victims of terrorism michael oconnel
Victims of Terrorism
Michael O’Connell
Commissioner for Victims’ Rights
TIVI & University of Indonesia
July 2011
• Carbombing – suicide bombing – abduction –
smuggling – hostage taking – kidnapping homicide – mass violence – hijacking – money
laundering
(UNODC 2009)
• Terrorism as a crime – from a victimological point
of view
• What is terrorism – beyond the horrific images
that are portrayed by the media and the
doomsday prophesies?
• The meaning attributed in law to terrorism is
crucial to establishing (and limiting) which acts or
omissions are criminal victimisation but not so
important in the context of victimisation.
'One person's terrorist is another person's
freedom fighter'
'...terror is often at its bloodiest when used
by dictatorial governments against their
own citizens.'
The first terrorism in
Europe:
•
•
•
French revolution of 1789.
Governments in Paris tried to
impose their radical new order
on a reluctant citizenry, largely
by violence.
Académie Française in 1798,
used the word to describe the
'system or rule of terror'.
• During the 19th century terrorism began to be associated,
(as it is today) with non-governmental groups.
• “Through-out the post-World War II era, terrorism was
strategic warfare on the cheap.” (Hamm 2007, p 2)
• In the late 1980s a study identified a total of 109 different
definitions.
• Today, there would be more definitions.
• In September 1970, Palestinian
terrorists hijacked several large
aircraft and blew them up on the
ground in Jordan but let the
passengers free.
Was this terrorism?
• In September 1972, eleven
Israelis were murdered in a
Palestinian attack on Israeli
athletes at the Olympic Games at
Munich.
Was this terrorism?
July 11, 06
February 19, 07
July 26, 08
Mumbai
Train for Pakistan
Ahmedabad
180 killed
66 killed
45 killed
• Domestic violence – “India has
often blamed terrorist attacks on
foreign groups. But deadly
bombings in a city known for
religious discord have rasied the
specter of a threat closer to
home.” (Thottam 2008, p32)
Can terrorism be ‘home-grown’?
• Across our world, since
September 11, 2001 the term
“terrorism” has become a focus
for debate in legal and political
circles.
• There are legal, political, social,
cultural and economic
consequences of describing
someone as a terrorist, or an
action or omission as terrorism.
DEFINING TERRORISM
• A specific approach to defining terrorism might be to
focus on the actual act or omission, or modus operandi.
Hijacking and taking hostages, for example, are widely accepted as
terrorist acts.
International Convention against the Taking of Hostages and the
International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist
Bombings.
DEFINING TERRORISM
• A general approach would describe terrorism by
reference to certain criteria such as intention, motivation,
and so on.
DEFINING TERRORISM
An International Definition - UN General Assembly
• During 1960s attempted to formulate an internationally
acceptable definition of terrorism.
Many members were reluctant to outlaw terrorism unless
international community agreed to address the 'causes of
terrorism‘.
Other members argued that to do so, suggested that terrorism was
a response to genuine grievances, which implied that it was
justified.
• Between 1963 – 1999, twelve international conventions
were endorsed that address particular terrorist acts, such
as aircraft hijacking and diplomatic hostage-taking.
DEFINING TERRORISM
UN General Assembly
• In the 1990s, UNs’ Legal Committee promulgated a
definition:
Reiterates that criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a
state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or
particular persons for political purposes are in any
circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or
other nature that may be used to justify them.
[http://www.un.org/terrorism/]
Terrorism as defined in the
United States
“An activity that involves a violent
act or an act of dangerousness to
human life that is in violation of
the criminal laws of the United
States, or of any State…and that
appears to be intended to
intimidate or coerce a civilian
population…..or to influence the
policy of government by
assassination or kidnapping.”
[18 U.S.C. 3077]
Australian definition of terrorism:
Violence intended to further a “political, religious or ideological
cause” through intimidation
AND
Specific examples, for instance tampering with electronic
systems.
TERRORISM AS MASS VIOLENCE
An intentional violent criminal
act, that results in –
physical
emotional or
psychological injury
to a sufficiently large number of
people as to significantly
increase the burden of victim
assistance for the responding
jurisdiction.
Adapted from Centre for Mental Health Services (2004)
TERRORISM
“… Political, sociological and criminological accounts exist
… majority of [literature] examines the causes of terrorism within a psychological framework.” (Arena
& Arrigon 2006, p3)
Who should be at the centre of our research?
