A Corpus-based analysis of subordinating conjunctions since and because in adverbial clause of reason.

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

ABSTRACT
Duanaya, Ineke. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions
Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
To introduce clause expressing the cause or reason or the idea expressed in
the independent clause, people need subordinating conjunctions named
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. Based on the finding in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because and since occurred
in bigger number of frequency than other subordinating conjunctions in adverbial
clause of reason. Because and since also have similarity in meaning, so they are
synonymous words. They also share the same function to introduce adverbial
clause of reason.
There are two research problems formulated in this study: 1) What are the
frequencies of since and because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in

adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 - 2012? 2) What clause patterns occur
with since and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason? Therefore, the objectives of this research are to see the frequency of since
and because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason in COCA 2010 – 2012 and to identify the pattern of clause following since
and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.
The study was quantitative research and qualitative research. This study
used corpus based analysis to gather the data of since and because. The data was
taken from COCA 2010 – 2012. The study used purposive sampling method to get
100 tokens for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason. The researcher used the theories of frequency in corpus linguistics to solve
the first research problem. The researcher also employed the definition of since
and because from the dictionaries. Meanwhile, to solve the second research
problems, the researcher used the theories of clause patterns.
From the data taken, the researcher found that since occurred 24,807 times
in COCA 2010 – 2012, while because occurred 68,321 times in COCA 2010 2012. To get a hundred data for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in
adverbial clause, the researcher needed 400 data of since and 121 data of because.
After analyzing the data, the researcher found five clause patterns occurred with
since. There were Subject-Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb
intransitive-(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive –Direct

object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object Complement. On the contrary,
there were six clause patterns that occurred with because. They were Subject–
Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb intransitive-(Adverbial),
Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, Subject-Verb
transitive-Indirect Object-Direct Object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object
Complement.
Keywords: frequency, corpus, subordinating conjunction, clause pattern, since,
because

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

ABSTRAK
Duanaya, Ineke. 2015. A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions
Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata
Dharma.

Untuk memperkenalkan klausa tentang sebab-akibat atau gagasan yang
ditunjukkan di induk kalimat, seseorang membutuhkan kata penghubung yang
disebut dengan kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Berdasarkan penemuan
di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because dan since muncul
dalam jumlah frekuensi yang lebih besar daripada kata penghubung-kata
penghubung yang lain dari klausa keterangan sebab. Because dan since juga
mempunyai persamaan dalam arti sehingga mereka bersinonim. Mereka juga
berbagi fungsi yang sama untuk memperkenalkan klausa keterangan sebab-akibat.
Ada dua rumusan permasalahan di penelitian ini, yaitu 1) Berapa frekuensi
dari kata since dan because terutama sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan
sebab di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) pada tahun 2010 –
2012? 2) Apa saja bentuk-bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan since dan because
sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab? Oleh sebab itu, tujuan
penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat frekuensi dari since dan because terutama
sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kuantitafif dan kualitatif dengan
menggunakan corpus based analysis untuk mengumpulkan data since dan because.
Data ini diambil dari COCA 2010 – 2012. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode
purposive sampling untuk mendapatakan 100 data untuk setiap kata since dan
because sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Peneliti menggunakan

teori-teori tentang frekuensi di corpus linguistics untuk menyelesaikan rumusan
masalah pertama. Peneliti juga menggunakan definisi since dan because dari
berbagai kamus. Di samping itu, untuk menyelesaikan rumusan masalah kedua,
peneliti menggunakan berbagai teori tentang bentuk-bentuk klausa.
Dari data yang diambil, peneliti menemukan jika since terjadi sebanyak
24,807 kali di COCA 2010 – 2012, sedangkan because muncul sebanyak 68,321
kali di COCA 2010 – 2012. Untuk mendapatkan seratus data untuk setiap kata
tersebut sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab, peneliti membutuhkan
400 data since dan 121 data because. Setelah menganalisis data, peneliti
menemukan lima bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan since, yaitu Subject–Linking
Verb-Subject Complement, Subject–Verb intransitive–(Adverbial), Subject-VerbAdverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, dan Subject-Verb-Direct ObjectObject Complement. Disamping itu, terdapat enam bentuk klausa yang mengikuti
kata because, yaitu Subject–Linking Verb–Subject Complement, Subject–Verb
intransitive–(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct
object, Subject –Verb transitive –Indirect Object–Direct Object, dan Subject–Verb–
Direct Object–Object Complement.
Kata Kunci: frequency, corpus, subordinating conjunction, clause pattern, since,
because

