and university retention (Heath et
al., 1991), with high-achieving students more
likely to use effective strategies than their
low-achieving counterparts (Stoynoff, 1996).
Effective strategies may include: rehearsal
strategies, including highlighting or underlining passages in texts; review strategies in
preparation for exams, such as rereading
texts and notes and reviewing main points
from lecture notes; record keeping strategies,
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including taking notes or tape recording
lectures; and transformation strategies to
write essays, such as developing a thesis
statement, outlining, and composing drafts.
Another important aspect of academic integration is contact with faculty and fellow
students. Faculty members set high expectations and standards for all students' performance in their classes, which in turn may
increase students' motivation to excel (Rowser, 1994). Interaction with faculty outside of
class is also an important aspect of social
integration. Faculty, in their role as mentors,
act as gatekeepers to help students succeed
(Redmond, 1990). Thus, the inaccessibility of
faculty may have a negative impact on
student retention; students who have difficulty getting their questions answered are
more likely to drop out (Johnson, 1997).
Students' relationships with fellow students,
like those with faculty, also foster social
integration and academic success. Peers can
directly assist one another by acting as peer
mentors and sources of academic information
(Stoynoff, 1996). Fellow students may provide
anything from advice on course selection to
access to lecture notes and previous examinations. Contact with other diligent students
can also positively affect study behavior
(Griffin, 1991). Consequently, friendships can
perform a positive role in assisting in student
success (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995).
In residential campuses, living in student
dormitories is one primary way of making
friends with fellow students (Tinto, 1975). On
a commuter campus, there are fewer opportunities to form friendships. Consequently,
such activities as eating at the campus food
court or participating in study groups in the
library are some of the activities that students may use to form friendships with peers.
Social integration can also occur in the form
[ 199 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
[ 200 ]
of attending campus performances, whether
of sports activities or fine arts events. These
also constitute opportunities to become involved in campus life and to cultivate
friendships with other students.
Participation in campus organizations and
volunteer work is another way to promote
social integration on campus and student
retention, although many students do not
participate in campus activities (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990; McCannon and Bennett, 1996).
A lack of time, particularly for students with
heavy work schedules, often influences their
ability or willingness to participate in campus organizations (McCannon and Bennett,
1996). In some cases, although minority
students have reported the importance of
participating in on-campus organizations,
they feel unwelcome by members of other
ethnic groups and become unwilling to
participate (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995).
Informal social circles are yet another
aspect of social integration. Negative impressions of other students can increase the
likelihood of freshmen dropping out
(McGrath and Braunstein, 1997). In situations
where students, particularly minority students, feel uncomfortable with the social
atmosphere at largely European American
campuses, they are likely to experience a
sense of isolation or alienation (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990). Many students feel as if they
do not ``fit in'' on campus (Hurtado, 1994). In
some cases, students choose to associate
primarily with students from a similar ethnic
or racial background to provide security and
racial identity (Dorsey and Jackson, 1995).
The importance of positive interaction with
other students is so great that personal
attributes may be less important than how
individuals are treated by peers (Zea et al.,
1997). Many students also rely on an established support system of family members and
outside friends to facilitate their success in
college (Canabal, 1995a; Hood, 1992; Lango,
1995; Lopez, 1995), although, in some cases,
these friends are not university graduates
(D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993).
Connectivity to campus services and offices has also been found to contribute to
students' academic and social integration. In
a recent study by Junn et al. (1995), minority
students rated the level of staff service lower
for almost half of the offices, indicating a
lower level of satisfaction with services than
European American students. Because faculty members now do less student advisement than in past years, students must
depend more for academic assistance on nonfaculty personnel (Wagener and Lazerson,
1995). Many minority students cite a need for
assistance in such subjects as study skills,
math skills, and time management, assistance that is frequently provided by nonfaculty university personnel (Rowser, 1997).
Although Tinto's (1993) model focused
primarily on university factors, a number of
additional variables were cited as important
in the retention of college students. Among
them are intrapersonal variables based upon
students' intentions or goals and commitments to the university and a number of
background variables. Foremost among the
background variables are the highest grade
level completed by parents, parental financial support, and the number of hours
employed per week. Success and retention at
the university are also positively related to
self knowledge, including realistic goals and
intentions (Rowser, 1994). Students are more
likely to obtain good grades and persist
academically if they realistically believe
their efforts will be successful and will lead
to vocational success (Pringle, 1995). In contrast, collegians who are over-optimistic in
their projections of academic achievement
may perceive themselves as failures if they
do not meet their academic goals (Rowser,
1994). Other students may overreact to academic setbacks with the belief that their
academic difficulties are out of their control
and resistant to change (McKean, 1994; Perry
et al., 1993). Consequently, minority students'
goals and intentions may change over the
course of their college career to reflect more
realistic or pessimistic attitudes. Freshmen
who report optimistic intentions for success
may become upperclassmen who view themselves as university ``survivors'' (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990; Hood, 1992). Nevertheless,
realistic self knowledge of one's capacities
and abilities is believed to be a key to success
(Fuertes et al., 1994).
Another aspect of students' college experience that affects their self knowledge is their
sense of self-efficacy, or their belief that they
can organize cognitive, behavioral, and social skills to achieve desired objectives
(Bandura, 1986). When applied to college
students, self-efficacy involves confidence in
the ability to perform course-related tasks,
maintain harmonious relationships with
room mates, and have rewarding social
interactions with others (Solberg et al., 1993).
Self-efficacy is related to the willingness to
undertake challenging tasks, persistence at
tasks, and successful performance (Harrison
et al., 1997). According to Rodriguez (1996),
academic self-efficacy is especially important
for minority student success.
Student health and stress can also positively or adversely affect students' academic
and social integration. Test anxiety has been
shown to be a source of stress for
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
low-achieving students of lower socioeconomic status (Sapp et al., 1995). Other important sources of stress are financial
concerns and the constraints on time presented by the need to carry heavy work
schedules. A type of stress specific to minority students is acculturative stress, defined as
the stress occurring when members of one
culture make changes in behavior and values
to adapt to another culture. Minority students from middle income, educated families
may not experience high levels of acculturative stress (Vasquez and Garcia-Vasquez,
1995; Young et al., 1994). In contrast, students
from lower income or working class families
may find adaptation to the culture of the
university more stressful (Young et al., 1994).