THE VICTIM
VICTIMOLOGY
• What have we learnt about:
Role of theory?
Effects of a traumatic event or incident?
• How can we use what we have learnt to
improve our understanding of terrorism
from a victim’s point of view?
SOURCES OF VICTIMISATION
Human-Caused v Natural Disasters
• Cause
• Appraisal of Event
• Psychological Impact
• Subjective Experience
• Worldview / Basic Assumptions
• Stigmatisation of Victims
• Media
• Secondary Injury
WHO IS A VICTIM?
Who is affect by terrorism?
A VICTIM’S HORROR
“I had a feeling that I have never had before and I thought
something was wrong with me … A shock went through my
body … then the electricity went off and then there was an
explosion … The first thing Jase said was ‘Oh, I can’t see!’
because the flames had shut his eyes and his eyelashes
were welded together. The he said, ‘Help me, I’m on fire.’
(Mick Martyn, in Lindsay 2003)
A FATHER’S DECENT INTO HELL
“I’ve not slept for 70 hours or more, walking, watching,
waiting, praying for the end of this nightmare from which, at
some stage, I must awake. But the reality is beginning to
set in and I know only too well that at least in this life I shall
never speak openly with my son. Never again shall I laugh
with him, drink with him, discuss his future or watch him take
to the field.” (Brian Deegan 2004)
The STOCKHOLM SYNDROME &
the HIJACK SYNDROME
•
Both phenomena occur when a victim denies the
danger he or she is in and forms a positive bond with
the captors or hijackers.
•
Four factors promote the Stockholm Syndrome:
The intensity of the experience,
Its duration,
The dependence of the victim on the captor for survival, and
The distance of the victim psychologically from authority
(Ochberg 1978; see also Fitzpatrick 2009).
•
Hijack Syndrome likewise is promoted by the nature of
the experience and its duration, as well as either a
victim’s gratitude towards the hijackers for not resorting
to violence against him or her, a victim’s sense of
adventure and personal publicity, or a victim’s
identification with the hijacker and/or the hijacker’s
cause (Time 1976; Fattah 1991).
VICTIMS’ RIGHTS
Rights of victims of terrorism
•
International human rights
Equal and effective access to justice
Appropriate remedies
Provision for reparation
For example • Covenant on Civil & Political Rights (eg Article 2)
• Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime & Abuse of
Power (General Assembly resolution 40/34)
• Basic Principles & Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for
Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious
Violations (General Assembly resolution 60/147)
• Set of Principles for the Protection & Promotion of Human Rights through
Action to Combat Impunity (E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1)
• Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (eg Articles 24 & 25)
• Convention against Corruption (eg Article 32)
VICTIMS’ RIGHTS
Rights of victims of terrorism
•
Responding to the needs of victims of
terrorism:
Inform them of their role & responsibilities in the
criminal justice process; progress of the
investigation & prosecution.
Allow their views and concerns to be presented &
considered at appropriate stages in criminal
proceedings.
Provide assistance to them throughout the criminal
justice process.
Minimise inconvenience to them, protect their
privacy & take steps to maintain their safety.
Avoid unnecessary delay in criminal proceedings &
in executing court or other orders grant in their
favour.
Offer them material, medical, psychological and
social assistance.
Offer them restitution and compensation
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Psycho-social Coping
• General theory for understanding all types of
victimisation and facilitating recovery
Adaptively?
Maladaptively?
