A corpus based analysis of frequency and collocation of the verbs advise and recommend.
PLAGIAT
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TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI
ABSTRACT
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Words that share similar senses of meaning are called synonymous. People
often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The words advise and
recommend are synonymous in meaning. However, these words are not exactly
interchangeable. They can be used in similar and different contexts. The
researcher was interested to study the frequency of occurrences and the
collocations of the verbs advise and recommend. The meaning of those words can
be analysed by looking at their collocations.
There are two research problems formulated in this study. The first one is
1) What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? The second
one is 2) Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and
recommend similar and different? Therefore, the objectives of this study are to
find out the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 - 2012 and to find out the collocation of the verbs advise and
recommend.
To answer the first research problem, the researcher conducted a
quantitative research. For the second research problem, the researcher conducted a
qualitative research. This was a corpus-based study. The data were collected from
COCA using purposive sampling method. The researcher took 100 tokens of each
verb which represents the meanings of advise and recommend to be investigated
deeper. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed the theories
of corpus linguistic and frequency. To solve the second research problem, the
researcher employed the theories of meaning and synonymy. The researcher also
used dictionaries to convey the definition of advise and recommend.
The findings showed that the frequency of occurrences of the verb
recommend was higher than advise. In the percentage, the frequency of
occurrence of advise was 26.63% and recommend was 73.37%. From the analysis,
the researcher discovered that there were some similar collocations of advise and
recommend. The collocations of the verb advise and recommend were nouns,
gerunds, adverbs, infinitives, prepositions, and conjunctions. There were five
similar collocations of the verbs advise and recommend which were that, doctor,
highly, using and against. They both were used to give advice to someone
especially because the person had a special knowledge of the situation. They were
also used to give opinion or something or someone as worthy to be chosen or to
be done. Advise and recommend was also used to offer warnings with regard,
which presented by the word against. Unlike the verb recommend, the verb advise
was used to give someone information or to notice someone about something.
Keywords: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
vii
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ABSTRAK
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Kata-kata yang memiliki kemiripan makna disebut sinonim. Orang-orang
sering memberikan orang lain ide untuk dipertimbangkan ataupun kegiatan untuk
dilakukan. Kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai kemiripan makna.
Dalam penggunaannya, kedua kata kerja sinonim ini tidak dapat dipertukarkan
secara tepat. Mereka dapat digunakan di konteks yang sama maupun berbeda.
Oleh karena itu, peneliti merasa tertarik untuk mempelajari frekuensi kemunculan
dan kolokasi dari kedua kata tersebut. Dengan melihat kemunculan kata dan
kolokasinya, konteks penggunaan dari kata kerja tersebut dapat diketahui.
Ada dua pertanyaan yang akan dirumuskan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama
(1) Apa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise dan recommend di Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? Kedua (2) Berdasarkan
kolokasinya, di konteks apakah kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai
bersama dan berbeda? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengetahui frekuensi kemunculan kata dan kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan
recommend di COCA 2011 – 2012.
Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian
kualitatif berdasarkan studi korpus. Data yang diteliti diambil dari COCA
menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Peneliti mengambil masing-masing
100 contoh kalimat dari kata kerja advise dan recommend yang dapat
merepresentasikan makna kata tersebut untuk diteliti lebih dalam. Untuk
menjawab rumusan masalah yang pertama, peneliti menggunakan teori korpus
linguistik dan frekuensi. Sedangkan untuk rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti
menggunakan teori makna dan sinonim. Peneliti juga menggunakan beberapa
kamus untuk mengungkapkan definisi dari kata advise dan recommend.
Hasil dari pelitian menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata
kerja recommend lebih tinggi daripada advise. Dalam bentuk persentase,
frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise adalah 26.63% dan recommend
adalah 73.37%. Dari analisis tersebut, peneliti menemukan beberapa kesamaan
kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan recommend. Kolokasi kata tersebut dalam
bentuk kata benda, gerunds, kata keterangan, infinitif, kata depan, dan kata
penghubung. Ada lima kesamaan kolokasi yaitu that, doctor, highly, using, dan
against. Kedua kata kerja tersebut digunakan untuk memberikan saran kepada
seseorang terutama karena orang yang memberikan saran mempunyai
pengetahuan lebih terhadap situasi tertentu. Mereka juga digunakan untuk
memberikan opini atau sesuatu atau seseorang yang layak untuk dilakukan atau
dipilih. Mereka juga digunakan untuk menawarkan peringatan yang diwakilkan
dengan kolokasi against. Tidak seperti recommend, advise dapat digunakan untuk
menginformasikan seseorang tentang sesuatu.
Kata kunci: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
viii
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A CORPUS BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY AND COLLOCATION
OF THE VERBS ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Student Number: 101214139
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY
AND COLLOCATION OF THE VERBS
ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Student Number: 101214139
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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“If what’s ahead scares you and
what’s behind hurts you,
just look above, He never fails to
help you.”
This thesis is dedicated to:
Herwan Soewandono,
Mustiola Trikindarti,
and myself.
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 31 July 2015
The writer
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
101214139
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPERLUAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 101214139
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY
AND COLLOCATION OF THE VERBS
ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data,
mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media
lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya atau
memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya,
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 31 Juli 2015
Yang menyatakan
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
vi
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ABSTRACT
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Words that share similar senses of meaning are called synonymous. People
often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The words advise and
recommend are synonymous in meaning. However, these words are not exactly
interchangeable. They can be used in similar and different contexts. The
researcher was interested to study the frequency of occurrences and the
collocations of the verbs advise and recommend. The meaning of those words can
be analysed by looking at their collocations.
There are two research problems formulated in this study. The first one is
1) What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? The second
one is 2) Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and
recommend similar and different? Therefore, the objectives of this study are to
find out the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 - 2012 and to find out the collocation of the verbs advise and
recommend.
To answer the first research problem, the researcher conducted a
quantitative research. For the second research problem, the researcher conducted a
qualitative research. This was a corpus-based study. The data were collected from
COCA using purposive sampling method. The researcher took 100 tokens of each
verb which represents the meanings of advise and recommend to be investigated
deeper. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed the theories
of corpus linguistic and frequency. To solve the second research problem, the
researcher employed the theories of meaning and synonymy. The researcher also
used dictionaries to convey the definition of advise and recommend.
The findings showed that the frequency of occurrences of the verb
recommend was higher than advise. In the percentage, the frequency of
occurrence of advise was 26.63% and recommend was 73.37%. From the analysis,
the researcher discovered that there were some similar collocations of advise and
recommend. The collocations of the verb advise and recommend were nouns,
gerunds, adverbs, infinitives, prepositions, and conjunctions. There were five
similar collocations of the verbs advise and recommend which were that, doctor,
highly, using and against. They both were used to give advice to someone
especially because the person had a special knowledge of the situation. They were
also used to give opinion or something or someone as worthy to be chosen or to
be done. Advise and recommend was also used to offer warnings with regard,
which presented by the word against. Unlike the verb recommend, the verb advise
was used to give someone information or to notice someone about something.
Keywords: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
vii
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ABSTRAK
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Kata-kata yang memiliki kemiripan makna disebut sinonim. Orang-orang
sering memberikan orang lain ide untuk dipertimbangkan ataupun kegiatan untuk
dilakukan. Kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai kemiripan makna.
Dalam penggunaannya, kedua kata kerja sinonim ini tidak dapat dipertukarkan
secara tepat. Mereka dapat digunakan di konteks yang sama maupun berbeda.
Oleh karena itu, peneliti merasa tertarik untuk mempelajari frekuensi kemunculan
dan kolokasi dari kedua kata tersebut. Dengan melihat kemunculan kata dan
kolokasinya, konteks penggunaan dari kata kerja tersebut dapat diketahui.
Ada dua pertanyaan yang akan dirumuskan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama
(1) Apa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise dan recommend di Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? Kedua (2) Berdasarkan
kolokasinya, di konteks apakah kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai
bersama dan berbeda? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengetahui frekuensi kemunculan kata dan kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan
recommend di COCA 2011 – 2012.
Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian
kualitatif berdasarkan studi korpus. Data yang diteliti diambil dari COCA
menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Peneliti mengambil masing-masing
100 contoh kalimat dari kata kerja advise dan recommend yang dapat
merepresentasikan makna kata tersebut untuk diteliti lebih dalam. Untuk
menjawab rumusan masalah yang pertama, peneliti menggunakan teori korpus
linguistik dan frekuensi. Sedangkan untuk rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti
menggunakan teori makna dan sinonim. Peneliti juga menggunakan beberapa
kamus untuk mengungkapkan definisi dari kata advise dan recommend.