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN

MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
SINCE AND BECAUSE IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education

By
Ineke Duanaya
Student Number: 101214151

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

A CORPUS-BASED ANALYSIS OF
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
SINCE AND BECAUSE IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education

By
Ineke Duanaya
Student Number: 101214151

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2015

i

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

A Surl*na Penclitlikun Thesis on

A CORPUS‐ BASED ANALYSIS OF

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCT10NS
S薇「σE AND 3EC4dttIN ADヽ

電 RBIAL

CLAUSE OF REASON

Advisor

Caria Sih PFalttncta五 ,S.P(1.ラ Ⅳ

l‐

Hllitl`

1‐

4 July 2015

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

A Sarjana Ilenditlikan Thesis on

A CORPUSttkSED ANALYSIS OF‐

SUBORDINATINC COINttCT10NS
戯ⅣGE AttD ttEc41%E IN ADⅦ RttAL

CLAllSE OF REASON

By

NEKE DUANAYA
student lヾ L11■ beri 101214151

Del'ended before the Board of Examiners
on 3.1 .lui-v 2015
Acceptable
Declared
and

Board of Exnminers

Chairperson
Secretary

Member

Cttla

Mernber

DFS.YB`

Member

Paulus Kus、 犠ndOlloラ Ph:D`

∼

Yo蓼 aka耐亀31

July 2015

Facultyご Teachこ rs Training and Education
SI■ ata DhttmUniサ ersity

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

“FAITH
IT DOES NOT
MAKE THINGS EASY
IT MAKES THEM

POSSIBLE

”

(Luke 1:37)

Dedicated to
Bapak and Ibu, for the love, hope, and prayer
&
Mas Dana, for being the best brother in the world

iv

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

STATEⅣIENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of otherpeople, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 31 July 2015
The writer

Ineke Duanaya

10t2t4t5l

V

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

LEⅣ IBAR

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILⅣIIAⅡ UNTUK KEPERLUAN AKADEⅣ

IIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama
Nomor

: Ineke Duanaya

Mahasiswa : I0l2l4l5l

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

A CORPUS.BASED ANALYSIS OF
SUBORDINATING C ONJUNCTIONS
SINCE AND BECAUSE IN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF REASON
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan

kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data,
mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di intemet atau meCia

iain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya

atau

memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.

Demikian peniyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya,
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Padatanggal : 31 Juli 2015
Yang menyatakan

Ineke Duanaya

Vl

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

ABSTRACT
Duanaya, Ineke. (2015). A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions
Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma
University.
To introduce clause expressing the cause or reason or the idea expressed in
the independent clause, people need subordinating conjunctions named
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. Based on the finding in
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because and since occurred
in bigger number of frequency than other subordinating conjunctions in adverbial
clause of reason. Because and since also have similarity in meaning, so they are
synonymous words. They also share the same function to introduce adverbial
clause of reason.
There are two research problems formulated in this study: 1) What are the
frequencies of since and because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in
adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 - 2012? 2) What clause patterns occur
with since and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason? Therefore, the objectives of this research are to see the frequency of since
and because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason in COCA 2010 – 2012 and to identify the pattern of clause following since
and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.
The study was quantitative research and qualitative research. This study
used corpus based analysis to gather the data of since and because. The data was
taken from COCA 2010 – 2012. The study used purposive sampling method to get
100 tokens for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason. The researcher used the theories of frequency in corpus linguistics to solve
the first research problem. The researcher also employed the definition of since
and because from the dictionaries. Meanwhile, to solve the second research
problems, the researcher used the theories of clause patterns.
From the data taken, the researcher found that since occurred 24,807 times
in COCA 2010 – 2012, while because occurred 68,321 times in COCA 2010 2012. To get a hundred data for each of words as subordinating conjunctions in
adverbial clause, the researcher needed 400 data of since and 121 data of because.
After analyzing the data, the researcher found five clause patterns occurred with
since. There were Subject-Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb
intransitive-(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive –Direct
object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object Complement. On the contrary,
there were six clause patterns that occurred with because. They were Subject–
Linking Verb-Subject Complement, Subject-Verb intransitive-(Adverbial),
Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, Subject-Verb
transitive-Indirect Object-Direct Object, and Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Object
Complement.
Keywords: frequency, corpus, subordinating conjunction, clause pattern, since,
because
vii

