THE EXPLORATION OF PRE-SERVICE EFL TEACHERS’ CHALLENGES IN FIELD PRACTICUM.

(A Phenomenological Study of Six Pre-service Teachers at a Teacher Preparation Program)

A Research Paper

Submitted as a Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for Bachelor Degree in English Education Study Program

By:

Rainal Wempi Pasaka (0907490)

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

INDONESIA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

2014

Teachers’ Challenges In Field P

racticum

(A Phenomenological Study of Six

Pre-service Teachers at a Teacher Preparation

Program)

Oleh

Rainal Wempi Pasaka

Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

© Rainal Wempi Pasaka 2014 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia

Januari 2014

Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.

Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.

RAINAL WEMPI PASAKA (0907490)

THE EXPLORATION OF PRE-SERVICE EFL TEACHERS’ CHALLENGES IN

FIELD PRACTICUM

(A Phenomenological Study of Six Pre-service Teachers at a Teacher Preparation Program)

Approved by: First Supervisor

Prof. Hj. Emi Emilia, M.Ed., Ph.D. NIP. 196609161990012001

Second Supervisor

Lulu Laela Amalia, S.S., M.Pd. NIP. 1975040920007102001

Head of Department of English Education Faculty of Language and Fine Arts Education

Indonesia University of Education

Prof. Dr. H. Didi Suherdi, M.Ed. NIP. 196211011987121001

THE EXPLORATION OF PRE-SERVICE EFL TEACHERS’ CHALLENGES IN FIELD PRACTICUM

(A Phenomenological Study of Six Pre-service Teachers at a Teacher Preparation Program)

Written by Rainal Wempi Pasaka

Main Supervisor : Prof. Hj. Emi Emilia, M.Ed., Ph.D. Co-Supervisor : Lulu Laela Amalia, S.S., M.Pd.

ABSTRACT

This study investigates challenges that six pre-service EFL teachers of a Bachelor of Education (Sarjana Pendidikan) program experienced in conducting field practicum. This study employs a qualitative research design, especially a phenomenological approach. Data were gathered by means of in-depth interviews. The interview data were then scrutinized and codified, respective to their emergent themes through thematic analysis procedures (Merriam, 1988 in Emilia, 2007, p. 84). The findings indicated that field practicum was colored with challenges related to lesson preparation, challenges related to classroom management, and challenges related to communication breakdown. The study concludes with a justification that it is recommended for teacher preparation programs to provide pre-service teachers with robust theoretical frameworks in designing an instruction, practical experience in classroom management, profound knowledge of English language, and strong confidence in teaching. In addition, teacher preparation programs are endorsed to formally inform mentor teachers as to their roles and responsibilities in the practicum.

Keywords: Pre-service Teachers, Teacher Preparation Programs, Field Practicum

ABSTRAK

Penelitian ini mengkaji kesulitan-kesulitan yang dihadapi oleh enam calon pendidik EFL (Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing) dari program Sarjana Pendidikan dalam melaksanakan program latihan profesi. Penelitian ini menggunakan desain kualitatif, khususnya menggunakan pendekatan fenomenologi. Data dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan interviu mendalam. Data yang diperoleh dengan menggunakan interviu kemudian dianalisis dan dikodefikasi, berdasarkan tema yang muncul dengan menggunakan prosedur analisis tematik (Merriam, 1988 dalam Emilia, 2007, hal. 84). Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa program pelatihan profesi diwarnai dengan kesulitan terkait persiapan pengajaran, kesulitan terkait manajemen kelas, dan kesulitan terkait komunikasi. Penelitian ini ditutup dengan justifikasi bahwa program persiapan guru perlu menyiapkan calon pendidik dengan landasan teori yang kuat dalam mendesain pelajaran, pengalaman praktis dalam manajemen kelas, pengetahuan yang luas mengenai bahasa Inggris, dan kepercayaan diri yang tinggi dalam mengajar. Program persiapan guru juga perlu menginformasikan secara formal kepada guru pamong mengenai peranan dan tanggung jawab mereka di dalam program latihan profesi.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE OF APPROVAL ... ii

STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... iii

PREFACE ... iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ... v

ABSTRACT ... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background ... 1

1.2 Research Questions ... 3

1.3 Aims of the Research ... 3

1.4 Scope of the Research ... 4

1.5 Significance of the Research ... 4

1.6 Clarification of Related Terms ... 5

1.7 Organization of the Paper ... 6

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS ... 8

2.1 Pre-Service Teacher ... 8

2.1.1 Pre-service EFL Teacher Education ... 8

2.1.2 Standards in EFL Teacher Education ... 9

2.2 Field Practicum ... 11

2.2.1 Field Practicum as Part of Teacher Preparation Programs ... 11

2.2.2 Field Practicum as Professional Development ... 12

2.3.1 Pre-service Teachers’ Challenges ... 14

2.3.1.1 Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 15

2.3.1.2 Challenges Related to Classroom Management... 16

2.3.1.3 Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 17

2.3.2 Causes of the Challenges ... 18

2.3.2.1 Cause of the Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 18

2.3.2.2 Causes of the Challenges Related to Classroom Management ... 19

2.3.2.3 Causes of the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 21

2.3.3 Pre-service Teachers’ Strategies to Overcome the Challenges ... 21

2.3.3.1 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 22

2.3.3.2 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Classroom Management ... 22

2.3.3.3 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 23

2.4 Findings from Previous Studies ... 24

2.5 Concluding Remark ... 25

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 27

3.1 Research Questions ... 27

3.2 Research Design ... 27

3.3 Data Collection... 28

3.3.1 Sample ... 29

3.3.2 Instrument ... 30

3.4 Data Analysis ... 33

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 35

4.1 Findings and Discussions of Pre-service Teachers’ Challenges in Field Practicum ... 36

4.1.1 Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 36

4.1.2 Challenges Related to Classroom Management ... 37

4.1.2.1 Difficulty in Controlling Disruptive Behavior ... 37

4.1.2.2 Difficulty in Managing Class Time ... 38

4.1.3 Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 39

4.1.3.1 Difficulty in Interacting with Mentor Teachers ... 39

4.1.3.2 Difficulty in Interacting with School Staff ... 40

4.2 Findings and Discussions of Causes of Pre-service Teachers’ Challenges in Field Practicum ... 41

4.2.1 Cause of the Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 42

4.2.2 Causes of the Challenges Related to Classroom Management ... 42

4.2.2.1 Learners’ Low Motivation to Learn English ... 42

4.2.2.2 Poor Learner-learner Relationships ... 42

4.2.2.3 Institutional Act ... 43

4.2.2.4 Psychological Anxiety ... 44

4.2.2.5 Knowledge Barrier ... 45

4.2.3 Causes of the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 46

4.3 Findings and Discussions of Pre-service Teachers’ Strategies to Overcome the Challenges in Field Practicum ... 46

4.3.1 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Lesson Planning ... 47

4.3.2 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Classroom Management ... 48

4.3.2.1 Establishing good rapports with learners ... 48

4.3.2.2 Creating Engaging Instructions ... 49

4.3.2.3 Building Individual Qualities ... 50

4.3.3.3 Strategies to Overcome the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown ... 51

4.4 Concluding Remark ... 52

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 53

5.1 Conclusion ... 53

5.2 Limitations ... 54

5.3 Recommendations ... 55

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 57 APPENDIX A: MAIN QUESTIONS OF INTERVIEWS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter addresses background of the current study which is the basis for conducting the study, research questions consisting phenomenon to which this study focuses on, aims of study providing guidance on which this study embarks on, scope of the research referring to research’s boundary which is a means of giving limitation to the study, significance of the research comprising the possible outcome of the current study, clarification of the study describing key terms of the study and organization of paper comprising general descriptions by which the study is reported.