(Dussich 2010)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Factors that affect Risk and Resiliency
•
•
•
•
Psychological
Capacity to tolerate stress
Prior trauma history
Socioeconomic and educational
level
• Family stability
• Social support
• Female gender
EFFECTS OF A CRIME
Traumatic Exposure
•
•
•
•
•
•
Threat to life
Severe physical harm or injury
Intentional harm or injury
Exposure to the grotesque
Violent or sudden death of a loved one
Witnessing or learning of violence to a
love one
(Green, 1993)
EFFECTS OF A CRIME - Traumatic Exposure
Physical
Thinking/cognitive
Behavioural
Emotional
nausea
slowed thinking
easily startled
anxiety
appetite change
disorientation
jumpiness
grief
hot / cold sensations
distressing dreams
crying / tearful
anger
dizziness
intrusive images
hyper-vigilance
numbness
rapid breathing
poor concentration
avoidance
depression
body/muscle aches
difficult problem-solving
isolation
irritability
upset stomach
confusion
social withdrawal
guilt
profuse sweating
memory problems
family conflict
sadness
headaches
recurring nightmares
fear
rapid/irregular
heartbeat
reliving the event
feeling
lost/overwhelmed
hyper-arousal
disturbed thinking
feeling isolated
sleep disturbances
blaming someone
desire to withdraw/hide
shock symptoms
query spiritual beliefs
agitation
VICTIM ASSISTANCE
Crisis Response
• Physical & mental health
consultation / treatment
• Liaison with key agencies
• Psycho-education through media
• Health & welfare services for
survivors, families etc
• Health & welfare services for
responders
VICTIM ASSISTANCE
Key Concepts
• Normal reactions to an
abnormal situation
• Avoid “mental health”
terms and labels
• Assume competence and
capability
• All who witness are
affected
• Respect differences in
coping
• First, do no harm
• Assistance is practical
and flexible
• Focus on strengths
and potential
• Encourage use of
support network
• Tailor for active,
community fit
• Be innovative in
helping
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
On-Scene Interventions
• Direct to medical care, safety;
shelter
• Protect from trauma, media,
onlookers
• Connect to family, information,
comfort
(Myers and Wee, 2003)
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Aims of Psychological First-Aid
• Provide comfort, empathy, an “ear:
• Address physical needs
• Provide concrete information
about what will happen next
• Link to support systems
• Reinforce coping strengths
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Immediate Interventions
• Rapid assessment and
triage
• Psychological first-aid
• Crisis intervention
• Crime victim
assistance
• Psycho-education
• Informational briefings
• Community outreach
• Participation in death
notifications
• Mental health
consultation
• Debriefing and
community meetings
• Information and
referral
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERROSISM
Key Objectives
• Promote safety and security
• Gently explore trauma experience
• Identify priority needs and
solutions
• Assess functioning and coping
• Provide: Reassurance
Psycho-education
Practical assistance
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Long-Term Interventions
• Community outreach
• Counselling & therapeutic
interventions
• Victim support
• Assistance for Victims of Crime
• Psycho-education & awareness
raising
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Community Outreach
• Initiate contact at gathering sites
• Set up 24-hour telephone hotlines
• Outreach to survivors through
media, Internet
• Educate service providers
• Use bilingual and bicultural
workers
(Office for Victims of Crime 2006)
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Primary Functions
• Protect victims’ rights
• Ensure control over media
contacts
• Provide criminal justice
information
• Facilitate access to compensation
• Prevent / reduce secondary
victimisation
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Tasks for Psychological Recovery
• Regain a sense of safety and security
• Gain understanding of child’s unique experience
of the trauma
• Gain understanding of actual events that have
occurred
• Identify and express reactions and emotions
• Grieve and cope with traumatic stress
• Resume age-appropriate roles and activities
(Pynoos and Nader, 1993;
Vernberg and Vogel, 1993)
VICTIM ASSISTANCE - AN IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATION
Cultural Competence
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Recognise the importance of culture and respect diversity
Maintain a current profile of the cultural composition of the
community
Recruit disaster workers who are representative of the
community or service area
Provide ongoing cultural competence training to disaster
mental health staff
Ensure that services are accessible, appropriate, and
equitable
Recognise the role of help-seeking behaviours, customs and
traditions, and natural support networks
Involve as “cultural brokers” community leaders and
organisations representing diverse cultural groups
Ensure that services and information are culturally and
linguistically competent
Assess and evaluate the program’s level of cultural
competence
（ Office for Victims of Crime 2000, 2006)
VICTIM ASSISTANCFE - AN IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATION
Basic Cultural Sensitivity
•
•
•
•
Convey respect, good will, courtesy
Ask permission to speak with people
Explain role of mental health worker
Acknowledge differences in behaviour
due to culture
• Respond to concrete needs
(Paniagua, 1998; Young, 1998)
VICTIM ASSISTANCE PROVIDERS
AS VICTIMS
Vicarious Trauma
• Sources of stress:
Exposure to trauma
High-intensity tasks
Environmental factors
Organisational factors
Individual factors
VICTIM ASSISTANCE PROVIDERS AS
VICTIMS
Compassion Fatigue
“ The natural consequent behaviours and
emotions resulting from knowing about
a traumatic event experienced by a
significant other – the stress resulting
from helping or wanting to help a
traumatised or suffering person.”