Hasil dari pelitian menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata
kerja recommend lebih tinggi daripada advise. Dalam bentuk persentase,
frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise adalah 26.63% dan recommend
adalah 73.37%. Dari analisis tersebut, peneliti menemukan beberapa kesamaan
kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan recommend. Kolokasi kata tersebut dalam
bentuk kata benda, gerunds, kata keterangan, infinitif, kata depan, dan kata
penghubung. Ada lima kesamaan kolokasi yaitu that, doctor, highly, using, dan
against. Kedua kata kerja tersebut digunakan untuk memberikan saran kepada
seseorang terutama karena orang yang memberikan saran mempunyai
pengetahuan lebih terhadap situasi tertentu. Mereka juga digunakan untuk
memberikan opini atau sesuatu atau seseorang yang layak untuk dilakukan atau
dipilih. Mereka juga digunakan untuk menawarkan peringatan yang diwakilkan
dengan kolokasi against. Tidak seperti recommend, advise dapat digunakan untuk
menginformasikan seseorang tentang sesuatu.
Kata kunci: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
viii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank all who in one way or another contributed in the completion of this
thesis. First, I would like to thank Jesus Christ for His blessing that I can finally
finish my thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes to my advisor, Carla Sih Prabandari, S. Pd.,
M. Hum. for her guidance and assistance during the process, spending time to
read, correcting my thesis, and giving attention and suggestion until the final
process of writing this thesis patiently. I specially thank my academic advisor,
Henny Herawati, M.Hum. for her kindness in accompanying my class during
my study. I thank all lecturers of English Language Education Study Program
for teaching along the study in Sanata Dharma University. I would also thank all
secretariat staff of English Language Education Study Program and Faculty
of Teachers Training and Education of Sanata Dharma University and all
librarians for giving me their the best service.
I would like to show my deepest gratitude to my family especially my
parents, Ignatius Herwan Soewandono and Mustiola Trikindarti, who always
give me their love, attention, and time. I thank them for their prayer and financial
support. They are my reason and biggest motivation for finishing my study. I
would also like to mention Antonius Oldi Bagas for being a great brother.
I take this opportunity to express my appreciation to all of PBI students.
I thank PBI 2010, especially Class C. I thank them for supporting me with the
great friendship and togetherness. I would like to sincerely express my gratitude
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to Diah Dwi Pratiwi and Christiana Anindya, who give corrections and
suggestions for my writing. My very special appreciation goes to Amalia
Amanda Kasih, Meinadia Sekar Kinanthi, Caesilia “Makibao” Carolina,
Ineke “Megalodon” Duanaya, Nadia “Ijah” Listyantari, Christophorus
“Kapuk” Estu, Pandhu Mahendra, Heribertus Oktorio, Yosafat Anggun,
and everyone who always be supportive all this time. May His blessing always
pour on them. The last, I would like to thank myself for finally stop being a
procrastinator. Hopefully this thesis can be useful for them whom read it.
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................
i
APPROVAL PAGES ..................................................................................
ii
DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................
iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...........................................
v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ...........................................
vi
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................
vii
ABSTRAK ...................................................................................................
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................
xi
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................
xv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background .........................................................
1
B. Research Problems .............................................................
4
C. Problem Limitation .............................................................
5
D. Research Objectives ...........................................................
5
E. Research Benefits ...............................................................
6
F. Definition of Terms ............................................................
6
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description .......................................................
9
1. Corpus Linguistics .........................................................
9
2. Word Classes .................................................................
13
3. Collocation .....................................................................
18
4. Semantics ........................................................................
19
5. Synonymy ......................................................................
22
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B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................
23
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method ................................................................
24
B. Research Setting .................................................................
26
C. Research Subject ................................................................
26
D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique .......................
28
E. Data Analysis Techniques ..................................................
29
F. Research Procedure ............................................................
30
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. The Frequency of Occurrences of Advise and Recommend
32
1. The Frequency of Advise in COCA ...............................
32
2. The Frequency of Recommend in COCA ......................
35
B. The Collocation of Advise and Recommend ………………
38
1. Advise .................................................................................
40
2. Recommend .....................................................................
52
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions ........................................................................
65
B. Implications ........................................................................
67
C. Recommendations ..............................................................
68
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................
69
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................
72
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1
Personal Pronoun and Possessive Pronoun .........................
14
2.2
The Meaning of Advise and Recommend ............................
21
4.1
The Frequency of Occurrences of the Verb Advise .............
33
4.2
The Verb Advise’s Frequency of Occurrence in Register ...
34
4.3
The Frequency of Occurrences of the Verb Recommend ....
35
4.4
The Verb Recommend’s Frequency of Occurrence in
Register ................................................................................
4.5
36
The Frequency of Occurrence of the Verbs Advise and
Recommend in COCA 2011 - 2012 .....................................
37
4.6
The Collocation of Advise ...................................................
41
4.7
The Collocation of Recommend ..........................................
53
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
3.1
The Appearance of COCA ..................................................
4.1
The Frequency of Advise and Recommend in Different
27
Registers ..............................................................................
38
4.2
The Collocations of Advise and Recommend ......................
39
4.3
The Meaning of Advise ........................................................
63
4.4
The Meaning of Recommend ...............................................
63
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
Page
APPENDIX A The Tokens of Advise 2011 – 2012 in COCA ................
72
The Tokens of Recommend 2011 – 2012 in COCA ......
83
APPENDIX B
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the introduction of the topic chosen, including
research background, research problems, problem limitation, research objectives,
benefits of the research, and definition of terms. The research background
discusses the reason why the researcher choses this topic and an introduction of an
analysis on frequency and collocations of the verb advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011- 2012.
A. Research Background
A number of words share similar senses of meaning or semantic features.
Finegan (2004) says that “the words are said to be synonymous if they mean the
same thing”. However, not every synonym can be used interchangeably in all
contexts. One has to be used in a particular context, whereas another is
appropriate for some other situations. Some synonyms differ in terms of
connotations they express, and some are different in regions in which they are
used. The synonymous words may have exactly the same conceptual meaning, for
example the words taxi and cab. The words taxi and cab which are exactly the
same can be seen in the examples below:
(1) The man drives a taxi.
(2) The man drives a cab.
Those two words are used interchangeably in every context. The difference is that
the word taxi is from British English, but the word cab is from American English.
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However, there are also synonymous words that are not exactly alike in meaning,
for example the words big and large. The words big and large are similar but not
interchangeable in every context.
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
John has a big house near the river.
John has a large house near the river.
John is my big brother.
John is my large brother.
In examples (3) and (4), the words big and large can be interchangeably used. Big
means large in size or amount (“Big”) and large means big in size or amount
(“Large”). Both of the words are used to describe the size of physical objects.
They explain the word after that, house. Meanwhile in example (5), the word big
has another meaning which means older. Thus in example (5) John was born
before the object. The word large in example (6) cannot describe the brother as in
example (6). They are not interchangeable in example (5) and (6).
The verbs of giving advice play a significant role in daily conversation.
People often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The similar words
which are often used by people to give someone ideas or actions to do are advise,
recommend, and suggest. Although those verbs have identical meanings, they are
not used in the similar contexts or situations. The verb advise and recommend
considered as the most similar verbs among all. According to Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary, advise means to tell somebody what you think they should do in a
particular situation (“Advise”). Meanwhile, recommend means to tell somebody
that something is good or useful, or that somebody would be suitable for a
particular job (“Recommend”). Besides, the etymologies of both verbs are almost
the same. The verb advise is first known in late 1300. On the other hand, the verb
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3
recommend is first known in late 1400. They are both first used in Middle
English. The numbers of occurrences between the verbs advise and recommend
are also close. Advise occurs 3,506 times and recommend occurs 8,442 times in
COCA. Meanwhile, suggest occurs 33,373 times. It also happens with the other
corpus like BNC, TIMES Magazine Corpus, GloWbE, Strathy Corpus (Canada),
Corpus of American Soap Operas.
Semantics theory is employed to understand the differences of the use of
the verbs advise and recommend. Semantics will show the meaning of advise and
recommend in some contexts in which they occur. Synonymy shows the semantic
relationship between advise and recommend. In order to understand that they are
synonymous, the researcher needs to understand the meaning of these verbs. The
meaning of the verbs can be studied from sentences which the verbs advise and
recommend are used. In sentences, the verbs will collocate with another word.