1.1Background

The studies of pre-service education for teaching practice have sparked a number of insightful phenomena in the realm of teacher education. The subject matter has been considered highly significant and it has been considered as an important feature in preparing student teachers to enter a practice setting (Farrel, 2003 in Gan, 2013, p. 1). Regarding this, it is generally recognized that the notion of integrating field practicum in teacher education programs is an important element in pre-service teachers’ groundwork. The importance of incorporating field-based experience into university-based coursework has been identified by numerous studies. Such a study is that of Hudson and Hudson (2012) which argued that teaching practice benefits pre-service teachers as it provide them an opportunity to integrate theories learned in a teacher training institute into practice (Hudson & Hudson, 2012, p. 12; see also Tuli & File, 2009, p. 111-12; Haciomeroglu, 2013, p. 132). It is also worth pinpointing that not only does field experience aid student teachers to combine both theory and practice, but it also

allows them to “generate new insight and understanding about issues confronting

society today” (de la Piedra, Munter, Girón, 2006, p. 75).

In relation to the aforementioned studies, numerous studies have prevailed to present a striking impression on providing real-life teaching experience challenges experienced by ESL and EFL student teachers. The existing research includes a study carried out by Gan (2013) which found out that there is discrepancy between expected results of theories learned in teacher training institutes and actual practice in field practicums (Gan, 2013, p. 98-102). The study further stated that classroom management was the main difficulty in the field experience and therefore went to suggest that improvement over the English course for pre-service teachers need to be undertaken (Gan, 2013, p. 105).

Another significant study is Numrich’s whose findings indicated time

management was perceived as the major obstacle in field practicum (Numrich, 1996, p. 142).

However good the impression left by field experience for pre-service teachers is, the focus of many research regarding second or language teaching and learning has not been shifted to cases revolving around field experience. That is, the research field has yet to exclusively recognize the case as a distinguished feature of L2 teacher education as much attention has been given to research addressing teaching methodology, which includes procedure and technique for developing a good teaching practice.

In a nutshell, a large number of studies have corresponded to address the divergence of expected outcomes of teacher education and real-life experience, trying to find out general sustainability of student teachers preparation when it comes to teaching practice and the discrepancy between pre-service and in-service teachers beliefs of field practicum (Feiman-Nemser, 2001, p. 1050; Haciomeroglu, 2013, p. 132; Fox, Campbell, Hargrove, 2011, p. 38). However, little has been done to conduct a study that addresses challenges pre-service teachers encounter during a field practicum from second or foreign language learning perspective,

especially for the case occurred to non-native prospective EFL teachers. It is also important to note that among the few studies, one can hardly find any studies which embrace the reflection and perception of the non-native pre-service EFL teachers on the difficulties encountered in the field experience. Therefore, the current study stands to give a new different perspective in developing professional teachers in which new insights and information regarding challenges encountered by pre-service teachers in field practicum can be discovered.

1.2Research Questions

This part provides questions which are the foci of the proposed study. There are three questions which are going to be thoroughly investigated and, therefore, answered in the current study. The questions are as follows:

1. What challenges do pre-service teachers experience during field practicum?

2. What might contribute to the challenges experienced by pre-service teachers during field practicum?

3. How do pre-service teachers overcome the challenges experienced during field practicum?

1.3Aims of the Research

In accordance with the aforementioned research questions, the current study attempts to investigate:

1. Challenges encountered by pre-service teachers during field practicum 2. Aspects contributed to the challenges encountered by pre-service teacher

during field practicum

3. Strategies used by pre-service teachers to handle the challenges encountered during field practicum.

1.4Scope of the Research

This research focuses on investigating the following aspects: (1) challenges experienced by pre-service EFL teachers when conducting field practicum, (2) aspects contributed to the challenges encountered, and (3) strategies employed by pre-service EFL teachers to overcome the challenges faced. The current study emphasizes on investigating the phenomena through pre-service teachers’ perspectives.

1.5Significance of the Research

There are two major perspectives geared toward implications of the current study: theoretical point of view and practical point of view. In the realm of theoretical perspective, it is assumed that the exploration of the pre-service teachers’ challenges and strategies faced during field experience, if disseminated, will be useful to supplement the underlying theoretical frameworks adopted in teacher education programs. As for the practical perspective, it is expected that the study can provide insightful and thoughtful considerations for pre-service and in-service teachers as building bricks to improve their professional development, particularly in defining, examining, and reflecting upon the challenges experienced.

In relation to the intention of the study which is to explore the aforementioned phenomena, it is hoped that the study can provide the key to unlock further research on challenges faced by student teachers when conducting field practicum. It is therefore endorsed that the current study can support research on the case afterwards, including but not limited to studies describing and explaining the phenomena occurred.

1.6Clarification of Related Terms

There are some main key terms recognized in the study; the terms are, as follows:

1. Foreign Language

Foreign languages are defined as languages learned as a compulsory part of curriculum which are not used for immediate practical usage (Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 4).

2. Pre-service Teacher

Pre-service teachers refer to students enrolled and trained in a teacher training institute or university offering the same course (Freeman, 2009, p. 12). In addition, there is another term interchangeably used to refer pre-service teachers: student teachers.

3. Challenge

Challenges, recognized in the current study, refer to any difficulties or concerns pre-service teachers have during teaching practicum.

4. Field Practicum

Field practicums are programs in a curriculum providing students a chance to put the theoretical frameworks built in a class into practice (The University of Texas at Austin, 2013). In this study, the term field practicum exclusively refers to internship in which the student teachers carry out the teaching practice “at the end of the college courses” (Wallace, 1991, p. 122). The terms field practicum in this study is also referred to as field experience.

5. Mentor Teacher

Mentor teachers, in the present study, refer to teachers in placement schools whose job is to support professional development of pre-service teachers during field practicum (Malderez, 2009, p. 259-60).

6. Supervisor

Supervisors are university lecturers assigned by a teacher preparation institute to observe and assess pre-service teachers’ teaching practice and to give feedback to student teachers’ on their teaching performance (Malderez, 2009, p. 260).

1.7Organization of the Paper

This part represents a body of works the current study is based upon. The works comprises of five main parts addressing different subjects. Further description of each part is, as follows:

1. Chapter 1 comprises background of the study conveying brief interwoven correlation between the current research and existing frameworks on which the current study is based upon, statement of problem consisting what phenomenon the study is trying to describe, purpose of the current study describing general goal of the study, scope of research clarifying boundaries the study is within, significance of research referring to the implications of the study, both theoretically and practically, and clarification of key terms comprising specific definitions of important terms used in the study.

2. Chapter 2 addresses foundation of the study which is the review of existing frameworks and theories underlying the study. In addition, the chapter conveys sound analysis on the phenomenon in regard to previous research interwoven with the current study.

3. Chapter 3 describes detailed research methodology engaged in the study. The chapter, generally, recalls the problem the current study is trying to be involved with as well as speaks of thorough justification on research methodology in the study.

4. Chapter 4 conveys comprehensive description of the collected data, sound analysis on the data, and ample interpretation of the data based on the data’s correlation with the current study’s aim, hypothesis, and underlying theories and frameworks.

5. Chapter 5 consists of three parts: the first part is conclusion which describes the current study in a nutshell; the second part is limitation which covers constraint(s) demonstrated in the present study; the last part is suggestion which gears toward implications of the current study.

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS

This chapter encompasses main theoretical frameworks underlying the current study. The theoretical foundations addressed in the study consist of theoretical frameworks regarding pre-service teachers, concepts of field practicum, summary of pre-service teachers‟ challenges in field practicum and findings from studies related to the current research.

2.1 Pre-service Teacher

There are two parts reviewing theoretical frameworks in relation with pre-service teachers. The sections include pre-pre-service teacher education and standards of EFL teacher education.

2.1.1 Pre-service EFL teacher education.

Pre-service teachers are students who are educated in a teacher training institute or university to be a teacher in a school (Freeman, 2009, p. 12). Therefore, pre-service ESL/EFL teachers can be defined as students trained and prepared with English competence and knowledge of teaching methodology in order to teach English as second or foreign language (Thomas, 1987, p. 39; see also Freeman, 2009, p. 12).