(Figley, 1995)
VICTIMS OF TERRORISM – CLOSING
COMMENTS
Victims of terrorism suffer physical, emotional,
and mental trauma.
The devastation an act of terrorism can inflict
victim service providers with tasks, including:
facilitating immediate care
counselling
compensation
The victims’ rights and needs should not be
overlooked.
Terima kasi
Selamt siang
VICTIMS OF TERRORISM – Bibliography
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Arena, MP & Arrigo, BA (2006) The Terrorist Identity – Explaining the terrorist threat, New York
University Press, New York, USA.
Centre for Mental Health Services (2004) Mental Health Responses to Mass Violence and
Terrorism, US Department of Health & Human Services, Rockville, MD, USA.
Deegan, B (2004) Remembering Josh – Bali, a father’s story, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, Australia.
Dussich, J (2010) Psycho-social Coping Theory, Asia Post-graduate Course on Victimology,
Victim Assistance & Criminal Justice, TIVI, Tokiwa University, Japan.
Figley, CR (2001) Treating Compassion Fatigue, Brunner Mazel, Philadelphia, USA.
Fitzpatrick, L (2009) A brief history of Stockholm Syndrome, Time
[http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1919757,00.html]
Hamm, MS (2007) Terrorism as Crime – From Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and Beyond, New
York University Press, New York, USA.
Lindsay, P (2003) Back from the Dead – Peter Hughes’ story of survival and hope after Bali,
Random House, Sydney, Australia.
Ochberg, F. (1978) The Victim of Terrorism: Psychiatric Consideration, Terrorism: An International
Journal, 1(2), pp147-167
Office for Victims of Crime (2000) Responding to Terrorism Victims: Oklahoma City and Beyond,
US Department of Justice, Washington, USA.
Office for Victims of Crime (2006) Responding to Victims of Terrorism and Mass Violence Crimes:
Co-ordination and Collaboration Between American Red Cross Workers and Crime Victim
Service Providers, US Department of Justice, Washington, USA.
Thottam, J (2008) ‘Domestic Violence’, Time, August 11, pp32-33.
UNODC (2009) Delivering counter-terrorism assistance, Terrorism Prevention Branch, United
Nations,
United Nations Terrorism [http://www.un.org/terrorism/]
Michael O’Connell
Commissioner for Victims’ Rights
TIVI & University of Indonesia
July 2011
• Carbombing – suicide bombing – abduction –
smuggling – hostage taking – kidnapping homicide – mass violence – hijacking – money
laundering
(UNODC 2009)
• Terrorism as a crime – from a victimological point
of view
• What is terrorism – beyond the horrific images
that are portrayed by the media and the
doomsday prophesies?
• The meaning attributed in law to terrorism is
crucial to establishing (and limiting) which acts or
omissions are criminal victimisation but not so
important in the context of victimisation.
'One person's terrorist is another person's
freedom fighter'
'...terror is often at its bloodiest when used
by dictatorial governments against their
own citizens.'
The first terrorism in
Europe:
•
•
•
French revolution of 1789.
Governments in Paris tried to
impose their radical new order
on a reluctant citizenry, largely
by violence.
Académie Française in 1798,
used the word to describe the
'system or rule of terror'.
• During the 19th century terrorism began to be associated,
(as it is today) with non-governmental groups.
• “Through-out the post-World War II era, terrorism was
strategic warfare on the cheap.” (Hamm 2007, p 2)
• In the late 1980s a study identified a total of 109 different
definitions.
• Today, there would be more definitions.
• In September 1970, Palestinian
terrorists hijacked several large
aircraft and blew them up on the
ground in Jordan but let the
passengers free.
Was this terrorism?
• In September 1972, eleven
Israelis were murdered in a
Palestinian attack on Israeli
athletes at the Olympic Games at
Munich.
Was this terrorism?
July 11, 06
February 19, 07
July 26, 08
Mumbai
Train for Pakistan
Ahmedabad
180 killed
66 killed
45 killed
• Domestic violence – “India has
often blamed terrorist attacks on
foreign groups. But deadly
bombings in a city known for
religious discord have rasied the
specter of a threat closer to
home.” (Thottam 2008, p32)
Can terrorism be ‘home-grown’?
• Across our world, since
September 11, 2001 the term
“terrorism” has become a focus
for debate in legal and political
circles.
• There are legal, political, social,
cultural and economic
consequences of describing
someone as a terrorist, or an
action or omission as terrorism.