Collocation is a combination of words, usually a frequently found combination
(Goddard, 1998, p.21). Collocation can determine the meaning of words. There
are some benefits of learning collocation. Learning collocation can help to use the
words more accurately and there will be fewer mistakes. It makes the learners
sound more natural when speaking or writing. Speech variation is also obtained
from learning collocation.
Corpus-based approach provides a mean of handling large amounts of
language and keeping track of many contextual factors at the same time (Biber,
Conrad, & Reppen, 2002). Corpus linguistics thus is the analysis of naturally
occurring language on the basis of computerized corpora. Usually, the analysis is
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performed with the help of the computer, for example with specialized software. It
also takes into account the frequency of the phenomena investigated (Nesselhauf,
2005, p.2). There are some types of English corpus like the researcher has
mentioned before. From www.corpus.byu.edu, there are Global Web-Based
English (GloWbE), Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), Corpus
of Historical American English (COHA), TIME Magazine Corpus, Corpus of
American Soap Operas, British National Corpus (BNC), Strathy Corpus (Canada),
and the newest one is Wikipedia Corpus. COCA is used by the researcher as the
source of the data. To apprehend the recent use of advise and recommend, the
tokens are taken from 2011 to 2012.
One advantage of COCA is that it is probably the largest publicity and
freely available annotated corpus of English. They are chosen as the source of the
data because the data given are empirical and well-organized (Biber et al., 2002).
Besides, the researcher found that there are still a few researchers who used
COCA as their source of data for their researches. Most of the researchers used
BNC as the source of the data. Several advantages of corpus-based approach come
from the use of computers. Computers provide consistent analysis. Computers
also allow big storage and analysis on larger database than could be dealt by hand.
The researcher wants to conduct this research by having the benefits of using
corpus as the source of the study.
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B. Research Problems
Based on the explanation above, the problems of this study can be
formulated as follows:
1. What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 – 2012?
2. Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and recommend
similar and different?
C. Problem Limitation
The limitation of this research is to answer the research problem. The
researcher limits the words into advise and recommend. The researcher also limits
the corpus used. The researcher used COCA as the source of the data to be
analysed. COCA only focuses on American English. The first research problem is
to find the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend. The
second research problem is to find the collocation of those verbs. The researcher
takes the data only from COCA year 2011 to 2012. It must be highlighted that this
study only examines the lemmas of the verbs. It means that the word-form of
advise such as advises, advised, and advising and the word-forms of recommend
such as recommends, recommended, and recommending are not taken as the
investigation. Hunston (2002) writes that lemma makes convenient to explore
more the idea which has been taken. Thus, this study only investigates the use of
the lemmas of advise and recommend.
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D. Research Objectives
The first objective of this research is to find out the frequency of
occurrences of advise and recommend and analyse the most frequently used verbs
that occurs in the corpus. The second objective of this research is also to find out
the collocation of advise and recommend to determine the similarities and
differences of those two words.
E. Research Benefits
This research is conducted in order to give beneficial information for:
1. The Future Researchers
Hopefully, this research will help the future researchers who want to
conduct the same topic for the research by providing the information about the
topic or inspiring them to conduct the same topic.
2. The Readers
This research will be useful for those who are interested in learning corpus
linguistics. It also gives more information about the use of the verbs advise and
recommend.
3. ELESP Students
This research is expected to help the ELESP students who are interested in
comprehending linguistics to give more information about corpus linguistics and
the use of two synonymous verbs, advise and recommend.
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F. Definition of Terms
In this part, the researcher gives some definition of terms used in this
research. The terms which are going to be described are corpus, frequency, token,
collocation, advise, recommend, and register.
1. Corpus
Biber (2002, p. 12) says that a corpus is a large and principled collection
of natural texts. Corpus (plural: corpora) is a body of language material assembled
with a view to extracting linguistic information from it. It may consist of data
specially elicited for this purpose or of material originality produced for some
other purposes (“Corpus”).
2. Frequency
Frequency is the number of times something happens within a particular
period, or the fact of something often happens or a large number or times
(“Frequency”). Frequency is useful for investigating language in general.
3. Token
According to McEnery and Wilson (2012), a token is any instance of a
particular word form in a text (p.50). Based on Tang (n.d.), token is the individual
forms (words) of a corpus. In this research, tokens are the words advise and
recommend that are found in COCA.
4. Collocation
Collocation is the way in which some words are often used together, or a
particular combination of words (“Collocation”). In addition, the noun collocation
refers to a word or phrase which is frequently used with another word or phrase,
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in a way that sounds correct to people who have spoken the language all their
lives, but might not be expected from the meaning (“Collocate”). Collocation can
be located on the left or right side of the token.
5. Advise
Based on Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, advise means to give counsel to, offer an opinion or suggestion as
worth following (“Advise”).
6. Recommend
Based on Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, recommend means to present as worthy of confidence, acceptance, or
use (“Recommend”).
7. Register
The term register has been used to refer to a general kind of language
associated with a domain of use, such as an academic register, spoken register, or
fiction register (Biber, 1996, p. 11).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW ON LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher would like to present a discussion on some
theories which become the bases of this research. This chapter is divided into two
parts. In the first part, the researcher presents the theoretical description. The
second part is about the theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
Theoretical description gives a clear description about the theories used in
the research. It presents about corpus linguistic, word classes, collocation,
semantics, and synonymy.
1. Corpus Linguistics
Kaplan (2010) says that corpus linguistics is a research approach that has
developed over the past several decades to support empirical investigations of
language variation and uses. Based on Davies and Elder (2004), corpus linguistics
is an empirical approach to study language, which uses observations of attested
data in order to make generalizations about lexis, grammar, and semantics.
Based on Hunston (2002), there are some types of corpora. The first one is
specialized corpus. This corpus contains texts of a particular type such as
newspaper editorials, geography textbooks, academic articles, or essay written by
students. Some well-known specialised corpora are Cambridge and Nottingham
Corpus of Discourse in English (CANCODE) and Michigan Corpus of Academic
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Spoken English (MICASE). The second one is general corpus. This corpus
consists of many types of texts. It includes written and spoken language. A
general corpus is larger than specialized corpus. Some examples of this corpus are
British National Corpus (BNC) and Bank of English. The third one is comparable
corpus. Comparable corpus is two or more corpora in different languages or
different varieties of language. An example of this corpus is The International
Corpus of English (ICE). The fourth one is parallel corpus. Parallel corpus is two
or more different corpora in different languages, each containing texts that have
been translated from one language into the other or texts that have been produced
simultaneously in two or more languages. The fifth one is learner corpus. Learner
corpus is a collection of texts produced by learners of a language. International
Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) is one of the examples of this type of corpus.
The sixth is pedagogic corpus. Pedagogic corpus is a corpus consisting of all the
language a learner has been exposed to. It consists of the course books or any
tapes that they have heard. It does not exist in physical form. The seventh is
historical corpus. It is also called diachronic corpus. It is a corpus of texts from
different periods of time. The best known historical corpus is Helsinki Corpus.
The last one is monitor corpus. Monitor corpus is a corpus designed to track
current changes in a language. “A corpus essentially tells us what language is like
and the main argument in favour of using a corpus is that it is a more reliable
guide to language use than native speaker intuition is” (Hunston, 2002, p.20).
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a. Corpus-based Analysis
There are some characteristics of corpus-based analyses. According to
Biber (2002), corpus-based analysis is empirical. It can show the actual patterns of
use in natural texts. It also utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts
as the basis for analysis. It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using
both automatic and interactive techniques. It depends on both quantitative and
qualitative analytical techniques.
Based on Stubbs (as cited in Davies & Elder, 2004), a language corpus
usually means a text collection which has some characteristics. First, it is large.