ESL/EFL teacher education programs, as proposed by Shulman (1987, in Randall & Thornton, 2001), need to embed the following knowledge in their courses: (1) content knowledge referring to knowledge of English language, (2) general pedagogic knowledge, referring to knowledge of common issues in teaching, e.g. classroom management, (3) curriculum knowledge, referring to

insights as to materials development, (4) pedagogical-content knowledge, referring to knowledge of language acquisition and its relationship with teaching approaches, methods and techniques, (5) knowledge of learners and their characteristics, referring to knowledge of the importance of finding out students‟ needs and students‟ learning behavior, (6) knowledge of education context, referring to knowledge of different teaching contexts which are affected by sociocultural and institutional factors, and (7) knowledge of education ends, purposes and values and the philosophical and historical issues, referring to understanding of the history of English language teaching methodology (Shulman, 1987, as cited in Randall & Thornton, 2000, p. 27-29; cf. Ellis, 1990, p. 26)

Furthermore, it is indicated by Kamhi-Stein (2009) that the current ESL/EFL teacher education programs need to equip student teachers with professional development, communicative language teaching, understanding on English ownership, knowledge of numerous settings of ESL/EFL teaching practice, and awareness of ESL/EFL teachers‟ status (Kamhi-Stein, 2009, p. 96-97; see also Freeman, 2009, p. 14-5). Additionally, one of the criteria of a successful teaching education program in the context of field practicum is the establishment of “intensive and supportive interaction among practicum participants” (Tomaš, Farrelly, & Haslam, 2008, p. 663). Furthermore, teacher education programs need to plan and thus develop curriculum interweaving with “how [pre-service teachers] learn” (Graves, 2009, p. 120). This is in line with the focus of the current study which is to discover the learning experience of pre-service teachers and to further contribute to the improvement of teacher education programs (Farrel, 2003 in Gan, 2013, p. 104; see Chapter 1, Section 1.5).

2.1.2 Standards in EFL teacher education.

Standards underlying the university-based programs are basically based on national standards, consisting both content standards and performance standards (Katz & Snow, 2009, p. 67). The former refers to programs covering “essential

knowledge, skills, and dispositions” while the latter addresses “degree or quality of proficiency expected in relation to content standards” (Katz & Snow, 2009, p. 67).

Standards in EFL teacher education, which “[imply] a passion of excellence and habitual attention” (Madya, 2008, p. 4), are geared to prepare student teachers before going into the complex and intensive classroom teaching and to provide comprehensive understanding of English learner standards (Katz & Snow, 2009, p. 72). Specifically, the former objective outlines that teacher preparation programs need to provide insights for pre-service teachers as to the real situation of second language classroom whilst the latter objective describes that teacher preparation programs should enable student teachers to know the needs of the second language learners, to analyze the needs of the learners and to adopt the needs into the practice of teaching, in both planning instruction and administering assessment (Katz & Snow, 2009, p. 72).

It is necessary to pinpoint, as Madya (2008) suggests, that in order to plan and develop standards for EFL teacher education, the standards need to focus on the following objectives: (1) developing communicative competence and skills to use the competence, (2) developing communicative teaching competence and skills to use the teaching competence, and (3) developing positive attitudes to professional development (Madya, 2008, p. 6).

Moreover, there are several characteristics of standards in teacher education programs. The characteristics, as identified by Katz and Snow (2009), are, as follows: (1) Standards are dynamic, meaning that personal reflection, beliefs, prior language learning may contribute to the implementation of standards; (2) Standards cover a range of performance levels, that is standards provide insights for teacher educators to comprehend and assess student teachers‟ levels; and (3) Standards are systemic, meaning that standards need to meet major procedures in order that teachers can effectively improve their professional development and their practice of teaching (Katz & Snow, 2009, p. 73). As further

indicated in the discussions section of the current study, Chapter 4, Section 4.2, the standards developed in teacher education programs have a correlation with the practical experience of student teachers in field practicum.

2.2 Field Practicum

Field practicum is a part of university coursework in teacher preparation programs in which student teachers are given the experience to observe teaching practice, to be familiar with teaching contexts, and to be guided in teaching (Richards, 1990, p. 14; Gebhard, 2009, p. 250). Field practicum, which is the natural setting of the current study, encompasses two broad concepts: field practicum as part of teacher training programs and field practicum as professional development (Gebhard, 2009, p. 250). The first concept typically refers to the view that field practicum is a component in teacher preparation programs (Richards, 1990, p. 14; Richards, & Farrell, 2005, p. 3-4). The second concept generally regards by what means student teachers build professional development and student teachers‟ reflection on teaching (Richards, & Farrell, 2005, p. 3-4). The concepts addressed in this section build theoretical background the current study is within.

2.2.1 Field practicum as part of teacher preparation programs.

Field practicum has been widely recognized as an important aspect in teacher training institutes, including but not limited to ESL/EFL education (Stoynoff, 1999, Farrel, 2007 in Gan, 2013, p. 2; Gebhard, 2009, p. 250). Field practicum is a component in teacher preparation programs which facilitate student teachers to experience the complexity of teaching practices (Tuli & File, 2009, p. 113-14). In addition, field experience, as pointed out by Richards & Crookes (1988), provide opportunities for student teachers to (1) experience teaching in a classroom setting, (2) integrate theories into practice, (3) observe mentor teachers,

(4) gain diverse opinions on teaching techniques, (5) improve self-awareness of personal teaching style, (6) develop skills in planning a lesson, (7) improve ability in selecting, evaluating and adapting materials, and (8) acquaint with particular existing techniques and methods (Richards & Crookes, 1988, p.11).

The theoretical frameworks of ESL/EFL field experience are partly credited to contributions of a research conducted by Stoynoff (1999 in Gan, 2013) in which he outlined the principles in conducting TESOL practicum; the principles as summarized by Gan (2013) are as follows: (1) The practicum is a part of an academic program; (2) The practicum involves a team work consisting mentor teachers, university supervising teachers, language program managers and student teachers; (3) The practicum offers rigorous modeling and coaching; (4) The practicum encompasses extensive, systematic observation; and (5) The practicum experience is evaluated using a portfolio (Stoynoff, 1999 in Gan, 2013, p. 93).

2.2.2 Field practicum as professional development.

Not only is field practicum built as an engine in teaching preparation programs, but it is also motorized to facilitate student teachers to build their professional expertise. With regard to this, student teachers begin the practicum by observing the teaching practice of mentor teachers (Wallace, 1991, p. 123). This suggests that observation over mentor teachers‟ teaching practice is a means for pre-service teachers to comprehend “what experienced teachers do and the professional discourses they use” in order to develop professional development (Gebhard, 2009, p. 252).

Historically, field experience was geared to encourage teachers to “isolate, practice, and master specific behavior” (Gebhard, 2009, p. 251) However, the focus has been shifted to an attempt to improve teacher development since more than two decades ago (Gebhard, 2009, p. 251). Hence, it is now likely to find the perception of teacher development progresses into reflecting upon beliefs and

theories incorporated in the practice done by teachers (loc cit). It is further indicated in Chapter 4, Section 4.4.1 that the present day paradigm of field practicum helps student teachers to develop their professional development.

It is recognized that the notion of professional development, which is a widely-discussed topic in pre-service teacher education, generally is the building block to achieve numerous major goals. The goals, as Pennington (1990) puts forward, are as follows: (1) knowledge addressing theoretical foundation of language learning and classroom research, (2) knowledge of self and students, (3) attitudes of flexibility and openness to change, (4) decision-making skills and communication skills, (5) analytical skills for judging different teaching situations, (6) awareness of alternative teaching approaches, (7) confidence and skills to change teaching approach, and (8) practical experiences using different approaches (Pennington, 1990, p. 150). In regard to the present study, the concept of professional development is among the bases used to build critical interpretation of the data gathered in the present study which is closely related to the significance of the study, as discussed in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.