Finally, a significant source of stress for
minority students that crosses ethnic, racial,
and economic backgrounds and is believed to
play a key role in students' intention to leave
the university is racial tension, discrimination, and harassment (Bennett and Okinaka,
1990; D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993; Delucchi and Do, 1996; Fisher and Hartmann,
1995; Fuertes et al., 1994; Heath et al., 1991;
Hurtado, 1994; Lopez, 1995; Zea et al., 1997).
There is no doubt that all the above
mentioned aspects of academic and social
integration help to shape students' commitment to their university. Students with less
positive attitudes toward their university are
more likely to depart, and minority students,
for a number of reasons, often have less
positive attitudes toward their university
(D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993; Zea et al.,
1997). Consequently, it is important to understand student attitudes toward aspects of
university life to be able to identify institutional modifications which may facilitate
students' academic and social integration
into the university (Francis et al., 1993).
The purpose of this study was to model the
relationship between college experience and
academic performance for minority students
enrolled in American institutions of higher
learning. Using structural equation modeling
techniques, a model of the college experience
consistent with past research was proposed
and tested. We believe the research methodology used in this study represents an initial
step to develop or extend theories that can
explain why some students outperform
others. The remainder of the paper is divided
into four sections. The first section presents a
conceptualization of the model used to examine the effects of various aspects of the college
experience on academic performance. The
second section focuses on the data gathering
methods and provides a description of a novel
program for fostering the retention of college
students called ``The education equity
program''. The next section provides the
results. The final section discusses the implications of the results for improving practice in educational management.
Testing a model of college
experience
Figure 1 presents our proposed theoretical
model of college experience. The outcome of
interest is scholastic grade point average
(GPA). The proposed model posits the existence of several variables which together
comprise various aspects of college experience that, in concert, are believed to influence GPA. The variables included in this
model of the college experience are organized
below according to our interpretation of the
current literature on the topic.
College experience
There are 13 variables that are considered
indicators of college experience. These include:
1 Father's education. The highest education
level attained by a student's father.
2 Self understanding. The degree to which a
student reports self knowledge, a concept
which subsumes a variety of personal
characteristics, including the strength or
clarity of a student's self concept and a
rational yet positive self-appraisal of ability or performance.
3 Friendships with students of different
backgrounds. The degree to which a
student reports making friends with students from different socioeconomic backgrounds, heritages, and/or national
origin.
4 Adequacy of financial resources. The degree to which a student reports the availability of adequate funding to attend
college.
5 Practical applications of course work outside of college. The degree to which a
student reports the ability and opportunity to apply concepts and information
studied in courses to work and social
situations outside of the university.
6 Talk with professor about a course. The
degree to which a student reports talking
with professors about coursework in conversations which often occur immediately
before and after class or during office hours.
7 Advice from friend about academic problems. The degree to which a student
reports soliciting advice from friends
about academic difficulties.
8 Participation in campus life. The degree to
which a student reports involvement in or
[ 201 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
9
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
10
11
12
attendance at campus activities and institutions, including clubs, campus
events, study groups on campus, the
library, or on-campus businesses.
Scanning notices of campus events. The
degree to which a student reports reviewing notices of upcoming events, including
lists and announcements of events in the
daily campus newspaper, bulletin boards,
and fliers distributed on campus.
Attendance at athletic events. The degree to
which a student reports participation in
athletic events of any kind, including
involvement in individual or team sports or
attendance as a spectator at sports events.
Use of the library for quiet studying. The
degree to which a student reports using
the library for silent, uninterrupted
studying or preparation of assignments.
Attendance at campus events in fine arts.
The degree to which a student reports
Figure 1
Proposed model of the relationship between college experience and
academic performance
[ 202 ]
involvement in fine arts activities as
participant or spectator, including dance
recitals, classical concerts, plays, musicals, and art films.
13 Positive experience with the educational
equity program. The degree to which a
student reports positive perceptions of
their experience with the educational
equity program, including the University
100 class teaching study skills, social
activities, advisement and help provided
by the staff of the educational equity
office, and/or mentoring afforded by a
peer or faculty mentor.
Method
Subjects
Each year a small group of at-risk undergraduate students are selectively assigned to
an educational equity program to receive
special counseling, faculty and peer mentoring, a semester course on adjustment to
university life, and a range of social activities which foster a sense of social community. The educational equity program at
California State University, Fullerton is
dedicated to fostering the retention of students at risk for college failure. These
students, of different ethnic groups and
races, enter the university while lacking one
or more courses usually necessary for admission to the undergraduate program. Unlike students who qualify for the campus'
educational opportunity program, these students do not require financial aid. A number
of elements of the program are involved in
fostering social and academic integration.
Academic integration is fostered by providing students with study skills in the University 100 course and by assigning students
faculty mentors able to assist with academic
difficulties. Social integration is provided by
peer group discussions in the University 100
class, by assigning peer mentors, and by
encouraging faculty mentors and students to
become involved in nonacademic activities
together. Stress is addressed in the University 100 class to better enable students to cope
with college life.
A total of 89 students actively participated
in the program during the 1996-97 academic
year. Complete and usable assessment questionnaire data were available from 30 students (representing 34 percent of the total
group) at the close of the spring semester.
Nearly two-thirds of the program participants were completing their second year of
university studies, while the remainder were
finishing their freshman year.
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
Since most distinctions between the two
subgroups were very slight (i.e. those with
complete and usable questionnaires versus
those without), background attributes are
discussed for the participants as a whole.
Virtually all the participants were unmarried and were living at home with parents
and siblings. As with so many other students
attending urban universities in the USA,
most were employed to finance transportation and at least part of their educational
cost. Not surprisingly, the sophomores were
more likely to hold jobs and work longer
hours than the first-year students (a median
of 24 versus 16.5 hours).
One-quarter of the participants were 18
years old while the remainder were 19 or 20
years old. The students were 56.7 percent of
Latino or Hispanic heritage, 20 percent of
Filipino heritage, 10 percent of AfricanAmerican heritage, and the remaining percentage a mixture of other groups. Given
their ages, it is not surprising to learn that
the educational equity students' dependency
on their families for economic support was
far greater than any reciprocal contribution
to the family's economic well-being; 57 percent received half or more of the necessary
college funds from their respective families.