There are millions or even a hundred millions of words collected in corpus. They
are taken from some source of individual text or spoken. Second, it is computerreadable. It is an advantage that corpus is accessible, because there are a lot of
words that are collected in corpus. By using corpus software, it can access the
concordances to find list, linguistic pattern, and collocation easier. The last one, it
is designed for linguistic analysis. Since corpus contains of a large number of
data, linguist can take some examples from corpus. Corpus provides a sample of
specific text-types or abroad and balanced sample of language.
b. Frequency
Kilgarriff states that a central fact about a word is how frequent it is (as
cited in Davies & Elder, 2004, p.115). Frequency shows that system and use are
inseparable. Frequency lists from corpora can be useful for identifying possible
differences between the corpora that can be studied in more detail (Huston, 2002,
p.5). The most common words used in the daily life can be recognized by
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comparing the frequency of occurrences. Therefore, it becomes easier to put
particular words on the certain contexts semantically since knowing in which
particular words are usually used can help people to find the exact meaning of
particular words in different contexts. Besides, COCA has some registers to limit
the frequency findings such as spoken, fiction, magazine, newspapers, academic,
and based on the year 1990 to 2012. Biber et al. (2002) also state that “one use of
frequency lists is to compare the frequency of a target word to other words”
(p.29). In conclusion, the frequency in corpora facilitates to study the corpora of
each word in detail.
c. Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
Corpus develops over the past several decades to support empirical
investigations of language variation and use. The researcher needs COCA to
provide the data to be investigated. COCA is the largest freely-available corpus of
English and the only large and balance corpus of American English. This corpus
was created by Mark Davies of Brigham Young University. The corpus contains
more than 450 million words of text. It is divided among spoken, fiction,
magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It includes 20 million words each
year from 1900-2012 and it is updated regularly. The website corpus.byu.edu
offers access to several different linguistic corpora through the same interface.
There are several corpora in the website. There are Global Web-Based English
(GloWbE), Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), Corpus of
Historical American English (COHA), TIME Magazine Corpus, Corpus of
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American Soap Operas, British National Corpus (BYU-BNC), and Strathy Corpus
(Canada).
2. Word Classes
Language was the development of a set of categories for classifying words
(Bloor & Bloor, 2004). Each word belongs to a lexical category. Traditionally
there are eight of lexical categories, namely verb, noun, pronoun, determiner,
adjective, preposition, adverb, and conjunction.
a. Verb
Verb belongs to word class that expresses action, the suffering of action, or
existence. It also expresses tense, mood, and voice. Bloor and Bloor (2004, p. 22)
state that it is traditionally defined as words which express an action or state; it
also shows the greatest degree of variation in form of any of the word classes.
Verbs are either transitive or intransitive, both words deriving from the
Latin meaning „going across‟. A transitive verb requires an object to complete it,
the action of the verb going over to the object (e.g.: The car hit the fence). An
intransitive verb does not require an object to complete it (e.g.: The fence
collapsed).
A weak or regular verb is one that forms its past tense by adding -d or -t to
its present tense. It forms its past tense by shortening its present tense. It takes the
same form for the past as for the present. The richest variety in English verb form
is the verb be. Be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being. Most of
the verbs have only three to six forms. Take for instance the verb write. The verb
write has six forms: write, writes, wrote, written, to write, and writing.
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b. Noun
Traditionally noun is defined as a word that denotes a person, animal,
thing, or place (Aarts, 1997, p. 24). Noun is a word that is commonly used to
describe a thing. Noun can be divided into proper noun, common noun, and
pronoun. Proper noun is usually described individual names of persons (such as
John and Alex), places (such as Japan and Mexico), transportations (such as the
Titanic), institution and organization (such as the United Nations), book and
movie titles (such as Harry Potter), and other similar categories. Proper noun is
normally written with a capital letter. Based on Bloor & Bloor (2004), noun which
does not belong to proper noun is labelled as common noun (such as monkey,
table, and pencil) (p.19). Common noun can be subdivided into countable (such as
book and dog) and uncountable (such as water and sugar). Pronoun belongs to
noun and it is classified into some categories: personal pronoun, possessive
pronoun, reflexive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, reciprocal pronoun, relative
pronoun, interrogative pronoun, and indefinite pronoun. The classification of
personal pronoun and possessive pronoun can be seen in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Personal Pronoun and Possessive Pronoun
Singular
First Person
I, me, mine
my
Second Person
Third Person
you, yours,
your
he, him, his
his
she, her, hers
her
it, its
its
First person
we, us, ours
our
Second person
you, yours
your
Third person
they, them, theirs
their
Plural
(Bloor & Bloor, 2004, p.21)
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Reflexive pronoun is myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves,
themselves. Demonstrative pronoun is such as this, these, that, and those.
Reciprocal pronoun is such as each other, one another. That, who, which, whose,
what, and whom belong to interrogative pronoun. Indefinite pronoun is for
example anybody, anyone, nothing, someone, etc.
According to Aitchison (2003, p.76), noun can occur in some main places
such as subject, object and in adverbial phrases. A noun can occur in certain
positions. A noun can occur at the beginning of a sentence before the verb (The
cat ate the canary.), at the end of a sentence after the verb (The canary feared the
cat.), after by in a passive sentence (The canary was eaten by the cat.), and after
an auxiliary verb in a questions (Did the cat eat the canary?). Here, the cat stands
as a noun which forms such noun phrases (determiner + noun). The noun phrase
in those sentences functions as subject, object and part of adverb.
c. Determiner
Determiner is a more comprehensive category than article (Bloor & Bloor,
2004, p.24). Determiner specifies the more precisely the meaning of the noun
placed after it. According to Finegan (2004, p.44), determiner has some
subclasses. The first subclass is definite and indefinite articles (the, a, an). The
second one is demonstrative (e.g. this, those). The third subclass is possessive
(e.g. my, your, his). The forth one is interrogative (e.g. which, what, whose). The
examples of the use of determiners are: the doll, an apple, those knives.
Determiners precede noun phrase such as my long hair, which big box, these red
apples.
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d. Adjective
Based on Bloor & Bloor (2004) adjective has two main functions. The first
is as a modifier of nouns, for example, a beautiful city. The second is as a head of
group that is complement of a copular verb such as be, seem, become; for
example, you are beautiful.
The typical morphological potential of an adjective is an inflection for
comparative and superlative forms. Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish
(2001) state that adjective can usually take the suffixes –er and –est, as in larger
and biggest (p.20). However the adjectives containing more than two syllables do
not permit these endings, expenssiver and expenssivest are not well-formed. Some
adjectives occur not with –er or –est but with the comparative words more and
most. They can be identified through certain characteristics such as suffix -ful, less, and -ive and the prefix un-. Most adjective are also gradable. They can be
preceded by words such as very, extremely, and less as in very disgusting and
extremely happy).
e. Preposition
Preposition constitutes a class with few members and the prepositions of
English can be enumerated and typically precede a noun phrase, as in a party or
on Monday (Finegan, 2004, p. 45). They also occur in prepositional phrases with
a nominal group as complement. The word class of prepositions tend to be very
short and often consist of two or three letters (for example: at, by, and under).
They usually combine with noun phrases and prepositional phrases.
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f. Adverb
“Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs” (Aarts, 1997, p.42).
The examples of adverbs modify verbs: The teacher speaks loudly (The teacher is
a loud speaker); She comes often; Mr. Smith goes here. Adverb often forms
adjective by the addition of the suffix –ly, as with slowly, nearly, and silently.
There are some types of adverbs; adverbs of manner (quickly and carefully),
adverbs of time (tomorrow and next morning), adverbs of place (there and in the
room). Finegan (2004) states that adverb plays a range of functions, including
modifying verb, adjective, or other adverb (p. 45). There are also some subclasses
of adverbs namely circumstantial adverb (often, intentionally, and reluctantly),
degree adverb (extremely, more, and pretty), and sentence adverb (however,
perhaps, and probably). Another set of adverbs includes now, then, later, earlier,
here, there, everywhere, nowhere, and anywhere. Words like seldom, never, often,
frequently, and always are included in adverbs of frequency. There are also
directional adverbs such as upwards, downwards, and backwards. The adverbs
like however, moreover, nevertheless, honestly, and clearly are usually called
sentence adverbs because they often occur at the beginning of a clause.
g. Conjunction
Conjunction belongs to a class of word that has linking conjunction (also
known as coordinating conjunction) and binding conjunction (also known as
subordinating conjunction).
Coordinating conjunctions
serve to
conjoin
expressions of the same category or status. And, but, and or are the conjunctions
of coordinating conjunctions; for example, milk or tea and hot and cold.
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Subordinating conjunctions are words such as that, since, while, and because,
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ABSTRACT
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Words that share similar senses of meaning are called synonymous. People
often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The words advise and
recommend are synonymous in meaning. However, these words are not exactly
interchangeable. They can be used in similar and different contexts. The
researcher was interested to study the frequency of occurrences and the
collocations of the verbs advise and recommend. The meaning of those words can
be analysed by looking at their collocations.