It is worth pointing out that the concept of professional development is closely tied with the concept on reflective teaching. The relationship between these two concepts is that reflective teaching is a process in building professional development (Ferraro, 2000, http://searcheric.org/digests/ed449120.html; Crookes, 2003, p. 180; AMEP, 2006, p. 1). That is to say, reflective teaching is a means for pre-service teachers, alongside in-service teachers, to build professional development. The concept of reflective teaching refers to the practice of teachers to “reflect on aspects of their practice in order to understand it better and then to try out improvements” (AMEP, 2006, p. 1; see also Cruikshank & Applegate, 1981; Barlett, 1990; in Crookes, 2003, p. 181). With regard to field practicum, it has been indicated by Ferraro (2000) that there are two frequent aspect of reflective teaching in the practicum: (1) coaching or mentoring and (2) peer involvement (Ferraro, 2000, http://searcheric.org/digests/ed449120.html). The former refers to a means used by teacher educators in teacher preparation

programs in helping pre-service teachers to “reflect upon and improve their practices” (Ferraro, 2000, http://searcheric.org/digests/ed449120.html). The latter refers to a means of building student teachers‟ professional development by discussing teaching practices with other pre-service teachers (Ferraro, 2000, http://searcheric.org/digests/ed449120.html; cf. Crookes, 2003, p. 183). As will be indicated in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.3, pre-service teachers used the second aspect of reflective teaching that is peer involvement by means of discussing the causes of the challenges they faced in the practicum to further devise a solution(s) to the challenges.

2.3 Pre-service Teachers’ Challenges in Field Practicum

Description of pre-service challenges is presented in three main declarative questions: what challenges pre-service teachers experience, why they encounter such challenges, and how they triumph over the challenges.

2.3.1 Pre-service teachers’ challenges.

Challenges of pre-service teachers have been discussed by several studies. The challenges encountered can be broken down into three main themes: challenges related to lesson planning, challenges related to classroom management, and challenges related to communication breakdown (Çelik, 2008, p. 100-05; Viafara, 2011, p. 69; Yang, 2011, p. 99-100; Gan, 2013, p. 99-102). As one of the aims of the study is to find out the challenges experienced in field practicum, the challenges presented in the preceding studies will be used to justify the findings of the current study, meaning that the findings of this study use the challenges found in the previous studies as the bases in collecting the data and analyzing the data.

2.3.1.1 Challenges related to lesson planning.

Lesson planning refers to schemes to build a lesson (Brown, 2001, p. 129; Senior, 2006; p. 160; see also Harmer, 1998, p. 121). The schemes, as put forward by Brown (2001), cover the following components: (1) comprehension of various teaching techniques, (2) evaluation and judgment on teaching materials, (3) selection of suitable teaching aids, and (4) composition of a lesson plan (Brown, 2001, p. 149; cf. Crookes, 2003, p. 100).

In designing a lesson, teachers need to understand when to use particular teaching techniques (Brown, 2001, p. 129-36). This suggests each teaching technique or teaching method has its own benefits and drawback (Richards & Rodgers, 1986, as cited in Nunan, 1991, p. 213). Furthermore, teachers need to decide whether they will design their own materials or to adapt the existing materials. Teachers are advised to design their own materials providing that the existing materials are not suitable with students‟ language proficiency (Nunan, 1991, p. 214-15; Harmer, 1998, p. 111). Furthermore, teachers are recommended to adapt the existing materials to suit the needs of the students (Nunan, 1991, p. 219; Harmer, 1998, p. 112). In addition, teachers need to consider the relevance of the materials with students‟ lives (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 63).

It is also important to consider that teachers should select the best equipment to support the lesson. The equipment ranges from old-school teaching aids, such as posters, classroom objects (desk, chair, etc.) to state-of-the-art teaching aids, such as audiotapes, video clips, etc. (Brown, 2001, p. 141-46). Furthermore, teachers are recommended to compose a written series of plan comprising goal of the lesson, materials and equipment, teaching procedures, evaluation, and additional tasks for the students (Brown, 2001, p. 149-51). Regarding this, teachers, both more experienced and less experienced, need to bear in mind that planning a lesson “gives the lesson, an overall shape” (Harmer, 1998, p. 121). In addition, it is important to note that student teachers are advised to compose a detailed lesson plan (Harmer, 1998, p. 121-24).

With regard to the current study, field practicum is steered into providing student teachers an opportunity to develop skills in planning a lesson (Richards &

Lockhart, 1988, p. 11). However, numerous studies have pointed out that student teachers may struggle with planning a lesson in the practicum. The existing studies identify that pre-service teachers frequently struggle with evaluating and judging materials. Specifically, pre-service teachers find it difficult to prepare a lesson that can address diverse students‟ needs (Numrich, 1996, p. 142-43).

2.3.1.2 Challenges related to classroom management.

One captivating yet concerning challenge encountered by ESL/EFL pre-service teachers in field practicum revolves around classroom management. The topic of classroom management, as stated by Brown (2001), covers five aspects as follows: (1) physical appearance of classrooms, which refers to visual and audial appearance of the classroom; (2) teachers‟ voices and body languages, which cover clear verbal communication and appropriate nonverbal communication e.g. appropriate gestures; (3) unexpected circumstances in the classroom, which are mostly to do with managing students‟ disruptive behavior, being asked questions that are difficult to answer and coping with disagreement between time allocation in the lesson plan and the actual time in the instructions; (4) adverse circumstances in teaching, which cover institution influences, e.g. the placement of students with various levels of English proficiency in the same class; and (5) teachers‟ roles and styles, which refer to teachers‟ preference of particular roles or personalities in teaching (Brown, 2001, p. 191-202). This suggests that all five aspects construct good operation of teaching practices (Brown, 2001, p. 191).

Discussions of classroom management in the context of field practicum point out that student teachers experience unexpected circumstances in the practicum. It has been indicated that the aspect of unexpected circumstances may be in the form of controlling disruptive behavior, which is a matter of great concern for pre-service teachers (Brown, 2001, p. 195-96; Crookes, 2003, p. 141; Çelik, 2008, p. 104; Viafara, 2011, p. 62; Gan, 2013, p. 99-100). This phenomenon is referred by Veenman (1984) as „reality shock‟ in field practicum (Veenman, 1984, p. 143). That is, pre-service teachers find controlling disruptive students is harder than what they have ever imagined (Veenman, 1984, p. 143;

Farrell, 2007, p. 193). In addition, student teachers also experience the discrepancy between time allocated in their lesson plans and the actual time needed to conduct ESL/EFL lessons (Numrich, 1996, p. 142-43). That is, there is a tendency that a lesson does not progress due to an unexpected event(s) in the classroom.

2.3.1.3 Challenges related to communication breakdown.

In the practicum, student teachers are required to interact with all supporting individuals, which include university supervisors, school management system or school staff, and mentor teachers (Malderez, 2009, p. 261). Having a good relationship with the aforementioned individuals may shape good development for pre-service teachers (Malderez, 2009, p. 261). In the practicum, however, there is a regular problem. This problem relates to pre-service teachers‟ interaction with their mentor teachers. This happens in the form of student teachers are not given enough guidance from mentor teachers (Yang, 2011, p. 99). In other words, student teachers occasionally cannot communicate their problems and needs with their mentor teachers, who are supposed to provide time for discussing problems that student teachers face in the practicum (Malderez, 2009, p. 264). Regarding this, it has been revealed that mentor teachers are “usually untrained in supervision and formally unqualified to do the job” (Furlong, et.al, 1988, in Wallace, 1991, 123). It is further suggested by Wallace (1991) that teacher preparation programs need to consider the following solutions: (1) establishing sufficient communication with mentor teachers and (2) providing training and, if possible, formal qualification for mentor teachers (Wallace, 1991, p. 123).

With regard to student teachers‟ relationship with their mentor teachers, there are nine roles of mentor teachers in the practicum (Randall & Thornton, 2013, p. 13). The roles, as stated by Randall & Thornton (2013), are as follows: (1) helping student teachers to develop classroom-based skills, (2) enlightening student teachers on curriculum issues, (3) helping student teachers to create

teaching goals, (4) assessing student teachers‟ teaching practice, (5) boosting student teachers‟ confidence, (6) motivating student teachers, (7) providing time to listen to student teachers‟ problems, (8) helping student teachers to adapt to school environment, and (9) solving student teachers‟ problems (Randall & Thornton, 2001, p. 13).

In addition to the challenge revolving around pre-service teacher‟s interaction with mentor teachers, pre-service teachers may experience communication breakdown with the school staff. This particular case is frequently found in the form of student teachers are not given enough time to conduct teaching practice in the practicum (Yang, 2011, p. 99).