Conversely, 69 percent reported that they
supplied ``very little'' or ``none'' of the family
financial need. Finally, contrary to the
widely held belief that participants in these
types of programs generally represent the
first from their families to attend a university, almost two-thirds of the students' parents had completed at least some collegiate
study or had university degrees. Thus, while
the participants may be classified as ``at risk''
because of deficiencies in high school performance or placement test scores, they did
have immediate family role models who
understood the complexities and demands of
university life.
Questionnaires
Multiple observed indicators were used to
measure all of the variables included in the
model as prescribed in the literature (e.g.
Harris and Schaubroeck, 1990). In addition to
collecting academic performance information, a student satisfaction rating, and demographic data, all subjects completed
adapted versions of the occupational stress
indicator, a student stress inventory, and the
college student experiences questionnaire
(see Sadri et al., 1996; Sadri and Marcoulides,
1997). The final 93-item questionnaire was
designed to be comprehensive in scope and
took approximately 40 minutes to complete.
Analysis and results
Structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques are considered today to be a major
component of applied multivariate analyses
(Marcoulides and Schumacker, 1996). A
structural model can be viewed as a guide that
allows one to determine the relative strength
of each variable included in explaining a
desired set of outcomes. In its broadest sense,
SEM is concerned with testing complex models of functional relationships between observed variables and latent variables. The
functional relationships are described by
parameters that indicate the magnitude of the
effect (either direct or indirect) that independent variables have on dependent variables.
The proposed model in this study was tested
using the LISREL VIII computer program
(JoÈreskog and SoÈrbom, 1993).
Table I presents the LISREL parameter
estimates of the proposed model. These
parameter estimates are indices that represent the simultaneous contribution of each
observed and latent variable to the overall
model. While these estimates provide important information about the relationship of
college experience to GPA, they do not
provide any indication of the assessment of
the fit of the hypothesized model to the actual
data. Since we posited an a priori defined
model to be tested, our primary interest is in
the model fit. Once the model fit is determined, the significance of the various parameter estimates can be ascertained. Without
a significant model fit, however, we would
have to consider alternative models.
Table II presents the criteria describing the
overall fit of the model. Assessment of fit can
be determined by the goodness-of-fit index
(GFI) and the comparative fit index (CFI). It
is generally recognized that values above 0.90
indicate a good model fit. For this model the
GFI is 0.94 and the CFI is 0.96, which indicate
a reasonably good model fit. These indices
are measures of the relative amount of
variance and covariance in the data accounted for by the model under examination.
In contrast, the root mean square (RMS)
residual and the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) are measures of the
average unexplained variances and covariances in the model. These indices should be
close to zero if the model fits the data well.
For this model, the RMS is 0.08 and the
RMSEA is 0.07, indicating that very few of the
variances and covariances are left unexplained. Finally, parameter estimates with tratios that are greater than 2 are considered
to provide evidence that the parameter is
significantly different from zero and important to the proposed model. The estimates of
[ 203 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
the direct and indirect effects between variables in the model were tested through t
ratios (the ratio of the estimate to its
standard error), and all were found to be
significant (p < 0.01). Given the variety of
tests that were used to assess the fit of the
model, we would consider that the proposed
model fairly accurately accounts for the
variability observed in the data.
Discussion
A model about the relationship between
college experience and scholastic grade point
average was proposed in this study. As
indicated above, the variables included in the
model encompass variables associated with
Tinto's (1987, 1993) concepts of background
variables, academic integration, and social
integration. This section examines the degree
to which our results are consistent with
previous research findings and offers some
thoughts on the implications of these findings for improving research and practice in
the field of educational management.
Background variables
Higher levels of a father's education, greater
self understanding, and adequate financial
resources were background variables found
to be associated with higher GPA. A higher
level of parental education has been directly
and indirectly associated with academic
success in a number of previous studies. For
example, Vazquez and Garcia-Vazquez (1995)
and Young et al. (1994) found that higher
levels of parental education were directly
associated with higher GPAs for Latino
students and African-American students.
A number of aspects of self understanding
have also been associated with academic
success in previous studies. For example, in a
Table I
Parameter estimates for proposed model
Variable
VAR1
VAR2
VAR3
VAR4
VAR5
VAR6
VAR7
VAR8
VAR9
VAR10
VAR11
VAR12
VAR13
[ 204 ]
Estimate
Father's education
Self understanding
Friendships with students of different backgrounds
Adequacy of financial resources
Make practical applications
Talk with professor about a course
Advice from friend about academic probation
Participate in campus life
Scanning notices of campus events
Attendance at athletic events
Use of the library for quiet studying
Attend campus events in fine arts
Positive experience with educational equity program
College experience ? grade point average (GPA)
0.21
0.76
0.71
0.93
0.46
0.39
0.23
0.50
0.65
0.64
0.60
0.90
0.73
0.40
Table II
Measures of model fit
Goodness of fit index (GFI)
Comparative fit index (CFI)
Root mean square residual (RMR)
Root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA)
0.94
0.96
0.08
0.07
study of successful African-American students, Dorsey and Jackson (1995) reported
strong self-concepts as the key ingredient for
academic success and persistence in college.
Similarly, studies of freshman MexicanAmerican students with strong academic
self-concepts reported higher GPAs (Rodriguez, 1996), while studies of Asian students
(Fuertes et al., 1994) with strong and realistic
self-concepts were more likely to persist in
college. Interestingly, some researchers believe so strongly in the importance of self
understanding that increasing self understanding is a primary goal of many college
retention programs (Dale and Zych, 1996).
Having adequate funds to attend college
without extensive financial worries is also a
variable strongly associated with academic
achievement and persistence in previous
studies. For example, McGrath and Braunstein (1997) found that receiving financial aid
predicted students' GPA. In a study of several
retention programs throughout the USA, over
half of the students who left the university
indicated that insufficient funds were the
cause (Chaney et al., 1998). Although low
family income may not directly decrease some
students' persistence in college, student persistence in school and academic achievement
can be adversely affected by a heavy workload
(Canabal, 1995b; Di, 1996). Cabrera et al. (1992)
and Taylor and Olswang (1997) also found that
greater availability of financial resources
indirectly facilitates students' social integration by allowing them to allocate larger
amounts of time to campus social activities.