There are two research problems formulated in this study. The first one is
1) What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? The second
one is 2) Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and
recommend similar and different? Therefore, the objectives of this study are to
find out the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 - 2012 and to find out the collocation of the verbs advise and
recommend.
To answer the first research problem, the researcher conducted a
quantitative research. For the second research problem, the researcher conducted a
qualitative research. This was a corpus-based study. The data were collected from
COCA using purposive sampling method. The researcher took 100 tokens of each
verb which represents the meanings of advise and recommend to be investigated
deeper. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed the theories
of corpus linguistic and frequency. To solve the second research problem, the
researcher employed the theories of meaning and synonymy. The researcher also
used dictionaries to convey the definition of advise and recommend.
The findings showed that the frequency of occurrences of the verb
recommend was higher than advise. In the percentage, the frequency of
occurrence of advise was 26.63% and recommend was 73.37%. From the analysis,
the researcher discovered that there were some similar collocations of advise and
recommend. The collocations of the verb advise and recommend were nouns,
gerunds, adverbs, infinitives, prepositions, and conjunctions. There were five
similar collocations of the verbs advise and recommend which were that, doctor,
highly, using and against. They both were used to give advice to someone
especially because the person had a special knowledge of the situation. They were
also used to give opinion or something or someone as worthy to be chosen or to
be done. Advise and recommend was also used to offer warnings with regard,
which presented by the word against. Unlike the verb recommend, the verb advise
was used to give someone information or to notice someone about something.
Keywords: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
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ABSTRAK
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Kata-kata yang memiliki kemiripan makna disebut sinonim. Orang-orang
sering memberikan orang lain ide untuk dipertimbangkan ataupun kegiatan untuk
dilakukan. Kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai kemiripan makna.
Dalam penggunaannya, kedua kata kerja sinonim ini tidak dapat dipertukarkan
secara tepat. Mereka dapat digunakan di konteks yang sama maupun berbeda.
Oleh karena itu, peneliti merasa tertarik untuk mempelajari frekuensi kemunculan
dan kolokasi dari kedua kata tersebut. Dengan melihat kemunculan kata dan
kolokasinya, konteks penggunaan dari kata kerja tersebut dapat diketahui.
Ada dua pertanyaan yang akan dirumuskan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama
(1) Apa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise dan recommend di Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? Kedua (2) Berdasarkan
kolokasinya, di konteks apakah kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai
bersama dan berbeda? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengetahui frekuensi kemunculan kata dan kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan
recommend di COCA 2011 – 2012.
Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian
kualitatif berdasarkan studi korpus. Data yang diteliti diambil dari COCA
menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Peneliti mengambil masing-masing
100 contoh kalimat dari kata kerja advise dan recommend yang dapat
merepresentasikan makna kata tersebut untuk diteliti lebih dalam. Untuk
menjawab rumusan masalah yang pertama, peneliti menggunakan teori korpus
linguistik dan frekuensi. Sedangkan untuk rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti
menggunakan teori makna dan sinonim. Peneliti juga menggunakan beberapa
kamus untuk mengungkapkan definisi dari kata advise dan recommend.
Hasil dari pelitian menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata
kerja recommend lebih tinggi daripada advise. Dalam bentuk persentase,
frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise adalah 26.63% dan recommend
adalah 73.37%. Dari analisis tersebut, peneliti menemukan beberapa kesamaan
kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan recommend. Kolokasi kata tersebut dalam
bentuk kata benda, gerunds, kata keterangan, infinitif, kata depan, dan kata
penghubung. Ada lima kesamaan kolokasi yaitu that, doctor, highly, using, dan
against. Kedua kata kerja tersebut digunakan untuk memberikan saran kepada
seseorang terutama karena orang yang memberikan saran mempunyai
pengetahuan lebih terhadap situasi tertentu. Mereka juga digunakan untuk
memberikan opini atau sesuatu atau seseorang yang layak untuk dilakukan atau
dipilih. Mereka juga digunakan untuk menawarkan peringatan yang diwakilkan
dengan kolokasi against. Tidak seperti recommend, advise dapat digunakan untuk
menginformasikan seseorang tentang sesuatu.
Kata kunci: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
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A CORPUS BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY AND COLLOCATION
OF THE VERBS ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Student Number: 101214139
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY
AND COLLOCATION OF THE VERBS
ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Student Number: 101214139
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015
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“If what’s ahead scares you and
what’s behind hurts you,
just look above, He never fails to
help you.”
This thesis is dedicated to:
Herwan Soewandono,
Mustiola Trikindarti,
and myself.
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 31 July 2015
The writer
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
101214139
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPERLUAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Disa Ayu Karina Riski
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 101214139
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF FREQUENCY
AND COLLOCATION OF THE VERBS
ADVISE AND RECOMMEND
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data,
mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media
lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya atau
memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya,
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 31 Juli 2015
Yang menyatakan
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
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ABSTRACT
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Words that share similar senses of meaning are called synonymous. People
often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The words advise and
recommend are synonymous in meaning. However, these words are not exactly
interchangeable. They can be used in similar and different contexts. The
researcher was interested to study the frequency of occurrences and the
collocations of the verbs advise and recommend. The meaning of those words can
be analysed by looking at their collocations.
There are two research problems formulated in this study. The first one is
1) What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? The second
one is 2) Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and
recommend similar and different? Therefore, the objectives of this study are to
find out the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 - 2012 and to find out the collocation of the verbs advise and
recommend.
To answer the first research problem, the researcher conducted a
quantitative research. For the second research problem, the researcher conducted a
qualitative research. This was a corpus-based study. The data were collected from
COCA using purposive sampling method. The researcher took 100 tokens of each
verb which represents the meanings of advise and recommend to be investigated
deeper. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed the theories
of corpus linguistic and frequency. To solve the second research problem, the
researcher employed the theories of meaning and synonymy. The researcher also
used dictionaries to convey the definition of advise and recommend.
The findings showed that the frequency of occurrences of the verb
recommend was higher than advise. In the percentage, the frequency of
occurrence of advise was 26.63% and recommend was 73.37%. From the analysis,
the researcher discovered that there were some similar collocations of advise and
recommend. The collocations of the verb advise and recommend were nouns,
gerunds, adverbs, infinitives, prepositions, and conjunctions. There were five
similar collocations of the verbs advise and recommend which were that, doctor,
highly, using and against. They both were used to give advice to someone
especially because the person had a special knowledge of the situation. They were
also used to give opinion or something or someone as worthy to be chosen or to
be done. Advise and recommend was also used to offer warnings with regard,
which presented by the word against. Unlike the verb recommend, the verb advise
was used to give someone information or to notice someone about something.
Keywords: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
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ABSTRAK
Riski, Disa Ayu Karina. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Frequency and
Collocation of the Verbs Advise and Recommend. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
Kata-kata yang memiliki kemiripan makna disebut sinonim. Orang-orang
sering memberikan orang lain ide untuk dipertimbangkan ataupun kegiatan untuk
dilakukan. Kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai kemiripan makna.
Dalam penggunaannya, kedua kata kerja sinonim ini tidak dapat dipertukarkan
secara tepat. Mereka dapat digunakan di konteks yang sama maupun berbeda.
Oleh karena itu, peneliti merasa tertarik untuk mempelajari frekuensi kemunculan
dan kolokasi dari kedua kata tersebut. Dengan melihat kemunculan kata dan
kolokasinya, konteks penggunaan dari kata kerja tersebut dapat diketahui.
Ada dua pertanyaan yang akan dirumuskan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama
(1) Apa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise dan recommend di Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011 - 2012? Kedua (2) Berdasarkan
kolokasinya, di konteks apakah kata kerja advise dan recommend mempunyai
bersama dan berbeda? Maka dari itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengetahui frekuensi kemunculan kata dan kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan
recommend di COCA 2011 – 2012.
Untuk menjawab rumusan masalah tersebut, peneliti melakukan penelitian
kualitatif berdasarkan studi korpus. Data yang diteliti diambil dari COCA
menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Peneliti mengambil masing-masing
100 contoh kalimat dari kata kerja advise dan recommend yang dapat
merepresentasikan makna kata tersebut untuk diteliti lebih dalam. Untuk
menjawab rumusan masalah yang pertama, peneliti menggunakan teori korpus
linguistik dan frekuensi. Sedangkan untuk rumusan masalah yang kedua, peneliti
menggunakan teori makna dan sinonim. Peneliti juga menggunakan beberapa
kamus untuk mengungkapkan definisi dari kata advise dan recommend.