2.3.2 Causes of the challenges.

The existing research has exemplified a quantity of challenges that student teachers experience in field practicum. Most of the studies pertinent to pre-service teachers‟ challenges in field experience shine lights on providing sources of the challenges. One should note, nonetheless, that the causes presented in this section may be generated from the researchers‟ opinion or recommendation on the issue. That is, few attempts have been done to directly ask the student teachers to reflect on why they might encounter such obstacles. This might be due to the fact that finding out the causes is not the objective of the research. The sources of challenges in this section are presented based on their main theme.

2.3.2.1 Causes of the challenges related to lesson planning.

It has been stated in the previous section that student teachers have difficulties in evaluating and judging materials. In relation to this, several studies have identified one possible cause which inflicts such challenge. As far as the existing studies are concerned, there is one prominent cause of such a challenge. The cause is pre-service teachers‟ inability to adopt learners‟ needs, meaning that

student teachers might not know how to integrate leaners needs into the learning materials (Numrich, 1996, p. 144; cf. Viafara, 2011, p. 56). This topic relates to the discussion of lesson planning in Section 2.3.1.1 that student teachers need to adopt student teachers in planning a lesson.

2.3.2.2 Causes of the challenges related to classroom management.

As indicated in Section 2.3.1.2, pre-service teachers may find it daunting to deal with disruptive students. This issue is acknowledged by the literature on English language teaching as the biggest problem student teachers face in the practicum (Crookes, 2003, p. 141). In addition, student teachers find it difficult to manage class time. Regarding these two difficulties, research pertinent to pre-service teachers‟ challenges in field practicum identifies five causes of such issues: (1) learners‟ low motivation to learn English, which refer to students‟ negative perspective toward English that can determine the success and the failure of an instruction (Viafara, 2001, p. 62-3; Richards & Schmidt; 2002, p. 343-44); (2) poor learner-learner relationships, which refer to circumstances where some students do not want to work with other students (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 42); (3) institutions‟ decision-makings, which refer to the influence of institutions, particularly placement schools, on the practicum such as the placement of students with multi-level language competence in the same class (Harmer, 1998, p. 127); (4) pre-service teachers‟ anxiety in imposing rules, which refers to student teachers‟ lack of confidence in the practicum (Çelik, 2009, p. 103); and (5) pre -service teachers‟ poor knowledge of English language, which refers to knowledge barrier of student teachers in the context of teaching English as second or foreign language (Gan, 2013, p. 102).

With regard to the first cause above, discussions of learners‟ motivation is intertwined with learners‟ perception to learn English as second or foreign language (Crookes, 2003,p. 136-38 ). That is, most, if not many, students consider learning second or foreign language is “one of the most face threatening school subjects because of the pressure of having to operate using a rather limite language code” ((Dörnyei, 2001, p. 40).

In relation to the second cause above, poor learner-learner rapports is related to the topic of group cohesiveness. In order to address such cause, as suggested by Dörnyei (2001), teachers need to bear in mind the following components: (1) a group consists of 3-6 students; (2) materials need to create learners‟ dependency; and (3) training of group skills e.g. listening to members‟

comments, among others, need to be undertaken (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 101-102; see also Murray & Christison, 2001; p. 191). Poor learner-learner rapports may arise due to the fact that students do not know the benefits of working in a group; one of which is to “provide students with more complex input and opportunities for interaction” (McGarty, 1992, as cited in Murray & Christison, 2011, p. 190).

As indicated in Section 2.3.1.2 that placement schools can foster problems to student teachers. Regarding this, it is put forward by Brown (2001) that such an issue is “a byproduct of institutional placement procedures and budgetary limits” (Brown, 2001, p. 197-98).

Regarding the fourth cause above, problems in classroom management may arise due to student teachers‟ lack of confidence in imposing rules. This has been identified by Çelik‟s study which found out that pre-service teachers may not impose classroom rules owing to their anxiety in giving the rules (Çelik, 2009, p. 103).

With regard to the fifth cause, pre-service teachers need to have vast knowledge of English and good English competence in order to teach well. However, several studies covering pre-service teachers‟ challenges in field practicum discovered that student teachers do not have the adequate skills, in terms knowledge of English, to teach. Such a study is that of Gan‟s which identified student teachers‟ lack of knowledge of content, by some means, inflict problems in managing a class (Gan, 2013, p. 102).

2.3.3.3 Causes of the challenges related to communication breakdown.

Section 2.3.1.3 has covered the common miscommunication in field experience. In what follows is the description of possible causes of such challenges. It is found out that the miscommunication between pre-service teachers with mentor teacher arises because school management system cannot provide the best experienced teachers to guide student teachers (Brown, 2001, in Malderez, 2009, p. 261). That is, mentor teachers may not know what good teaching is, e.g. they do not know how to evaluate materials well, how to use particular teaching techniques effectively, etc. In addition, this may be stimulated because both mentor teachers and school staff have little guidance on their roles and responsibilities in the practicum (Crookes, 2003, p. 223, Elmajdob, 2004, in Malderez, 2008, p. 261).

2.3.3 Pre-service teachers’ strategies to overcome the challenges.

Collectively, literature pertinent to pre-service teachers‟ challenges in the practicum have yet to provide a wealth of information regarding the strategies used by pre-service teachers to overcome the challenges. However, as far the existing research is concerned, there are several techniques employed by student teachers to overcome the challenges. The strategies reported in this section are presented based on their theme.

2.3.3.1 Strategies to overcome the challenges related to lesson planning.

It has been indicated in Section 2.3.1 that pre-service teachers face problem in evaluating and judging teaching materials. In relation to this, literature on English language teaching pinpoints that pre-service teachers who encountered such a problem will turn to fellow pre-service teachers for advice (Numrich, 1996, p. 143; Gan, 2013, p. 100). In other words, student teachers discuss the problem with their peers in order to come up with a solution to the challenge. As indicated in Section 2.2.2, such a liaison refers to the act of reflective teaching.

2.3.3.2 Strategies to overcome the challenges related to classroom management.

A number of studies have indicated that building good teacher-students rapports is a useful tactic to deal with the challenges related to classroom management (Harmer, 1998, p. 130; Crookes, 2003, p. 163). Regarding this, it is pointed out by Crookes (2003) that building good rapports with the students can be done by carrying out the following strategies: (1) showing interest in the students and the progress they make, (2) asking for students‟ feedback on teaching practice, (3) showing proper manners, and (4) knowing student names (Crookes, 2003, p. 163). Through the above-mentioned strategies, teachers can build the knowledge of students, which is one of the goals of field practicum (Pennington, 1990, p. 150; see Section 2.2.2).

With regard to above-mentioned strategies, there are five basic principles which teachers need to consider in dealing with disruptive behavior. The principles, as suggested by Armstrong & Savage (1990), are as follows: (1) respecting students‟ identities, meaning that teachers need to address the misbehavior and not to address the disruptive students; (2) using private correction instead of public correction, which refer to communicating with disruptive students in person; (3) figuring out the cause of such disruptive behavior, meaning that teachers need to find the root of misbehavior; (4) establishing confident and fair punishing, meaning that teachers need to give the extent to which a particular action is considered as misconduct; and (5) helping students to recognize the consequences of their misconduct, referring to the suggestion that teachers should give rewards for good behavior (Armstrong & Savage, 1990, p. 166-68).

Moreover, it is also acknowledged that designing an engaging instruction may lead to good classroom management. One case in designing an engaging lesson is that of Numrich‟s instance in which a novice teacher who realized that she did not create many engaging classroom activities found that interacting with students outside of class made her discover students‟ needs and therefore use this

knowledge to deal with problems related to classroom management (Numrich, 1996, p. 141).

Furthermore, there is one other strategy which can be used to deal with classroom management problems, that is by improving verbal and nonverbal communication. As indicated in Section 2.3.1.2 classroom management covers the aspect of teachers‟ voices and body language, it is therefore worth pointing out that student teachers need to improve both verbal and nonverbal communication. That is, student teachers are required to use clear voice which is “one of the first requirements of good teaching” (Brown, 2000, p. 194) and to show proper body languages, such as using appropriate gestures, which is a sign of helping students learn better (Brown, 2000, p. 195). In addition, it is pinpointed by Brown (2000) that poise i.e. being calm and controlled may help beginning teachers in dealing with problems related to classroom management, particularly the unexpected problems (Brown, 2000, p. 196). All above-mentioned strategies are in line with Brookfield‟s view that pre-service teachers need to have strong personal qualities (Brookfield, 1990, as cited in Crookes, 2003, p. 166).