DEFINING TERRORISM
• A specific approach to defining terrorism might be to
focus on the actual act or omission, or modus operandi.
Hijacking and taking hostages, for example, are widely accepted as
terrorist acts.
International Convention against the Taking of Hostages and the
International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist
Bombings.
DEFINING TERRORISM
• A general approach would describe terrorism by
reference to certain criteria such as intention, motivation,
and so on.
DEFINING TERRORISM
An International Definition - UN General Assembly
• During 1960s attempted to formulate an internationally
acceptable definition of terrorism.
Many members were reluctant to outlaw terrorism unless
international community agreed to address the 'causes of
terrorism‘.
Other members argued that to do so, suggested that terrorism was
a response to genuine grievances, which implied that it was
justified.
• Between 1963 – 1999, twelve international conventions
were endorsed that address particular terrorist acts, such
as aircraft hijacking and diplomatic hostage-taking.
DEFINING TERRORISM
UN General Assembly
• In the 1990s, UNs’ Legal Committee promulgated a
definition:
Reiterates that criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a
state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or
particular persons for political purposes are in any
circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or
other nature that may be used to justify them.
[http://www.un.org/terrorism/]
Terrorism as defined in the
United States
“An activity that involves a violent
act or an act of dangerousness to
human life that is in violation of
the criminal laws of the United
States, or of any State…and that
appears to be intended to
intimidate or coerce a civilian
population…..or to influence the
policy of government by
assassination or kidnapping.”
[18 U.S.C. 3077]
Australian definition of terrorism:
Violence intended to further a “political, religious or ideological
cause” through intimidation
AND
Specific examples, for instance tampering with electronic
systems.
TERRORISM AS MASS VIOLENCE
An intentional violent criminal
act, that results in –
physical
emotional or
psychological injury
to a sufficiently large number of
people as to significantly
increase the burden of victim
assistance for the responding
jurisdiction.
Adapted from Centre for Mental Health Services (2004)
TERRORISM
“… Political, sociological and criminological accounts exist
… majority of [literature] examines the causes of terrorism within a psychological framework.” (Arena
& Arrigon 2006, p3)
Who should be at the centre of our research?
THE VICTIM
VICTIMOLOGY
• What have we learnt about:
Role of theory?
Effects of a traumatic event or incident?
• How can we use what we have learnt to
improve our understanding of terrorism
from a victim’s point of view?
SOURCES OF VICTIMISATION
Human-Caused v Natural Disasters
• Cause
• Appraisal of Event
• Psychological Impact
• Subjective Experience
• Worldview / Basic Assumptions
• Stigmatisation of Victims
• Media
• Secondary Injury
WHO IS A VICTIM?
Who is affect by terrorism?
A VICTIM’S HORROR
“I had a feeling that I have never had before and I thought
something was wrong with me … A shock went through my
body … then the electricity went off and then there was an
explosion … The first thing Jase said was ‘Oh, I can’t see!’
because the flames had shut his eyes and his eyelashes
were welded together. The he said, ‘Help me, I’m on fire.’
(Mick Martyn, in Lindsay 2003)
A FATHER’S DECENT INTO HELL
“I’ve not slept for 70 hours or more, walking, watching,
waiting, praying for the end of this nightmare from which, at
some stage, I must awake. But the reality is beginning to
set in and I know only too well that at least in this life I shall
never speak openly with my son. Never again shall I laugh
with him, drink with him, discuss his future or watch him take
to the field.” (Brian Deegan 2004)
The STOCKHOLM SYNDROME &
the HIJACK SYNDROME
•
Both phenomena occur when a victim denies the
danger he or she is in and forms a positive bond with
the captors or hijackers.
•
Four factors promote the Stockholm Syndrome:
The intensity of the experience,
Its duration,
The dependence of the victim on the captor for survival, and
The distance of the victim psychologically from authority
(Ochberg 1978; see also Fitzpatrick 2009).
•
Hijack Syndrome likewise is promoted by the nature of
the experience and its duration, as well as either a
victim’s gratitude towards the hijackers for not resorting
to violence against him or her, a victim’s sense of
adventure and personal publicity, or a victim’s
identification with the hijacker and/or the hijacker’s
cause (Time 1976; Fattah 1991).