Academic integration
Practical applications of course work outside
of college, talking with a professor about a
course, using the library for quiet studying,
and positive experience with the educational
equity program were academic integration
variables associated with higher GPA. The
practical application of course work to
situations outside of college may be a positive
factor in students' GPA for a number of
reasons. Students who are able to apply
course work to their work setting perceive
immediate value in their scholastic pursuits
and may be more motivated to achieve in
school. Similarly, students who talk with
professors about their courses appear to
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
obtain direct and indirect benefits from their
interaction. Perhaps students' perception of
faculty members has an important effect on
their overall academic and social experience
of a university campus. The use of the library
for quiet studying also provides a variety of
benefits. Perhaps because many freshmen
and sophomores live with their parents, use
of the library appears to provide them with a
quiet place for uninterrupted study periods.
Without the use of the library, some students
may find it difficult to find optimal conditions for study. Use of the library for studying also increases students' time on campus
and increases their opportunity to interact
with peers during study breaks, a potential
benefit in increased social integration.
Social integration
Social integration variables associated with
higher GPA encompass a variety of activities
and behaviors, including friendships with
students of different economic or social
backgrounds, advice from friends about academic problems, participation in campus life,
scanning notices of campus events, attendance at athletic events, attendance at fine
arts events on campus, and positive experience with the educational equity program.
Friendships with students from different
backgrounds or countries on a highly diverse
campus provide exposure to a variety of
values and perspectives as well as ensuring
that students do not confine their acquaintanceships to a limited and homogeneous
circle of friends. A number of researchers
(Fisher and Hartmann, 1995; Hurtado and
Carter, 1997; Taylor and Olswang, 1995) have
cited the fact that students, particularly
minority students, often emphasize the importance of socializing with students of other
cultures. Similarly, students' positive impressions of other students on campus can be
an important factor in social integration,
contributing to their social effort (Davis and
Murrell, 1993) or college persistence (McGrath
and Braunstein, 1997).
Soliciting advice from a friend about academic problems, although an aspect of social
integration, is also beneficial to the student's
academic integration on campus. Seeking
assistance from peers or support personnel
signals a student's willingness to seek assistance and help in resolving academic difficulties, increasing the probability of a
successful resolution.
Participation in campus life subsumes a
variety of behaviors and activities as well as
measuring a student's global perception of
his or her social integration. A variety of
campus factors can contribute to a student's
sense of community on a college campus, also
described as a sense of belonging, being
needed, and sharing common values (Lounsbury and DeNeui, 1995). On campuses where
prejudice is so great that social segregation
occurs (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995), some
students, particularly African-Americans,
may cope by making friends predominantly
with members of the same racial group and
avoiding participation in groups dominated
by European Americans. Although these
students are able to effectively establish
social ties with supportive peers, they may be
limited in their participation in the campus
life as a whole (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995;
Gossett et al., 1998; James, 1998). Participation in campus life in general, as well as
attendance at specific events, may serve as
an indication of a student's degree of comfort
with the campus social climate.
Scanning notices of upcoming events is a
little-studied aspect of social integration.
Nevertheless, by scanning notices of upcoming events, students indicate an interest in
participating in campus activities and may
be more likely to attend campus events.
Attendance at athletic events includes participation in or attendance at spectator sports.
Because virtually all athletic events on
campus include school athletes and teams,
attendance may indicate not only an interest
in the sports activities of the university but
social integration with the university
(Schurr et al., 1993). Athletic events also
provide opportunities for school friends to
socialize outside of class, another aspect of
social integration. Interestingly, some previous studies (e.g. Chaney et al., 1998; Schurr
et al., 1993) have found that participants or
spectators in campus recreation or sports
were more likely to persist in college than
nonparticipants or attenders. Thus, attendance at all types of campus events indicates
social integration with the campus because it
provides excellent opportunities for students
to socialize outside of classes. A positive
experience with participating in the educational equity program also includes aspects
of social integration and positive benefits for
student retention. In particular, having students enrolled together in an instructional
course was perceived to encourage social
integration through the formation of friendships (see also Chaney et al., 1998).
Based on the variables examined in this
study, a portrait of an academically successful student emerges. The academically successful student has a moderate family
socioeconomic and educational background,
possesses a high level of self understanding,
is assertive in seeking assistance from
faculty, staff, and other students, applies
course work to other aspects of life, and is
[ 205 ]
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George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
socially active by scanning and participating
in a variety of campus events.
Despite the important findings which
emerged from this study, there are some
problems with the present research. First, it
is difficult to generalize the present findings
to samples outside of the USA and future
research needs to test our model with samples drawn from other countries. Second, we
have presented a model of college experience
and sampled only from a small group of at
risk students. Consequently, generalizing the
observed results to other groups of students
may also be problematic. Finally, the majority of our measures are self-report indices
and this increases the possibility of bias in
our findings. As such, any future research on
models of this nature should try to include
more behavioral indices. Nevertheless, the
results presented in this study represent an
initial step toward describing and evaluating
important aspects of the academic experience. Expanding on this beginning will be a
profitable goal for future research.
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[ 207 ]
academic performance among minority students
Terry Saenz
California State University,
George A. Marcoulides
California State University,
Ellen Junn
California State University,
Ray Young
California State University,
Keywords
USA, Higher education, Minorities,
Students, Integration, Modelling
Abstract
A number of factors have been
identified as important to the
retention and success of minority
students in American higher education. Foremost among these
factors are college experience
variables like academic integration and social integration. The
purpose of this study was to model
the relationship between college
experience and academic performance for minority students enrolled in an American institution of
higher learning. Using structural
equation modeling techniques, a
model of the college experience
consistent with past research was
proposed and tested. The results
provide support for the proposed
model. Implications of the findings
for improving research and practice in the field of educational
management are outlined.