Hasil dari pelitian menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi kemunculan dari kata
kerja recommend lebih tinggi daripada advise. Dalam bentuk persentase,
frekuensi kemunculan dari kata kerja advise adalah 26.63% dan recommend
adalah 73.37%. Dari analisis tersebut, peneliti menemukan beberapa kesamaan
kolokasi dari kata kerja advise dan recommend. Kolokasi kata tersebut dalam
bentuk kata benda, gerunds, kata keterangan, infinitif, kata depan, dan kata
penghubung. Ada lima kesamaan kolokasi yaitu that, doctor, highly, using, dan
against. Kedua kata kerja tersebut digunakan untuk memberikan saran kepada
seseorang terutama karena orang yang memberikan saran mempunyai
pengetahuan lebih terhadap situasi tertentu. Mereka juga digunakan untuk
memberikan opini atau sesuatu atau seseorang yang layak untuk dilakukan atau
dipilih. Mereka juga digunakan untuk menawarkan peringatan yang diwakilkan
dengan kolokasi against. Tidak seperti recommend, advise dapat digunakan untuk
menginformasikan seseorang tentang sesuatu.
Kata kunci: corpus, collocation, frequency, advise, recommend
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank all who in one way or another contributed in the completion of this
thesis. First, I would like to thank Jesus Christ for His blessing that I can finally
finish my thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes to my advisor, Carla Sih Prabandari, S. Pd.,
M. Hum. for her guidance and assistance during the process, spending time to
read, correcting my thesis, and giving attention and suggestion until the final
process of writing this thesis patiently. I specially thank my academic advisor,
Henny Herawati, M.Hum. for her kindness in accompanying my class during
my study. I thank all lecturers of English Language Education Study Program
for teaching along the study in Sanata Dharma University. I would also thank all
secretariat staff of English Language Education Study Program and Faculty
of Teachers Training and Education of Sanata Dharma University and all
librarians for giving me their the best service.
I would like to show my deepest gratitude to my family especially my
parents, Ignatius Herwan Soewandono and Mustiola Trikindarti, who always
give me their love, attention, and time. I thank them for their prayer and financial
support. They are my reason and biggest motivation for finishing my study. I
would also like to mention Antonius Oldi Bagas for being a great brother.
I take this opportunity to express my appreciation to all of PBI students.
I thank PBI 2010, especially Class C. I thank them for supporting me with the
great friendship and togetherness. I would like to sincerely express my gratitude
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to Diah Dwi Pratiwi and Christiana Anindya, who give corrections and
suggestions for my writing. My very special appreciation goes to Amalia
Amanda Kasih, Meinadia Sekar Kinanthi, Caesilia “Makibao” Carolina,
Ineke “Megalodon” Duanaya, Nadia “Ijah” Listyantari, Christophorus
“Kapuk” Estu, Pandhu Mahendra, Heribertus Oktorio, Yosafat Anggun,
and everyone who always be supportive all this time. May His blessing always
pour on them. The last, I would like to thank myself for finally stop being a
procrastinator. Hopefully this thesis can be useful for them whom read it.
Disa Ayu Karina Riski
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................
i
APPROVAL PAGES ..................................................................................
ii
DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................
iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...........................................
v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ...........................................
vi
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................
vii
ABSTRAK ...................................................................................................
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................
xi
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................
xv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background .........................................................
1
B. Research Problems .............................................................
4
C. Problem Limitation .............................................................
5
D. Research Objectives ...........................................................
5
E. Research Benefits ...............................................................
6
F. Definition of Terms ............................................................
6
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description .......................................................
9
1. Corpus Linguistics .........................................................
9
2. Word Classes .................................................................
13
3. Collocation .....................................................................
18
4. Semantics ........................................................................
19
5. Synonymy ......................................................................
22
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B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................
23
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method ................................................................
24
B. Research Setting .................................................................
26
C. Research Subject ................................................................
26
D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique .......................
28
E. Data Analysis Techniques ..................................................
29
F. Research Procedure ............................................................
30
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. The Frequency of Occurrences of Advise and Recommend
32
1. The Frequency of Advise in COCA ...............................
32
2. The Frequency of Recommend in COCA ......................
35
B. The Collocation of Advise and Recommend ………………
38
1. Advise .................................................................................
40
2. Recommend .....................................................................
52
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions ........................................................................
65
B. Implications ........................................................................
67
C. Recommendations ..............................................................
68
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................
69
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................
72
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1
Personal Pronoun and Possessive Pronoun .........................
14
2.2
The Meaning of Advise and Recommend ............................
21
4.1
The Frequency of Occurrences of the Verb Advise .............
33
4.2
The Verb Advise’s Frequency of Occurrence in Register ...
34
4.3
The Frequency of Occurrences of the Verb Recommend ....
35
4.4
The Verb Recommend’s Frequency of Occurrence in
Register ................................................................................
4.5
36
The Frequency of Occurrence of the Verbs Advise and
Recommend in COCA 2011 - 2012 .....................................
37
4.6
The Collocation of Advise ...................................................
41
4.7
The Collocation of Recommend ..........................................
53
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
3.1
The Appearance of COCA ..................................................
4.1
The Frequency of Advise and Recommend in Different
27
Registers ..............................................................................
38
4.2
The Collocations of Advise and Recommend ......................
39
4.3
The Meaning of Advise ........................................................
63
4.4
The Meaning of Recommend ...............................................
63
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
Page
APPENDIX A The Tokens of Advise 2011 – 2012 in COCA ................
72
The Tokens of Recommend 2011 – 2012 in COCA ......
83
APPENDIX B
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the introduction of the topic chosen, including
research background, research problems, problem limitation, research objectives,
benefits of the research, and definition of terms. The research background
discusses the reason why the researcher choses this topic and an introduction of an
analysis on frequency and collocations of the verb advise and recommend in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 2011- 2012.
A. Research Background
A number of words share similar senses of meaning or semantic features.
Finegan (2004) says that “the words are said to be synonymous if they mean the
same thing”. However, not every synonym can be used interchangeably in all
contexts. One has to be used in a particular context, whereas another is
appropriate for some other situations. Some synonyms differ in terms of
connotations they express, and some are different in regions in which they are
used. The synonymous words may have exactly the same conceptual meaning, for
example the words taxi and cab. The words taxi and cab which are exactly the
same can be seen in the examples below:
(1) The man drives a taxi.
(2) The man drives a cab.
Those two words are used interchangeably in every context. The difference is that
the word taxi is from British English, but the word cab is from American English.
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However, there are also synonymous words that are not exactly alike in meaning,
for example the words big and large. The words big and large are similar but not
interchangeable in every context.
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
John has a big house near the river.
John has a large house near the river.
John is my big brother.
John is my large brother.
In examples (3) and (4), the words big and large can be interchangeably used. Big
means large in size or amount (“Big”) and large means big in size or amount
(“Large”). Both of the words are used to describe the size of physical objects.
They explain the word after that, house. Meanwhile in example (5), the word big
has another meaning which means older. Thus in example (5) John was born
before the object. The word large in example (6) cannot describe the brother as in
example (6). They are not interchangeable in example (5) and (6).
The verbs of giving advice play a significant role in daily conversation.
People often give others some ideas to consider or action to do. The similar words
which are often used by people to give someone ideas or actions to do are advise,
recommend, and suggest. Although those verbs have identical meanings, they are
not used in the similar contexts or situations. The verb advise and recommend
considered as the most similar verbs among all. According to Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary, advise means to tell somebody what you think they should do in a
particular situation (“Advise”). Meanwhile, recommend means to tell somebody
that something is good or useful, or that somebody would be suitable for a
particular job (“Recommend”). Besides, the etymologies of both verbs are almost
the same. The verb advise is first known in late 1300. On the other hand, the verb
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recommend is first known in late 1400. They are both first used in Middle
English. The numbers of occurrences between the verbs advise and recommend
are also close. Advise occurs 3,506 times and recommend occurs 8,442 times in
COCA. Meanwhile, suggest occurs 33,373 times. It also happens with the other
corpus like BNC, TIMES Magazine Corpus, GloWbE, Strathy Corpus (Canada),
Corpus of American Soap Operas.