VICTIMS’ RIGHTS
Rights of victims of terrorism
•
International human rights
Equal and effective access to justice
Appropriate remedies
Provision for reparation
For example • Covenant on Civil & Political Rights (eg Article 2)
• Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime & Abuse of
Power (General Assembly resolution 40/34)
• Basic Principles & Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for
Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious
Violations (General Assembly resolution 60/147)
• Set of Principles for the Protection & Promotion of Human Rights through
Action to Combat Impunity (E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1)
• Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (eg Articles 24 & 25)
• Convention against Corruption (eg Article 32)
VICTIMS’ RIGHTS
Rights of victims of terrorism
•
Responding to the needs of victims of
terrorism:
Inform them of their role & responsibilities in the
criminal justice process; progress of the
investigation & prosecution.
Allow their views and concerns to be presented &
considered at appropriate stages in criminal
proceedings.
Provide assistance to them throughout the criminal
justice process.
Minimise inconvenience to them, protect their
privacy & take steps to maintain their safety.
Avoid unnecessary delay in criminal proceedings &
in executing court or other orders grant in their
favour.
Offer them material, medical, psychological and
social assistance.
Offer them restitution and compensation
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Psycho-social Coping
• General theory for understanding all types of
victimisation and facilitating recovery
Adaptively?
Maladaptively?
(Dussich 2010)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Factors that affect Risk and Resiliency
•
•
•
•
Psychological
Capacity to tolerate stress
Prior trauma history
Socioeconomic and educational
level
• Family stability
• Social support
• Female gender
EFFECTS OF A CRIME
Traumatic Exposure
•
•
•
•
•
•
Threat to life
Severe physical harm or injury
Intentional harm or injury
Exposure to the grotesque
Violent or sudden death of a loved one
Witnessing or learning of violence to a
love one
(Green, 1993)
EFFECTS OF A CRIME - Traumatic Exposure
Physical
Thinking/cognitive
Behavioural
Emotional
nausea
slowed thinking
easily startled
anxiety
appetite change
disorientation
jumpiness
grief
hot / cold sensations
distressing dreams
crying / tearful
anger
dizziness
intrusive images
hyper-vigilance
numbness
rapid breathing
poor concentration
avoidance
depression
body/muscle aches
difficult problem-solving
isolation
irritability
upset stomach
confusion
social withdrawal
guilt
profuse sweating
memory problems
family conflict
sadness
headaches
recurring nightmares
fear
rapid/irregular
heartbeat
reliving the event
feeling
lost/overwhelmed
hyper-arousal
disturbed thinking
feeling isolated
sleep disturbances
blaming someone
desire to withdraw/hide
shock symptoms
query spiritual beliefs
agitation
VICTIM ASSISTANCE
Crisis Response
• Physical & mental health
consultation / treatment
• Liaison with key agencies
• Psycho-education through media
• Health & welfare services for
survivors, families etc
• Health & welfare services for
responders
VICTIM ASSISTANCE
Key Concepts
• Normal reactions to an
abnormal situation
• Avoid “mental health”
terms and labels
• Assume competence and
capability
• All who witness are
affected
• Respect differences in
coping
• First, do no harm
• Assistance is practical
and flexible
• Focus on strengths
and potential
• Encourage use of
support network
• Tailor for active,
community fit
• Be innovative in
helping
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
On-Scene Interventions
• Direct to medical care, safety;
shelter
• Protect from trauma, media,
onlookers
• Connect to family, information,
comfort
(Myers and Wee, 2003)
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Aims of Psychological First-Aid
• Provide comfort, empathy, an “ear:
• Address physical needs
• Provide concrete information
about what will happen next
• Link to support systems
• Reinforce coping strengths
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Immediate Interventions
• Rapid assessment and
triage
• Psychological first-aid
• Crisis intervention
• Crime victim
assistance
• Psycho-education
• Informational briefings
• Community outreach
• Participation in death
notifications
• Mental health
consultation
• Debriefing and
community meetings
• Information and
referral
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERROSISM
Key Objectives
• Promote safety and security
• Gently explore trauma experience
• Identify priority needs and
solutions
• Assess functioning and coping
• Provide: Reassurance
Psycho-education
Practical assistance
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Long-Term Interventions
• Community outreach
• Counselling & therapeutic
interventions