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0951-354X]
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Fullerton, California, USA
Introduction
A number of factors have been identified as
important to the retention and success of
minority students in American higher education. Perhaps the best-known conceptualization of student retention is Tinto's (1993)
theory of university departure, which identifies academic and social integration as the
two most important factors in the retention of
college students. Academic integration includes such variables as grade point average,
perceived intellectual development, and perceived faculty concern for teaching and
students. Social integration includes such
variables as self-esteem, extent and quality of
relationships with peers, and quality of
informal interactions with faculty. According
to Tinto (1993), these variables are especially
important for minority students who face
greater risks of dropping out of college than
their European American counterparts.
There is also considerable research about
student academic and interactive behaviors
in the learning environment that correspond
to Tinto's (1993) concepts of academic and
social integration. The use of effective study
habits has been associated with academic
integration and university retention (Heath et
al., 1991), with high-achieving students more
likely to use effective strategies than their
low-achieving counterparts (Stoynoff, 1996).
Effective strategies may include: rehearsal
strategies, including highlighting or underlining passages in texts; review strategies in
preparation for exams, such as rereading
texts and notes and reviewing main points
from lecture notes; record keeping strategies,
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including taking notes or tape recording
lectures; and transformation strategies to
write essays, such as developing a thesis
statement, outlining, and composing drafts.
Another important aspect of academic integration is contact with faculty and fellow
students. Faculty members set high expectations and standards for all students' performance in their classes, which in turn may
increase students' motivation to excel (Rowser, 1994). Interaction with faculty outside of
class is also an important aspect of social
integration. Faculty, in their role as mentors,
act as gatekeepers to help students succeed
(Redmond, 1990). Thus, the inaccessibility of
faculty may have a negative impact on
student retention; students who have difficulty getting their questions answered are
more likely to drop out (Johnson, 1997).
Students' relationships with fellow students,
like those with faculty, also foster social
integration and academic success. Peers can
directly assist one another by acting as peer
mentors and sources of academic information
(Stoynoff, 1996). Fellow students may provide
anything from advice on course selection to
access to lecture notes and previous examinations. Contact with other diligent students
can also positively affect study behavior
(Griffin, 1991). Consequently, friendships can
perform a positive role in assisting in student
success (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995).
In residential campuses, living in student
dormitories is one primary way of making
friends with fellow students (Tinto, 1975). On
a commuter campus, there are fewer opportunities to form friendships. Consequently,
such activities as eating at the campus food
court or participating in study groups in the
library are some of the activities that students may use to form friendships with peers.
Social integration can also occur in the form
[ 199 ]
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George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
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college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
[ 200 ]
of attending campus performances, whether
of sports activities or fine arts events. These
also constitute opportunities to become involved in campus life and to cultivate
friendships with other students.
Participation in campus organizations and
volunteer work is another way to promote
social integration on campus and student
retention, although many students do not
participate in campus activities (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990; McCannon and Bennett, 1996).
A lack of time, particularly for students with
heavy work schedules, often influences their
ability or willingness to participate in campus organizations (McCannon and Bennett,
1996). In some cases, although minority
students have reported the importance of
participating in on-campus organizations,
they feel unwelcome by members of other
ethnic groups and become unwilling to
participate (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995).
Informal social circles are yet another
aspect of social integration. Negative impressions of other students can increase the
likelihood of freshmen dropping out
(McGrath and Braunstein, 1997). In situations
where students, particularly minority students, feel uncomfortable with the social
atmosphere at largely European American
campuses, they are likely to experience a
sense of isolation or alienation (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990). Many students feel as if they
do not ``fit in'' on campus (Hurtado, 1994). In
some cases, students choose to associate
primarily with students from a similar ethnic
or racial background to provide security and
racial identity (Dorsey and Jackson, 1995).
The importance of positive interaction with
other students is so great that personal
attributes may be less important than how
individuals are treated by peers (Zea et al.,
1997). Many students also rely on an established support system of family members and
outside friends to facilitate their success in
college (Canabal, 1995a; Hood, 1992; Lango,
1995; Lopez, 1995), although, in some cases,
these friends are not university graduates
(D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993).
Connectivity to campus services and offices has also been found to contribute to
students' academic and social integration. In
a recent study by Junn et al. (1995), minority
students rated the level of staff service lower
for almost half of the offices, indicating a
lower level of satisfaction with services than
European American students. Because faculty members now do less student advisement than in past years, students must
depend more for academic assistance on nonfaculty personnel (Wagener and Lazerson,
1995). Many minority students cite a need for
assistance in such subjects as study skills,
math skills, and time management, assistance that is frequently provided by nonfaculty university personnel (Rowser, 1997).
Although Tinto's (1993) model focused
primarily on university factors, a number of
additional variables were cited as important
in the retention of college students. Among
them are intrapersonal variables based upon
students' intentions or goals and commitments to the university and a number of
background variables. Foremost among the
background variables are the highest grade
level completed by parents, parental financial support, and the number of hours
employed per week. Success and retention at
the university are also positively related to
self knowledge, including realistic goals and
intentions (Rowser, 1994). Students are more
likely to obtain good grades and persist
academically if they realistically believe
their efforts will be successful and will lead
to vocational success (Pringle, 1995). In contrast, collegians who are over-optimistic in
their projections of academic achievement
may perceive themselves as failures if they
do not meet their academic goals (Rowser,
1994). Other students may overreact to academic setbacks with the belief that their
academic difficulties are out of their control
and resistant to change (McKean, 1994; Perry
et al., 1993). Consequently, minority students'
goals and intentions may change over the
course of their college career to reflect more
realistic or pessimistic attitudes. Freshmen
who report optimistic intentions for success
may become upperclassmen who view themselves as university ``survivors'' (Bennett and
Okinaka, 1990; Hood, 1992). Nevertheless,
realistic self knowledge of one's capacities
and abilities is believed to be a key to success
(Fuertes et al., 1994).
Another aspect of students' college experience that affects their self knowledge is their
sense of self-efficacy, or their belief that they
can organize cognitive, behavioral, and social skills to achieve desired objectives
(Bandura, 1986). When applied to college
students, self-efficacy involves confidence in
the ability to perform course-related tasks,
maintain harmonious relationships with
room mates, and have rewarding social
interactions with others (Solberg et al., 1993).
Self-efficacy is related to the willingness to
undertake challenging tasks, persistence at
tasks, and successful performance (Harrison
et al., 1997). According to Rodriguez (1996),
academic self-efficacy is especially important
for minority student success.