Semantics theory is employed to understand the differences of the use of
the verbs advise and recommend. Semantics will show the meaning of advise and
recommend in some contexts in which they occur. Synonymy shows the semantic
relationship between advise and recommend. In order to understand that they are
synonymous, the researcher needs to understand the meaning of these verbs. The
meaning of the verbs can be studied from sentences which the verbs advise and
recommend are used. In sentences, the verbs will collocate with another word.
Collocation is a combination of words, usually a frequently found combination
(Goddard, 1998, p.21). Collocation can determine the meaning of words. There
are some benefits of learning collocation. Learning collocation can help to use the
words more accurately and there will be fewer mistakes. It makes the learners
sound more natural when speaking or writing. Speech variation is also obtained
from learning collocation.
Corpus-based approach provides a mean of handling large amounts of
language and keeping track of many contextual factors at the same time (Biber,
Conrad, & Reppen, 2002). Corpus linguistics thus is the analysis of naturally
occurring language on the basis of computerized corpora. Usually, the analysis is
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performed with the help of the computer, for example with specialized software. It
also takes into account the frequency of the phenomena investigated (Nesselhauf,
2005, p.2). There are some types of English corpus like the researcher has
mentioned before. From www.corpus.byu.edu, there are Global Web-Based
English (GloWbE), Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), Corpus
of Historical American English (COHA), TIME Magazine Corpus, Corpus of
American Soap Operas, British National Corpus (BNC), Strathy Corpus (Canada),
and the newest one is Wikipedia Corpus. COCA is used by the researcher as the
source of the data. To apprehend the recent use of advise and recommend, the
tokens are taken from 2011 to 2012.
One advantage of COCA is that it is probably the largest publicity and
freely available annotated corpus of English. They are chosen as the source of the
data because the data given are empirical and well-organized (Biber et al., 2002).
Besides, the researcher found that there are still a few researchers who used
COCA as their source of data for their researches. Most of the researchers used
BNC as the source of the data. Several advantages of corpus-based approach come
from the use of computers. Computers provide consistent analysis. Computers
also allow big storage and analysis on larger database than could be dealt by hand.
The researcher wants to conduct this research by having the benefits of using
corpus as the source of the study.
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B. Research Problems
Based on the explanation above, the problems of this study can be
formulated as follows:
1. What is the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend in
COCA 2011 – 2012?
2. Based on the collocation, in what context are the verbs advise and recommend
similar and different?
C. Problem Limitation
The limitation of this research is to answer the research problem. The
researcher limits the words into advise and recommend. The researcher also limits
the corpus used. The researcher used COCA as the source of the data to be
analysed. COCA only focuses on American English. The first research problem is
to find the frequency of occurrences of the verbs advise and recommend. The
second research problem is to find the collocation of those verbs. The researcher
takes the data only from COCA year 2011 to 2012. It must be highlighted that this
study only examines the lemmas of the verbs. It means that the word-form of
advise such as advises, advised, and advising and the word-forms of recommend
such as recommends, recommended, and recommending are not taken as the
investigation. Hunston (2002) writes that lemma makes convenient to explore
more the idea which has been taken. Thus, this study only investigates the use of
the lemmas of advise and recommend.
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D. Research Objectives
The first objective of this research is to find out the frequency of
occurrences of advise and recommend and analyse the most frequently used verbs
that occurs in the corpus. The second objective of this research is also to find out
the collocation of advise and recommend to determine the similarities and
differences of those two words.
E. Research Benefits
This research is conducted in order to give beneficial information for:
1. The Future Researchers
Hopefully, this research will help the future researchers who want to
conduct the same topic for the research by providing the information about the
topic or inspiring them to conduct the same topic.
2. The Readers
This research will be useful for those who are interested in learning corpus
linguistics. It also gives more information about the use of the verbs advise and
recommend.
3. ELESP Students
This research is expected to help the ELESP students who are interested in
comprehending linguistics to give more information about corpus linguistics and
the use of two synonymous verbs, advise and recommend.
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F. Definition of Terms
In this part, the researcher gives some definition of terms used in this
research. The terms which are going to be described are corpus, frequency, token,
collocation, advise, recommend, and register.
1. Corpus
Biber (2002, p. 12) says that a corpus is a large and principled collection
of natural texts. Corpus (plural: corpora) is a body of language material assembled
with a view to extracting linguistic information from it. It may consist of data
specially elicited for this purpose or of material originality produced for some
other purposes (“Corpus”).
2. Frequency
Frequency is the number of times something happens within a particular
period, or the fact of something often happens or a large number or times
(“Frequency”). Frequency is useful for investigating language in general.
3. Token
According to McEnery and Wilson (2012), a token is any instance of a
particular word form in a text (p.50). Based on Tang (n.d.), token is the individual
forms (words) of a corpus. In this research, tokens are the words advise and
recommend that are found in COCA.
4. Collocation
Collocation is the way in which some words are often used together, or a
particular combination of words (“Collocation”). In addition, the noun collocation
refers to a word or phrase which is frequently used with another word or phrase,
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in a way that sounds correct to people who have spoken the language all their
lives, but might not be expected from the meaning (“Collocate”). Collocation can
be located on the left or right side of the token.
5. Advise
Based on Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, advise means to give counsel to, offer an opinion or suggestion as
worth following (“Advise”).
6. Recommend
Based on Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, recommend means to present as worthy of confidence, acceptance, or
use (“Recommend”).
7. Register
The term register has been used to refer to a general kind of language
associated with a domain of use, such as an academic register, spoken register, or
fiction register (Biber, 1996, p. 11).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW ON LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher would like to present a discussion on some
theories which become the bases of this research. This chapter is divided into two
parts. In the first part, the researcher presents the theoretical description. The
second part is about the theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
Theoretical description gives a clear description about the theories used in
the research. It presents about corpus linguistic, word classes, collocation,
semantics, and synonymy.
1. Corpus Linguistics
Kaplan (2010) says that corpus linguistics is a research approach that has
developed over the past several decades to support empirical investigations of
language variation and uses. Based on Davies and Elder (2004), corpus linguistics
is an empirical approach to study language, which uses observations of attested
data in order to make generalizations about lexis, grammar, and semantics.
Based on Hunston (2002), there are some types of corpora. The first one is
specialized corpus. This corpus contains texts of a particular type such as
newspaper editorials, geography textbooks, academic articles, or essay written by
students. Some well-known specialised corpora are Cambridge and Nottingham
Corpus of Discourse in English (CANCODE) and Michigan Corpus of Academic
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Spoken English (MICASE). The second one is general corpus. This corpus
consists of many types of texts. It includes written and spoken language. A
general corpus is larger than specialized corpus. Some examples of this corpus are
British National Corpus (BNC) and Bank of English. The third one is comparable
corpus. Comparable corpus is two or more corpora in different languages or
different varieties of language. An example of this corpus is The International
Corpus of English (ICE). The fourth one is parallel corpus. Parallel corpus is two
or more different corpora in different languages, each containing texts that have
been translated from one language into the other or texts that have been produced
simultaneously in two or more languages. The fifth one is learner corpus. Learner
corpus is a collection of texts produced by learners of a language. International
Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) is one of the examples of this type of corpus.
The sixth is pedagogic corpus. Pedagogic corpus is a corpus consisting of all the
language a learner has been exposed to. It consists of the course books or any
tapes that they have heard. It does not exist in physical form. The seventh is
historical corpus. It is also called diachronic corpus. It is a corpus of texts from
different periods of time. The best known historical corpus is Helsinki Corpus.
The last one is monitor corpus. Monitor corpus is a corpus designed to track
current changes in a language. “A corpus essentially tells us what language is like
and the main argument in favour of using a corpus is that it is a more reliable
guide to language use than native speaker intuition is” (Hunston, 2002, p.20).
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a. Corpus-based Analysis
There are some characteristics of corpus-based analyses. According to
Biber (2002), corpus-based analysis is empirical. It can show the actual patterns of
use in natural texts. It also utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts
as the basis for analysis. It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using
both automatic and interactive techniques. It depends on both quantitative and
qualitative analytical techniques.
Based on Stubbs (as cited in Davies & Elder, 2004), a language corpus
usually means a text collection which has some characteristics. First, it is large.