2.3.3.3 Strategies to overcome the challenges related to communication breakdown.

There has been little literature pertinent to strategies used by student teachers in coping with miscommunication which happen in field practicum. However, when such miscommunication happens, student teachers will turn to fellow student teachers for advices on how to solve the communication problem (Gan, 2013, p. 100). In other words, student teachers communicate the miscommunication with their peers and together they come up with a solution to the problem.

Despite the small amount of literature regarding strategies employed to overcome the challenges, it is implied that the student teachers have progressed into becoming good ESL/EFL teachers. This is evidenced by their needs to

improve themselves and their willingness to show more endeavors when it comes to dealing with different students‟ needs and diverse teaching contexts (Allen, 1990, in Brown, 2004, p. 429).

2.4 Findings from Previous Studies

Several narrative-approach and survey-based studies have addressed pre-service teachers‟ challenges when conducting field practicum. One prominent study is that of Numrich‟s which explored insights on novice ESL teachers during teaching practicum. Using narrative inquiry method to collect the data, Numrich identified student teachers‟ unsuccessful attempts to evaluate materials, to manage time, balance teacher-centered activities with student-centered activities, to address students‟ needs are among aspects contributing to student teachers‟ challenges in the field practicum (Numrich, 1996, p. 131-153). In relation to this, a study of Çelik whose aim was to examine concerns and stress of pre-service EFL teachers regarding field-based experience in Turkey found out that personal concerns, such as difficulties to balance the practicum and personal commitments, concerns that they might fail the practicum, among others, played the major role in causing anxiety for student teachers during field practicum whereas evaluation-based concerns, for instance being observed by supervisor insufficiently, took the minor role. The study, further, claimed that the concerns and stress experienced during field practicum were in the medium level, meaning that they can result in ineffective teaching practice (Çelik, 2008, p. 100-06). Furthermore, the study realized that as the items of the survey were not geared to dig deeper on the challenges, one may find it difficult to determine the accurate causes of the concerns (Çelik, 2008, p. 105).

In addition to the aforementioned concerns, other main challenges mostly found in field experience are those of regarding limited English skills and big number of students in a classroom (Phairee, Sanitchon, Suphanangthong, Graham, Prompruang, De Groot, & Hopkin, 2008, p. 657). These cases were the findings

of a study conducted by Phairee, et.al, to investigate teaching practicums done by seven pre-service teachers in three settings in Thailand (Phairee, et.al, p. 656).

It is also important to note that when ESL student teachers carry out field practicum overseas, challenges experienced can revolve around lack of communications between partnership universities and placement schools, lack of supports from cooperating teachers and different boundaries of cultures (Yang, 2011, p. 99-100). Furthermore, a study of Viafara which examined pre-service teachers‟ challenges of using English in Columbian public school classroom pinpointed that student teachers‟ personal experiences such as being exposed to more Spanish when they took English classes, students‟ perception toward English as being irrelevant to their lives, students‟ fear of being ridiculed when using English were the challenges encountered by pre-service teachers in the study (Viafara, 2011, p. 62). Another main issue found in Viafara‟s study was low-controlled classroom (Viafara, 2011, p. 63). Likewise, a study conducted by Gan to find out non-native pre-service ESL teachers‟ challenges when taking field practicum in Hong Kong, identified difficulties to implement pedagogical practice major issue and language barriers e.g. lack of English skills, are the major issues experienced by the pre-service teachers (Gan, 2013, p. 98-99; p.101). In addition, interestingly, low-controlled classroom management also played a significant role in the last mentioned setting (Gan, 2013, p. 99-101).

2.5 Concluding Remark

This chapter has covered theoretical frameworks underlying the current study. It has been discussed that there have been quite a few studies that have addressed challenges posed in field practicum; each was threaded to its particular method and context i.e. the setting of the research. Among the few numbers, one can find that most of the studies essentially described the challenges encountered, both description of the challenges and causes of the challenges. However, little has been done to put forward the actual strategies employed to triumph over the

challenges. Thus, this is relevant to the one objective of the present study which is to explore pre-service EFL teachers‟ strategies in handling the challenges.

The forthcoming chapters will present the design of the study and relay the findings of the current study.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes detailed research methodology engaged in the study. The chapter, generally, recalls the problem the current study is trying to be involved with as well as speaks of thorough justification on research methodology in the study.

3.1 Research Questions

This part presents questions for which the current study sought to investigate. The questions are, as follows:

1. What challenges do pre-service teachers experience during the field practicum?

2. What might contribute to the challenges experienced during field practicum?

3. How do pre-service teachers overcome the challenges experienced during field practicum?

3.2 Research Design

The study’s aims to identify the aforementioned phenomena had led the

study to adopt an exploratory design. Exploratory design was preferred due to its

nature which is to research ―the target problem or phenomenon because it has

been not studied in detail before (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 308). In addition, the intention for designing exploratory study was for the reason that little has been done to investigate and understand the central issue raised in the current study (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 459).

Furthermore, the current study preferred qualitative methodology for the big picture of the research. This is owing to the fact that qualitative research is

suitable to ―investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials‖ (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 426). It is also due to its nature of

openness to work with subjective data (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 38). In addition, qualitative research was favored as the current study meets the characteristics of qualitative studies, i.e., using natural settings, investigating perspectives of

participants’ experiences, taking into account the subjective integrated in the data, using inductive data analysis, being reflexive (Hatch, 2002, p. 7-10). It is also important to note that bearing in mind the objective of the study which is to obtain in-depth insight on the phenomena, and therefore not to make a generalization of the results that the study was guided by qualitative method (Creswell, 2012, p. 206; Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 436-37).

Considering the scope of the study which was to investigate the phenomena from pre-service teachers’ perspectives (see Chapter 1, Section 1.5), the study was therefore devised to make use of phenomenological approach. The

approach can help researchers to identify research subjects’ perspectives and their

meaning (Lester 1999, p. 1, Guest, MacQueen, & Namey, 2011, p. 13; see also Merriam, 1998, Patton, 2002, in Gan, 2013, p. 97). In addition, it helps

researchers to ―gain some insight into the world of his or her participants and to describe their perceptions and reactions‖ (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 432).

3.3 Data Collection

There are two sections elaborated in this part. The first section addresses sampling techniques employed and brief description of participants in the study. The second section revolves around technique used to collect the data.

3.3.1 Sample.

The research attempted to delve teaching experience of pre-service EFL

teachers. In relation to the study’s objectives, the research employed purposive

sampling as the method for selecting participants. That is to say, the purposive sampling was endorsed as it can best address the issues investigated, which is the participants were selected owing to the fact that they experienced difficulties when conducting field practicum (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 100; Crewsell, 2012, p. 206). Specifically, the study preferred typical sample as sampling technique, meaning that the selected participants were eligible for the study because they can represent the subject being researched (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 436; Creswell, 2012, p. 208). In addition to sampling descriptions above, the selection of participants in this study was also affected by the nature of qualitative research that is to investigate a particular phenomenon (pre-service teachers’ challenges) in a particular setting e.g. field practicum (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 126; Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 437).

It has been indicated above that the sampling strategy used in the current study was purposive sampling. This was carried out by selecting participant candidates. The eligible candidates refer to pre-service teachers of a Bachelor of Education degree program who have done field practicum. Of 100 eligible candidates, six participants were selected as initial sample size in accordance with

Dörnyei’s suggestion that six participants may be enough as initial samples for an interview study (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 127; see Section 3.3.2 for elaboration on interview study). Therefore, six participants were chosen to contribute in the study. The selection of six participants was based on the fact that all six participants encountered problems in field practicum and all participants wanted to voluntary take part in the study.