Student health and stress can also positively or adversely affect students' academic
and social integration. Test anxiety has been
shown to be a source of stress for
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
low-achieving students of lower socioeconomic status (Sapp et al., 1995). Other important sources of stress are financial
concerns and the constraints on time presented by the need to carry heavy work
schedules. A type of stress specific to minority students is acculturative stress, defined as
the stress occurring when members of one
culture make changes in behavior and values
to adapt to another culture. Minority students from middle income, educated families
may not experience high levels of acculturative stress (Vasquez and Garcia-Vasquez,
1995; Young et al., 1994). In contrast, students
from lower income or working class families
may find adaptation to the culture of the
university more stressful (Young et al., 1994).
Finally, a significant source of stress for
minority students that crosses ethnic, racial,
and economic backgrounds and is believed to
play a key role in students' intention to leave
the university is racial tension, discrimination, and harassment (Bennett and Okinaka,
1990; D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993; Delucchi and Do, 1996; Fisher and Hartmann,
1995; Fuertes et al., 1994; Heath et al., 1991;
Hurtado, 1994; Lopez, 1995; Zea et al., 1997).
There is no doubt that all the above
mentioned aspects of academic and social
integration help to shape students' commitment to their university. Students with less
positive attitudes toward their university are
more likely to depart, and minority students,
for a number of reasons, often have less
positive attitudes toward their university
(D'Augelli and Hershberger, 1993; Zea et al.,
1997). Consequently, it is important to understand student attitudes toward aspects of
university life to be able to identify institutional modifications which may facilitate
students' academic and social integration
into the university (Francis et al., 1993).
The purpose of this study was to model the
relationship between college experience and
academic performance for minority students
enrolled in American institutions of higher
learning. Using structural equation modeling
techniques, a model of the college experience
consistent with past research was proposed
and tested. We believe the research methodology used in this study represents an initial
step to develop or extend theories that can
explain why some students outperform
others. The remainder of the paper is divided
into four sections. The first section presents a
conceptualization of the model used to examine the effects of various aspects of the college
experience on academic performance. The
second section focuses on the data gathering
methods and provides a description of a novel
program for fostering the retention of college
students called ``The education equity
program''. The next section provides the
results. The final section discusses the implications of the results for improving practice in educational management.
Testing a model of college
experience
Figure 1 presents our proposed theoretical
model of college experience. The outcome of
interest is scholastic grade point average
(GPA). The proposed model posits the existence of several variables which together
comprise various aspects of college experience that, in concert, are believed to influence GPA. The variables included in this
model of the college experience are organized
below according to our interpretation of the
current literature on the topic.
College experience
There are 13 variables that are considered
indicators of college experience. These include:
1 Father's education. The highest education
level attained by a student's father.
2 Self understanding. The degree to which a
student reports self knowledge, a concept
which subsumes a variety of personal
characteristics, including the strength or
clarity of a student's self concept and a
rational yet positive self-appraisal of ability or performance.
3 Friendships with students of different
backgrounds. The degree to which a
student reports making friends with students from different socioeconomic backgrounds, heritages, and/or national
origin.
4 Adequacy of financial resources. The degree to which a student reports the availability of adequate funding to attend
college.
5 Practical applications of course work outside of college. The degree to which a
student reports the ability and opportunity to apply concepts and information
studied in courses to work and social
situations outside of the university.
6 Talk with professor about a course. The
degree to which a student reports talking
with professors about coursework in conversations which often occur immediately
before and after class or during office hours.
7 Advice from friend about academic problems. The degree to which a student
reports soliciting advice from friends
about academic difficulties.
8 Participation in campus life. The degree to
which a student reports involvement in or
[ 201 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
9
The International Journal of
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13/4 [1999] 199±207
10
11
12
attendance at campus activities and institutions, including clubs, campus
events, study groups on campus, the
library, or on-campus businesses.
Scanning notices of campus events. The
degree to which a student reports reviewing notices of upcoming events, including
lists and announcements of events in the
daily campus newspaper, bulletin boards,
and fliers distributed on campus.
Attendance at athletic events. The degree to
which a student reports participation in
athletic events of any kind, including
involvement in individual or team sports or
attendance as a spectator at sports events.
Use of the library for quiet studying. The
degree to which a student reports using
the library for silent, uninterrupted
studying or preparation of assignments.
Attendance at campus events in fine arts.
The degree to which a student reports
Figure 1
Proposed model of the relationship between college experience and
academic performance
[ 202 ]
involvement in fine arts activities as
participant or spectator, including dance
recitals, classical concerts, plays, musicals, and art films.
13 Positive experience with the educational
equity program. The degree to which a
student reports positive perceptions of
their experience with the educational
equity program, including the University
100 class teaching study skills, social
activities, advisement and help provided
by the staff of the educational equity
office, and/or mentoring afforded by a
peer or faculty mentor.
Method
Subjects
Each year a small group of at-risk undergraduate students are selectively assigned to
an educational equity program to receive
special counseling, faculty and peer mentoring, a semester course on adjustment to
university life, and a range of social activities which foster a sense of social community. The educational equity program at
California State University, Fullerton is
dedicated to fostering the retention of students at risk for college failure. These
students, of different ethnic groups and
races, enter the university while lacking one
or more courses usually necessary for admission to the undergraduate program. Unlike students who qualify for the campus'
educational opportunity program, these students do not require financial aid. A number
of elements of the program are involved in
fostering social and academic integration.
Academic integration is fostered by providing students with study skills in the University 100 course and by assigning students
faculty mentors able to assist with academic
difficulties. Social integration is provided by
peer group discussions in the University 100
class, by assigning peer mentors, and by
encouraging faculty mentors and students to
become involved in nonacademic activities
together. Stress is addressed in the University 100 class to better enable students to cope
with college life.
A total of 89 students actively participated
in the program during the 1996-97 academic
year. Complete and usable assessment questionnaire data were available from 30 students (representing 34 percent of the total
group) at the close of the spring semester.
Nearly two-thirds of the program participants were completing their second year of
university studies, while the remainder were
finishing their freshman year.