• Victim support
• Assistance for Victims of Crime
• Psycho-education & awareness
raising
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Community Outreach
• Initiate contact at gathering sites
• Set up 24-hour telephone hotlines
• Outreach to survivors through
media, Internet
• Educate service providers
• Use bilingual and bicultural
workers
(Office for Victims of Crime 2006)
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Primary Functions
• Protect victims’ rights
• Ensure control over media
contacts
• Provide criminal justice
information
• Facilitate access to compensation
• Prevent / reduce secondary
victimisation
ASSISTING VICTIMS OF
TERRORISM
Tasks for Psychological Recovery
• Regain a sense of safety and security
• Gain understanding of child’s unique experience
of the trauma
• Gain understanding of actual events that have
occurred
• Identify and express reactions and emotions
• Grieve and cope with traumatic stress
• Resume age-appropriate roles and activities
(Pynoos and Nader, 1993;
Vernberg and Vogel, 1993)
VICTIM ASSISTANCE - AN IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATION
Cultural Competence
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Recognise the importance of culture and respect diversity
Maintain a current profile of the cultural composition of the
community
Recruit disaster workers who are representative of the
community or service area
Provide ongoing cultural competence training to disaster
mental health staff
Ensure that services are accessible, appropriate, and
equitable
Recognise the role of help-seeking behaviours, customs and
traditions, and natural support networks
Involve as “cultural brokers” community leaders and
organisations representing diverse cultural groups
Ensure that services and information are culturally and
linguistically competent
Assess and evaluate the program’s level of cultural
competence
（ Office for Victims of Crime 2000, 2006)
VICTIM ASSISTANCFE - AN IMPORTANT
CONSIDERATION
Basic Cultural Sensitivity
•
•
•
•
Convey respect, good will, courtesy
Ask permission to speak with people
Explain role of mental health worker
Acknowledge differences in behaviour
due to culture
• Respond to concrete needs
(Paniagua, 1998; Young, 1998)
VICTIM ASSISTANCE PROVIDERS
AS VICTIMS
Vicarious Trauma
• Sources of stress:
Exposure to trauma
High-intensity tasks
Environmental factors
Organisational factors
Individual factors
VICTIM ASSISTANCE PROVIDERS AS
VICTIMS
Compassion Fatigue
“ The natural consequent behaviours and
emotions resulting from knowing about
a traumatic event experienced by a
significant other – the stress resulting
from helping or wanting to help a
traumatised or suffering person.”
(Figley, 1995)
VICTIMS OF TERRORISM – CLOSING
COMMENTS
Victims of terrorism suffer physical, emotional,
and mental trauma.
The devastation an act of terrorism can inflict
victim service providers with tasks, including:
facilitating immediate care
counselling
compensation
The victims’ rights and needs should not be
overlooked.
Terima kasi
Selamt siang
VICTIMS OF TERRORISM – Bibliography
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Arena, MP & Arrigo, BA (2006) The Terrorist Identity – Explaining the terrorist threat, New York
University Press, New York, USA.
Centre for Mental Health Services (2004) Mental Health Responses to Mass Violence and
Terrorism, US Department of Health & Human Services, Rockville, MD, USA.
Deegan, B (2004) Remembering Josh – Bali, a father’s story, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, Australia.
Dussich, J (2010) Psycho-social Coping Theory, Asia Post-graduate Course on Victimology,
Victim Assistance & Criminal Justice, TIVI, Tokiwa University, Japan.
Figley, CR (2001) Treating Compassion Fatigue, Brunner Mazel, Philadelphia, USA.
Fitzpatrick, L (2009) A brief history of Stockholm Syndrome, Time
[http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1919757,00.html]
Hamm, MS (2007) Terrorism as Crime – From Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and Beyond, New
York University Press, New York, USA.
Lindsay, P (2003) Back from the Dead – Peter Hughes’ story of survival and hope after Bali,
Random House, Sydney, Australia.
Ochberg, F. (1978) The Victim of Terrorism: Psychiatric Consideration, Terrorism: An International
Journal, 1(2), pp147-167
Office for Victims of Crime (2000) Responding to Terrorism Victims: Oklahoma City and Beyond,
US Department of Justice, Washington, USA.
Office for Victims of Crime (2006) Responding to Victims of Terrorism and Mass Violence Crimes:
Co-ordination and Collaboration Between American Red Cross Workers and Crime Victim
Service Providers, US Department of Justice, Washington, USA.
Thottam, J (2008) ‘Domestic Violence’, Time, August 11, pp32-33.
UNODC (2009) Delivering counter-terrorism assistance, Terrorism Prevention Branch, United
Nations,
United Nations Terrorism [http://www.un.org/terrorism/]