There are millions or even a hundred millions of words collected in corpus. They
are taken from some source of individual text or spoken. Second, it is computerreadable. It is an advantage that corpus is accessible, because there are a lot of
words that are collected in corpus. By using corpus software, it can access the
concordances to find list, linguistic pattern, and collocation easier. The last one, it
is designed for linguistic analysis. Since corpus contains of a large number of
data, linguist can take some examples from corpus. Corpus provides a sample of
specific text-types or abroad and balanced sample of language.
b. Frequency
Kilgarriff states that a central fact about a word is how frequent it is (as
cited in Davies & Elder, 2004, p.115). Frequency shows that system and use are
inseparable. Frequency lists from corpora can be useful for identifying possible
differences between the corpora that can be studied in more detail (Huston, 2002,
p.5). The most common words used in the daily life can be recognized by
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comparing the frequency of occurrences. Therefore, it becomes easier to put
particular words on the certain contexts semantically since knowing in which
particular words are usually used can help people to find the exact meaning of
particular words in different contexts. Besides, COCA has some registers to limit
the frequency findings such as spoken, fiction, magazine, newspapers, academic,
and based on the year 1990 to 2012. Biber et al. (2002) also state that “one use of
frequency lists is to compare the frequency of a target word to other words”
(p.29). In conclusion, the frequency in corpora facilitates to study the corpora of
each word in detail.
c. Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
Corpus develops over the past several decades to support empirical
investigations of language variation and use. The researcher needs COCA to
provide the data to be investigated. COCA is the largest freely-available corpus of
English and the only large and balance corpus of American English. This corpus
was created by Mark Davies of Brigham Young University. The corpus contains
more than 450 million words of text. It is divided among spoken, fiction,
magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It includes 20 million words each
year from 1900-2012 and it is updated regularly. The website corpus.byu.edu
offers access to several different linguistic corpora through the same interface.
There are several corpora in the website. There are Global Web-Based English
(GloWbE), Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), Corpus of
Historical American English (COHA), TIME Magazine Corpus, Corpus of
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American Soap Operas, British National Corpus (BYU-BNC), and Strathy Corpus
(Canada).
2. Word Classes
Language was the development of a set of categories for classifying words
(Bloor & Bloor, 2004). Each word belongs to a lexical category. Traditionally
there are eight of lexical categories, namely verb, noun, pronoun, determiner,
adjective, preposition, adverb, and conjunction.
a. Verb
Verb belongs to word class that expresses action, the suffering of action, or
existence. It also expresses tense, mood, and voice. Bloor and Bloor (2004, p. 22)
state that it is traditionally defined as words which express an action or state; it
also shows the greatest degree of variation in form of any of the word classes.
Verbs are either transitive or intransitive, both words deriving from the
Latin meaning „going across‟. A transitive verb requires an object to complete it,
the action of the verb going over to the object (e.g.: The car hit the fence). An
intransitive verb does not require an object to complete it (e.g.: The fence
collapsed).
A weak or regular verb is one that forms its past tense by adding -d or -t to
its present tense. It forms its past tense by shortening its present tense. It takes the
same form for the past as for the present. The richest variety in English verb form
is the verb be. Be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being. Most of
the verbs have only three to six forms. Take for instance the verb write. The verb
write has six forms: write, writes, wrote, written, to write, and writing.
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b. Noun
Traditionally noun is defined as a word that denotes a person, animal,
thing, or place (Aarts, 1997, p. 24). Noun is a word that is commonly used to
describe a thing. Noun can be divided into proper noun, common noun, and
pronoun. Proper noun is usually described individual names of persons (such as
John and Alex), places (such as Japan and Mexico), transportations (such as the
Titanic), institution and organization (such as the United Nations), book and
movie titles (such as Harry Potter), and other similar categories. Proper noun is
normally written with a capital letter. Based on Bloor & Bloor (2004), noun which
does not belong to proper noun is labelled as common noun (such as monkey,
table, and pencil) (p.19). Common noun can be subdivided into countable (such as
book and dog) and uncountable (such as water and sugar). Pronoun belongs to
noun and it is classified into some categories: personal pronoun, possessive
pronoun, reflexive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, reciprocal pronoun, relative
pronoun, interrogative pronoun, and indefinite pronoun. The classification of
personal pronoun and possessive pronoun can be seen in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Personal Pronoun and Possessive Pronoun
Singular
First Person
I, me, mine
my
Second Person
Third Person
you, yours,
your
he, him, his
his
she, her, hers
her
it, its
its
First person
we, us, ours
our
Second person
you, yours
your
Third person
they, them, theirs
their
Plural
(Bloor & Bloor, 2004, p.21)
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Reflexive pronoun is myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves,
themselves. Demonstrative pronoun is such as this, these, that, and those.
Reciprocal pronoun is such as each other, one another. That, who, which, whose,
what, and whom belong to interrogative pronoun. Indefinite pronoun is for
example anybody, anyone, nothing, someone, etc.
According to Aitchison (2003, p.76), noun can occur in some main places
such as subject, object and in adverbial phrases. A noun can occur in certain
positions. A noun can occur at the beginning of a sentence before the verb (The
cat ate the canary.), at the end of a sentence after the verb (The canary feared the
cat.), after by in a passive sentence (The canary was eaten by the cat.), and after
an auxiliary verb in a questions (Did the cat eat the canary?). Here, the cat stands
as a noun which forms such noun phrases (determiner + noun). The noun phrase
in those sentences functions as subject, object and part of adverb.
c. Determiner
Determiner is a more comprehensive category than article (Bloor & Bloor,
2004, p.24). Determiner specifies the more precisely the meaning of the noun
placed after it. According to Finegan (2004, p.44), determiner has some
subclasses. The first subclass is definite and indefinite articles (the, a, an). The
second one is demonstrative (e.g. this, those). The third subclass is possessive
(e.g. my, your, his). The forth one is interrogative (e.g. which, what, whose). The
examples of the use of determiners are: the doll, an apple, those knives.
Determiners precede noun phrase such as my long hair, which big box, these red
apples.
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d. Adjective
Based on Bloor & Bloor (2004) adjective has two main functions. The first
is as a modifier of nouns, for example, a beautiful city. The second is as a head of
group that is complement of a copular verb such as be, seem, become; for
example, you are beautiful.
The typical morphological potential of an adjective is an inflection for
comparative and superlative forms. Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish
(2001) state that adjective can usually take the suffixes –er and –est, as in larger
and biggest (p.20). However the adjectives containing more than two syllables do
not permit these endings, expenssiver and expenssivest are not well-formed. Some
adjectives occur not with –er or –est but with the comparative words more and
most. They can be identified through certain characteristics such as suffix -ful, less, and -ive and the prefix un-. Most adjective are also gradable. They can be
preceded by words such as very, extremely, and less as in very disgusting and
extremely happy).
e. Preposition
Preposition constitutes a class with few members and the prepositions of
English can be enumerated and typically precede a noun phrase, as in a party or
on Monday (Finegan, 2004, p. 45). They also occur in prepositional phrases with
a nominal group as complement. The word class of prepositions tend to be very
short and often consist of two or three letters (for example: at, by, and under).
They usually combine with noun phrases and prepositional phrases.
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f. Adverb
“Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs” (Aarts, 1997, p.42).
The examples of adverbs modify verbs: The teacher speaks loudly (The teacher is
a loud speaker); She comes often; Mr. Smith goes here. Adverb often forms
adjective by the addition of the suffix –ly, as with slowly, nearly, and silently.
There are some types of adverbs; adverbs of manner (quickly and carefully),
adverbs of time (tomorrow and next morning), adverbs of place (there and in the
room). Finegan (2004) states that adverb plays a range of functions, including
modifying verb, adjective, or other adverb (p. 45). There are also some subclasses
of adverbs namely circumstantial adverb (often, intentionally, and reluctantly),
degree adverb (extremely, more, and pretty), and sentence adverb (however,
perhaps, and probably). Another set of adverbs includes now, then, later, earlier,
here, there, everywhere, nowhere, and anywhere. Words like seldom, never, often,
frequently, and always are included in adverbs of frequency. There are also
directional adverbs such as upwards, downwards, and backwards. The adverbs
like however, moreover, nevertheless, honestly, and clearly are usually called
sentence adverbs because they often occur at the beginning of a clause.
g. Conjunction
Conjunction belongs to a class of word that has linking conjunction (also
known as coordinating conjunction) and binding conjunction (also known as
subordinating conjunction).
Coordinating conjunctions
serve to
conjoin
expressions of the same category or status. And, but, and or are the conjunctions
of coordinating conjunctions; for example, milk or tea and hot and cold.
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Subordinating conjunctions are words such as that, since, while, and because,