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
Since most distinctions between the two
subgroups were very slight (i.e. those with
complete and usable questionnaires versus
those without), background attributes are
discussed for the participants as a whole.
Virtually all the participants were unmarried and were living at home with parents
and siblings. As with so many other students
attending urban universities in the USA,
most were employed to finance transportation and at least part of their educational
cost. Not surprisingly, the sophomores were
more likely to hold jobs and work longer
hours than the first-year students (a median
of 24 versus 16.5 hours).
One-quarter of the participants were 18
years old while the remainder were 19 or 20
years old. The students were 56.7 percent of
Latino or Hispanic heritage, 20 percent of
Filipino heritage, 10 percent of AfricanAmerican heritage, and the remaining percentage a mixture of other groups. Given
their ages, it is not surprising to learn that
the educational equity students' dependency
on their families for economic support was
far greater than any reciprocal contribution
to the family's economic well-being; 57 percent received half or more of the necessary
college funds from their respective families.
Conversely, 69 percent reported that they
supplied ``very little'' or ``none'' of the family
financial need. Finally, contrary to the
widely held belief that participants in these
types of programs generally represent the
first from their families to attend a university, almost two-thirds of the students' parents had completed at least some collegiate
study or had university degrees. Thus, while
the participants may be classified as ``at risk''
because of deficiencies in high school performance or placement test scores, they did
have immediate family role models who
understood the complexities and demands of
university life.
Questionnaires
Multiple observed indicators were used to
measure all of the variables included in the
model as prescribed in the literature (e.g.
Harris and Schaubroeck, 1990). In addition to
collecting academic performance information, a student satisfaction rating, and demographic data, all subjects completed
adapted versions of the occupational stress
indicator, a student stress inventory, and the
college student experiences questionnaire
(see Sadri et al., 1996; Sadri and Marcoulides,
1997). The final 93-item questionnaire was
designed to be comprehensive in scope and
took approximately 40 minutes to complete.
Analysis and results
Structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques are considered today to be a major
component of applied multivariate analyses
(Marcoulides and Schumacker, 1996). A
structural model can be viewed as a guide that
allows one to determine the relative strength
of each variable included in explaining a
desired set of outcomes. In its broadest sense,
SEM is concerned with testing complex models of functional relationships between observed variables and latent variables. The
functional relationships are described by
parameters that indicate the magnitude of the
effect (either direct or indirect) that independent variables have on dependent variables.
The proposed model in this study was tested
using the LISREL VIII computer program
(JoÈreskog and SoÈrbom, 1993).
Table I presents the LISREL parameter
estimates of the proposed model. These
parameter estimates are indices that represent the simultaneous contribution of each
observed and latent variable to the overall
model. While these estimates provide important information about the relationship of
college experience to GPA, they do not
provide any indication of the assessment of
the fit of the hypothesized model to the actual
data. Since we posited an a priori defined
model to be tested, our primary interest is in
the model fit. Once the model fit is determined, the significance of the various parameter estimates can be ascertained. Without
a significant model fit, however, we would
have to consider alternative models.
Table II presents the criteria describing the
overall fit of the model. Assessment of fit can
be determined by the goodness-of-fit index
(GFI) and the comparative fit index (CFI). It
is generally recognized that values above 0.90
indicate a good model fit. For this model the
GFI is 0.94 and the CFI is 0.96, which indicate
a reasonably good model fit. These indices
are measures of the relative amount of
variance and covariance in the data accounted for by the model under examination.
In contrast, the root mean square (RMS)
residual and the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) are measures of the
average unexplained variances and covariances in the model. These indices should be
close to zero if the model fits the data well.
For this model, the RMS is 0.08 and the
RMSEA is 0.07, indicating that very few of the
variances and covariances are left unexplained. Finally, parameter estimates with tratios that are greater than 2 are considered
to provide evidence that the parameter is
significantly different from zero and important to the proposed model. The estimates of
[ 203 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
the direct and indirect effects between variables in the model were tested through t
ratios (the ratio of the estimate to its
standard error), and all were found to be
significant (p < 0.01). Given the variety of
tests that were used to assess the fit of the
model, we would consider that the proposed
model fairly accurately accounts for the
variability observed in the data.
Discussion
A model about the relationship between
college experience and scholastic grade point
average was proposed in this study. As
indicated above, the variables included in the
model encompass variables associated with
Tinto's (1987, 1993) concepts of background
variables, academic integration, and social
integration. This section examines the degree
to which our results are consistent with
previous research findings and offers some
thoughts on the implications of these findings for improving research and practice in
the field of educational management.
Background variables
Higher levels of a father's education, greater
self understanding, and adequate financial
resources were background variables found
to be associated with higher GPA. A higher
level of parental education has been directly
and indirectly associated with academic
success in a number of previous studies. For
example, Vazquez and Garcia-Vazquez (1995)
and Young et al. (1994) found that higher
levels of parental education were directly
associated with higher GPAs for Latino
students and African-American students.
A number of aspects of self understanding
have also been associated with academic
success in previous studies. For example, in a
Table I
Parameter estimates for proposed model
Variable
VAR1
VAR2
VAR3
VAR4
VAR5
VAR6
VAR7
VAR8
VAR9
VAR10
VAR11
VAR12
VAR13
[ 204 ]
Estimate
Father's education
Self understanding
Friendships with students of different backgrounds
Adequacy of financial resources
Make practical applications
Talk with professor about a course
Advice from friend about academic probation
Participate in campus life
Scanning notices of campus events
Attendance at athletic events
Use of the library for quiet studying
Attend campus events in fine arts
Positive experience with educational equity program
College experience ? grade point average (GPA)
0.21
0.76
0.71
0.93
0.46
0.39
0.23
0.50
0.65
0.64
0.60
0.90
0.73
0.40
Table II
Measures of model fit
Goodness of fit index (GFI)
Comparative fit index (CFI)
Root mean square residual (RMR)
Root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA)
0.94
0.96
0.08
0.07
study of successful African-American students, Dorsey and Jackson (1995) reported
strong self-concepts as the key ingredient for
academic success and persistence in college.