The initial samples of six participants were then asked to participate in the study and the data were gathered from the participants. After gathering the data from all six participants, it was found out that the sample size of six participants

had reached saturation, meaning that the data gathered from six participants were sufficient to answer the research questions presented in Section 3.1 and therefore there was no need to add more participants (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 127).

Consequently, the participants in this study were six pre-service teachers majoring in English language teaching. They were enrolled in a Sarjana Pendidikan (Bachelor of Education) degree program, a four-year program, in an Indonesia education university. To finalize their studies, in the eighth semester, they needed to take a field practicum lasting about four months. All participants carried out the practicum in secondary schools: two conducted the practicum in middle school (SMP), four carried out the practicum in high school (SMA and SMK). The intention to choose pre-service teachers as participants was in line with the scope of the study that is to explore the challenges posed in field practicum using pre-service teachers’ perspective.

After selecting the candidate participants, assent was asked to each participant to willingly take part in the current study (Seidman, 2006, p. 65).

3.3.2 Instrument.

In-depth interviews were solely employed to obtain the data in the current

study. The technique was used since it can find out one’s thoughts and feeling

about something (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 451). In addition, it concentrates to ―elicit information in order to achieve a holistic understanding of

the interviewee’s point of view or situation; it can also be used to explore interesting areas for further investigation‖ (Berry, 1999,

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000001172.htm).

The in-depth interviews were conducted in the form of semi-structured one-on-one interview. The semi-structured interviews were conducted in a quite formal setting –in a place of participants’ preference and comprised of a series of questions expedient for comparing and contrasting (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun,

2012, p. 451), which is in accordance with the data analysis of the current study. The interview with each participant was carried out on more than one occasion once the data had yet to reflect the accuracy or had yet to provide the expected information. Follow-up interviews were conducted by means of interviewing participants in person. The interviews were conducted for 40-80 minutes. The amount of time allocated for each interview was in relation with the fact that the current study aimed to scrutinize in-depth meaning of pre-service teachers’ challenges in field practicum. This suggests extensive, lengthy interviews were a common feature of qualitative research as they help interviewers to gain in-depth data (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 134-36).

Inquiries on the interview were adapted from previous relevant studies in order to record accurate data (Stenson, 2004, p. 64). As the form of the interviews was semi-structured which enables the interviewer to ―[provide] guidance and

direction‖ while ―[letting] the interviewee elaborate on certain issues (Dörnyei,

2007, p. 136), a rigid guideline needed to be composed. There were four open-ended questions provided in the guideline: how pre-service teachers perceive field practicum, what challenges they experience during field practicum, why they experience such challenges, and how they overcome the challenges. These four main questions would then lead the direction of the interviews and therefore would not limit the freedom of the interviewees to elaborate particular topics (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 136; Creswell, 2012, p. 218). That is, the exact number of questions for each semi-structured interview might vary in accordance with the

―breadth of the respondents’ story‖ (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 136).

The type of the questions was open-ended, which is in accordance with the nature of qualitative research to find experiences of the participants (Creswell, 2012, p. 218). The questions on the interviews were based on the theoretical frameworks covered in Chapter 2, Section 2.3.1 to Section 2.3.3.

The interviews employed probing techniques such as contradicting i.e.

pretending to be puzzled, among others to gather accurate data (Berry, 1999, http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000001172.htm).

Each interview was audio-taped after the participants have granted approval to record the interview (Tuckman, 1972, as cited in Berry, 1999, http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000001172.htm). Five interviews were conducted in English whilst one interview was carried out in Indonesian (Bahasa

Indonesia), which was based on the interviewee’ request that she was somewhat

insecure about her English proficiency that she might not express fully her comments on the phenomenon should the interview was conducted in English. All the English interviews were later transcribed verbatim while the interview using Indonesian was transcribed verbatim first and translated to English afterwards. During transcribing the interviews and later on analyzing the transcripts, the

participants’ names were referred to as Dwi, Aila, Edi, Dian, Ario and Satria in

order to preserve anonymity (Orb, Eisenhauer & Wynaden, 2000, p. 95). Furthermore, the transcripts were handed to the participants, in person or through electronic mail, so that the transcripts reflected the accuracy of the data gathered (Stenson, 2004, p. 68).

In-depth interviews were solely employed as the study was geared to follow the tradition of phenomenological research in which most, if not many, phenomenological researchers lean toward to the exclusive use of interview (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 104; Englander, 2012, p. 14; Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 432). That is, qualitative interview is customarily used as sole technique in a phenomenological research. Furthermore, interviews provide the current study with subjective lived experience, which is the heart of phenomenological researches (Lester, 1999, p.1; van Manen, 2007, p. 12; Englander, 2012, p. 15), and the basis of the current study. This refers back to the discussion of scope of the research in Chapter 1, Section 1.4: the current study scrutinized the phenomena of pre-service teachers’ challenges in field practicum from subjective perspectives of pre-service teachers participating in the study.

and thus it seems logical that [phenomenological researchers] would want to get a description of such subjectivity (Englander, 2009, p. 15; see also Lester, 1999, p.1). In addition, as indicated by Marshall and Rossman (2006), interview in

phenomenology research ―rests on the assumption that there is a structure and

essence to shared experiences that can be narrated‖ (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 104).

As employing interview was the sole technique in gathering the data and may be subjected to bias, interviews were conducted with numerous participants.

This suggests individuals’ experiences are contrasted and compared to verify and

to build ―a rich picture of the attitudes, needs, or behavior of those under scrutiny‖

(Shenton, 2004, p. 66).

Although, the present study was endorsed to follow the tradition of phenomenological research, it might be better that data were collected using various techniques such as participant observation, reflection journals, etc. (Lester, 1999, p. 2). This suggests that employing such a method can support the validity of the already-gathered data and thus reduce the possible bias projected in the current study (Creswell, 2012, p. 259-60; p. 536; Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012, p. 458). The recommendation presented here is also outlined in Chapter 5, Section 5.3.

The instrument for gathering the data, which was in-depth interview, was interrelated with data analysis of the study, meaning that data collection

instrument and data analysis were ―[a] part of a single, unified process‖

(Englander, 2012, p. 15). That is, both data collection and data analysis were carried out by means of using the same approach, phenomenological approach.

3.4 Data Analysis

The current research was guided by phenomenological approach. The

reflection on the lived experience of human existence—sober, in the sense that reflecting on experience must be thoughtful, and as much as possible, free from

theoretical, prejudicial and suppositional intoxications‖ (van Manen, 2007, p. 12).

It is also that the emphasis of phenomenological approach that led the study preferred to use the approach, which is to highlight perspectives of subjects and the meanings the perspectives construing (Lester 1999, p. 1, Guest, MacQueen, & Namey, 2011, p. 13; see also Merriam, 1998, Patton, 2002, in Gan, 2013, p. 97).

The data analysis in the present study was carried out by employing a

thematic analysis. The method was employed due to its nature ―which reports experiences, meanings and reality of participants‖ (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 9).

As the name suggests, thematic analysis attempts to discover themes in the data.

The theme refers to ―something important about the data in relation to the

research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning

within the data set‖ (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 10).

After collecting the data through in-depth interviews and transcribing the interviews, all interview questions were then categorized (Emilia, 2005, p. 84; Creswell, 2012, p. 473); the category of interview questions can be found in Appendix B. This step was followed by developing a thematic analysis (Kvale, 1996; Merriam, 1998 in Emilia, 2005). This was carried out by generating themes

from participants’ comments; the themes generated were based on the theory

presented in Chapter 2, Section 2.3. Then, the themes were condensed (Emilia, 2005, p. 84), meaning that the participants’ comments were simplified. This can be found in Appendix B.

3.5 Concluding Remark

This chapter has described research methodology employed in the current study, begins with statement of problems, research design, data collection and ends with data analysis. The following chapter will provide ample description of the findings and the discussions of the data gathered.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents ample description of the data collected and discusses sound interpretation of the data gathered. The data is relayed in accordance with the stated research questions and thus, construed in parallel with the underlying theoretical frameworks.