Similarly, studies of freshman MexicanAmerican students with strong academic
self-concepts reported higher GPAs (Rodriguez, 1996), while studies of Asian students
(Fuertes et al., 1994) with strong and realistic
self-concepts were more likely to persist in
college. Interestingly, some researchers believe so strongly in the importance of self
understanding that increasing self understanding is a primary goal of many college
retention programs (Dale and Zych, 1996).
Having adequate funds to attend college
without extensive financial worries is also a
variable strongly associated with academic
achievement and persistence in previous
studies. For example, McGrath and Braunstein (1997) found that receiving financial aid
predicted students' GPA. In a study of several
retention programs throughout the USA, over
half of the students who left the university
indicated that insufficient funds were the
cause (Chaney et al., 1998). Although low
family income may not directly decrease some
students' persistence in college, student persistence in school and academic achievement
can be adversely affected by a heavy workload
(Canabal, 1995b; Di, 1996). Cabrera et al. (1992)
and Taylor and Olswang (1997) also found that
greater availability of financial resources
indirectly facilitates students' social integration by allowing them to allocate larger
amounts of time to campus social activities.
Academic integration
Practical applications of course work outside
of college, talking with a professor about a
course, using the library for quiet studying,
and positive experience with the educational
equity program were academic integration
variables associated with higher GPA. The
practical application of course work to
situations outside of college may be a positive
factor in students' GPA for a number of
reasons. Students who are able to apply
course work to their work setting perceive
immediate value in their scholastic pursuits
and may be more motivated to achieve in
school. Similarly, students who talk with
professors about their courses appear to
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
obtain direct and indirect benefits from their
interaction. Perhaps students' perception of
faculty members has an important effect on
their overall academic and social experience
of a university campus. The use of the library
for quiet studying also provides a variety of
benefits. Perhaps because many freshmen
and sophomores live with their parents, use
of the library appears to provide them with a
quiet place for uninterrupted study periods.
Without the use of the library, some students
may find it difficult to find optimal conditions for study. Use of the library for studying also increases students' time on campus
and increases their opportunity to interact
with peers during study breaks, a potential
benefit in increased social integration.
Social integration
Social integration variables associated with
higher GPA encompass a variety of activities
and behaviors, including friendships with
students of different economic or social
backgrounds, advice from friends about academic problems, participation in campus life,
scanning notices of campus events, attendance at athletic events, attendance at fine
arts events on campus, and positive experience with the educational equity program.
Friendships with students from different
backgrounds or countries on a highly diverse
campus provide exposure to a variety of
values and perspectives as well as ensuring
that students do not confine their acquaintanceships to a limited and homogeneous
circle of friends. A number of researchers
(Fisher and Hartmann, 1995; Hurtado and
Carter, 1997; Taylor and Olswang, 1995) have
cited the fact that students, particularly
minority students, often emphasize the importance of socializing with students of other
cultures. Similarly, students' positive impressions of other students on campus can be
an important factor in social integration,
contributing to their social effort (Davis and
Murrell, 1993) or college persistence (McGrath
and Braunstein, 1997).
Soliciting advice from a friend about academic problems, although an aspect of social
integration, is also beneficial to the student's
academic integration on campus. Seeking
assistance from peers or support personnel
signals a student's willingness to seek assistance and help in resolving academic difficulties, increasing the probability of a
successful resolution.
Participation in campus life subsumes a
variety of behaviors and activities as well as
measuring a student's global perception of
his or her social integration. A variety of
campus factors can contribute to a student's
sense of community on a college campus, also
described as a sense of belonging, being
needed, and sharing common values (Lounsbury and DeNeui, 1995). On campuses where
prejudice is so great that social segregation
occurs (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995), some
students, particularly African-Americans,
may cope by making friends predominantly
with members of the same racial group and
avoiding participation in groups dominated
by European Americans. Although these
students are able to effectively establish
social ties with supportive peers, they may be
limited in their participation in the campus
life as a whole (Fisher and Hartmann, 1995;
Gossett et al., 1998; James, 1998). Participation in campus life in general, as well as
attendance at specific events, may serve as
an indication of a student's degree of comfort
with the campus social climate.
Scanning notices of upcoming events is a
little-studied aspect of social integration.
Nevertheless, by scanning notices of upcoming events, students indicate an interest in
participating in campus activities and may
be more likely to attend campus events.
Attendance at athletic events includes participation in or attendance at spectator sports.
Because virtually all athletic events on
campus include school athletes and teams,
attendance may indicate not only an interest
in the sports activities of the university but
social integration with the university
(Schurr et al., 1993). Athletic events also
provide opportunities for school friends to
socialize outside of class, another aspect of
social integration. Interestingly, some previous studies (e.g. Chaney et al., 1998; Schurr
et al., 1993) have found that participants or
spectators in campus recreation or sports
were more likely to persist in college than
nonparticipants or attenders. Thus, attendance at all types of campus events indicates
social integration with the campus because it
provides excellent opportunities for students
to socialize outside of classes. A positive
experience with participating in the educational equity program also includes aspects
of social integration and positive benefits for
student retention. In particular, having students enrolled together in an instructional
course was perceived to encourage social
integration through the formation of friendships (see also Chaney et al., 1998).
Based on the variables examined in this
study, a portrait of an academically successful student emerges. The academically successful student has a moderate family
socioeconomic and educational background,
possesses a high level of self understanding,
is assertive in seeking assistance from
faculty, staff, and other students, applies
course work to other aspects of life, and is
[ 205 ]
Terry Saenz,
George A. Marcoulides,
Ellen Junn and Ray Young
The relationship between
college experience and
academic performance among
minority students
The International Journal of
Educational Management
13/4 [1999] 199±207
socially active by scanning and participating
in a variety of campus events.
Despite the important findings which
emerged from this study, there are some
problems with the present research. First, it
is difficult to generalize the present findings
to samples outside of the USA and future
research needs to test our model with samples drawn from other countries. Second, we
have presented a model of college experience
and sampled only from a small group of at
risk students. Consequently, generalizing the
observed results to other groups of students
may also be problematic. Finally, the majority of our measures are self-report indices
and this increases the possibility of bias in
our findings. As such, any future research on
models of this nature should try to include
more behavioral indices. Nevertheless, the
results presented in this study represent an
initial step toward describing and evaluating
important aspects of the academic experience. Expanding on this beginning will be a
profitable goal for future research.
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