As pointed out in Chapter 3, the instrument employed in gathering the data was one-on-one in-depth interview with six student teachers. Five interviews were conducted in English and one interview was carried out in Indonesian in

accordance with the interviewee’s request. The five interviews were transcribed

verbatim whilst the other interview was translated to English first and transcribed verbatim afterward. The transcriptions were handed to each interviewee as a means of checking the trustworthiness of the instrument (Stenson, 2004, p. 68). The data were then scrutinized using thematic analysis.

It has been identified in Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2 that the present study was devised to follow the tradition of phenomenological research, which commonly uses sole in-depth interviews, and therefore, this study might have issues in terms of research validity. That is, the data presented in this chapter might spring from subjective perspectives of each participant.

With regard to the aims of the study which were to answer what challenges student teachers encountered in field practicum, why the student teachers encountered such difficulties, and how the student teachers dealt with the challenges, this section presents the answers to the research questions.

Category 5.2 Students‟ Poor Rapports with One Another

Dwi

-Aila

-Edi

-Dian When they were asked to work with another student, they would

say, “Ma‟am, I don‟t want to be paired with him”.

Ario

-Satria There were several students who always wanted to work with

their best friends and sometimes they felt uncomfortable to work with some particular students.

Category 5.3 Institutional Act

Dwi I had to teach under, what is under…under, yeah, low achievers I

mean. Low achiever students.

Okay, actually in the group, there was always at least one talented student in English.

Yes, you know, at the beginning of the class, I found some students were very good at English.

Aila Their English was not the same. Some of them were good enough

and some of them were poor. I just had to adapt to communicating, like if I spoke too slow many students would protest. I had a really smart student in English. I can say that he

was troubled but… you know, like the other ones were right here

and he was so smart about here (demonstrating students‟ diverse

English skills using hands).

Edi I think the tenth grade had so many outstanding students. They were able to catch my lesson easily; of course there were also some students who are low achievers.

Dian The high achiever students‟ English were very good but there

were some students who had really poor English.

Ario There was this class that consisted of many, many high achievers

in English, almost half of the students. They were very interested in learning English. And for the other class, the class was very noisy because the school teachers said that the class was „special‟ because some of the students came from low grade elementary schools. So, it was hard for me to deliver the materials and it was hard for them to understand the materials.

Satria I mean, this major had lots of, we can say, smart students and the

other one had more less smart students. So, when I taught in one class, you know, it was very easy to communicate with them, it was very easy to deliver the materials, it was very easy to do

activities with them. But for the other class, sometimes it got a little more difficult because, you know, the abilities of the students were different.

Category 5.4 Psychological Anxiety

Dwi

-Aila

-Edi And then, I couldn‟t give strict rules to the students. Maybe I

hadn‟t had enough boldness.

Dian Uh, if only I was stricter the students might show discipline-behaviors.

Ario

-Satria

-Category 5.5 Knowledge Barrier

Dwi Another weakness is my vocabulary. Some of the students asked

me, “What is the English of this…?” Sometimes, I didn‟t know the vocabulary.

Aila

-Edi

-Dian

-Ario I always tried to give examples, but not all of…, maybe, their questions couldn‟t be answered by me.

Satria

-Central Theme 6: Causes of the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown

Dwi [She didn‟t give much…] …meaningful advice for me.

Aila -

Edi

-Dian She infrequently gave comments on the content of the lesson.

Ario

-Satria They asked us to do some works that we were really not supposed

to do like, I don‟t know, after the final test, they asked us to help

Central Theme 7: Strategy to Overcome the Challenges Related to Lesson Preparation

Dwi I just tried to discuss it with my fellow student teachers. I asked their suggestion, their advice.

Aila And I also asked my mentor.

Edi Um, there was no special resolution but I tried to consult to my mentor teacher and then, just like that. And actually the two classes of eleventh grade were taught by another pre-service teacher and I also asked some help from him.

Dian

-Ario

-Satria And, you know, sometimes I consulted with my mentor teacher and she gave encouragement on how to solve that so I consulted with my mentor teacher, my fellow student teachers from the

same major, even from the different major. That‟s I think was

how I coped with those.

Central Theme 8: Strategy to Overcome the Challenges Related to Classroom Management

Category 8.1 Establishing Good Rapports with the Learners

Dwi I always gave the same attention to each of the students. So I knew all of the students‟ names. So, when they lost focus I asked

their name, “Hey, be serious please”, like that.

Maybe, I had close relationship with them they would feel sorry for me.

Aila I don‟t know, maybe I could be close with the students.

We‟d got chemistry, you know –chemistry. I liked them and

maybe the liked me too. So when you like each other it will be easier for you to deliver the material.

Edi

-Dian

-Ario First, I should know the very disobedient students. I should know

the names. When he or she disturbed the others I always approached them, I asked him or her something. And I also tried to always move around the classroom. And of course, saying something with loud voice.

Satria So, basically I had a good relationship with the students so, sometimes, and even after months I finished doing the field practicum, some tried to communicate with me, asked about the materials, they wanted to ask something about English, or asked

about anything else. So, basically, I had built a good relationship with the students.

Category 8.2 Creating Engaging Instructions

Dwi First one, I gave or I presented a picture in front of the class. The

picture was definitely interesting for them, for their world and they gave response. And after that, I gave song, song lyrics. There were some missing lyrics there. It was just for …

Yes, after listening to the music, I gave some difficult vocabularies. After that, I asked them to memorize the vocabularies, how to pronounce it, what is the meaning of the vocabularies. And after that, I proceeded to the next stage, listening to a dialogue.

Aila Well, I was told to use context in teaching material, for example,

well I actually taught in a vocational school so that the materials were mostly the expressions or making the letter so that the context that I provided to them was like, uh, making a role play that they might face in their future job.

I remember the material for reading was itinerary.

Edi Uh, ok, in my teaching practice, actually, I applied so many direct

teaching, lecture-like teaching. So, for me, maybe if I took myself to the students‟ point of view maybe they would get bored. I knew that. So, I only tried to make something that was not boring but that was repeated in the next day.

Dian They seemed to enjoy materials related to real life, for example, when I taught procedure text. I taught how to make powdered drink mixes. It was kind of experiment in front of the class.

Um, since they seemed to enjoy playing games, I think at the beginning of a lesson it would be better to have games. Then, we would discuss something and do evaluation for the confirmation section.

For teaching speaking, I usually employed chain-question based on the topic that we were going to cover. If we were not going to play a game, I would show something such as what we were going to do.

They were asked to listen to a song. This was exiting for them. After that, the filled the blank from the song or they were asked to listen to dialogues.

other activities which triggered students to move and I also asked them to deliver a speech and tried to, uh, interact with each other like having discussion. So, my explanations of the material but the activities such as discussion were widely-conducted.

Other strategy, uh, I made some groups and I asked them to do something, for example in teaching procedure text I asked the students to make something and practice it. Almost every meeting I asked the students to come forward to read a text or perform the materials, for example in teaching speaking, like introducing oneself. In every meeting there was always performance from the students.

Satria In learning English, they liked games very much and the activities

that enabled them to move around, kinesthetic, right? So, sometimes I provided some games and sometimes the games needed the students to move around. I mean, they were needed to go to the front of the class or they were needed to go to students on the other side so I think that was because they were still teenagers and they were enthusiastic so we need to make them motivated for something like fun things. Sometimes we just played role-play in the classroom and actually the students, what is it, liked it very much.

Category 8.3 Building Individual Qualities

Dwi I always made sure that the students could pay attention to me because my voice is high.

Aila My voice was not really loud. My expression was kind of flat.

My gestures and my facial expression were flat. My supervisor said that I should show more passion in teaching.

Edi

-Dian I don‟t think so (my voice was clear).

Ario And of course, saying something with loud voice.

Satria So, yes, they said that I had a clear and loud voice so the students at the back row could hear and they could get along in the learning process. And I could manage them quite well and I didn‟t get panic easily, you know, when, for example some unexpected moments came up I didn‟t get very panic, “What should I do?” but I could adapt with the conditions. I think those are, I can consider, my strengths.

Central Theme 9: Strategy to Overcome the Challenges Related to Communication Breakdown

Dwi I just tried to discuss it with my fellow student teachers. I asked their suggestion, their advice.

Aila

-Edi

-Dian

-Ario