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

ABSTRAK
Duanaya, Ineke. 2015. A Corpus-based Analysis of Subordinating Conjunctions
Since and Because in Adverbial Clause of Reason. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata
Dharma.
Untuk memperkenalkan klausa tentang sebab-akibat atau gagasan yang
ditunjukkan di induk kalimat, seseorang membutuhkan kata penghubung yang
disebut dengan kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Berdasarkan penemuan
di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because dan since muncul
dalam jumlah frekuensi yang lebih besar daripada kata penghubung-kata
penghubung yang lain dari klausa keterangan sebab. Because dan since juga
mempunyai persamaan dalam arti sehingga mereka bersinonim. Mereka juga
berbagi fungsi yang sama untuk memperkenalkan klausa keterangan sebab-akibat.
Ada dua rumusan permasalahan di penelitian ini, yaitu 1) Berapa frekuensi
dari kata since dan because terutama sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan
sebab di Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) pada tahun 2010 –
2012? 2) Apa saja bentuk-bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan since dan because
sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab? Oleh sebab itu, tujuan
penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat frekuensi dari since dan because terutama
sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab.
Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kuantitafif dan kualitatif dengan
menggunakan corpus based analysis untuk mengumpulkan data since dan because.
Data ini diambil dari COCA 2010 – 2012. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode
purposive sampling untuk mendapatakan 100 data untuk setiap kata since dan
because sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab. Peneliti menggunakan
teori-teori tentang frekuensi di corpus linguistics untuk menyelesaikan rumusan
masalah pertama. Peneliti juga menggunakan definisi since dan because dari
berbagai kamus. Di samping itu, untuk menyelesaikan rumusan masalah kedua,
peneliti menggunakan berbagai teori tentang bentuk-bentuk klausa.
Dari data yang diambil, peneliti menemukan jika since terjadi sebanyak
24,807 kali di COCA 2010 – 2012, sedangkan because muncul sebanyak 68,321
kali di COCA 2010 – 2012. Untuk mendapatkan seratus data untuk setiap kata
tersebut sebagai kata penghubung klausa keterangan sebab, peneliti membutuhkan
400 data since dan 121 data because. Setelah menganalisis data, peneliti
menemukan lima bentuk klausa yang terjadi dengan since, yaitu Subject–Linking
Verb-Subject Complement, Subject–Verb intransitive–(Adverbial), Subject-VerbAdverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct object, dan Subject-Verb-Direct ObjectObject Complement. Disamping itu, terdapat enam bentuk klausa yang mengikuti
kata because, yaitu Subject–Linking Verb–Subject Complement, Subject–Verb
intransitive–(Adverbial), Subject-Verb-Adverbial, Subject-Verb transitive-Direct
object, Subject –Verb transitive –Indirect Object–Direct Object, dan Subject–Verb–
Direct Object–Object Complement.
Kata Kunci: frequency, corpus, subordinating conjunction, clause pattern, since,
because
viii

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank JESUS CHRIST – my Savior, my Hope,
and the One whom I really depend on. An impossible thing for me is an easy thing
for God. A cul-de-sac blocking me can be opened by His power specifically
during this thesis process. Nothing is impossible with God. By His grace, I could
finish this thesis.
For everything, I would like to thank my father in heaven Bapak Edy
Pamungkas and Ibu Sri Rus Wahyuni Aksiati. I give thanks to Bapak for his
love, care, and prayer during his life. I also feel grateful to have such a mother like
Ibu, who always do everything for the best thing for her children. I thank her so
much for always mentioning my name in her prayer. I would not have been able
to finish my study without my brother Perdana Arum Cristhie because of his
nagging questions about my study. Because of them, I can say that family is the
best thing I always have in the world.
My great appreciation goes to my sponsor, Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd.,
M.Hum., who has willingly and patiently helped me. I thank her for her time,
guidance, patience, critical questions, and support during the last three semesters.
I would like to thank all my ELESP lectures for teaching me in Sanata
Dharma University. I specially thank my academic advisor, Henny Herawati,
S.Pd., M.Hum., for her guidance during my study in ELESP. Moreover, I thank
Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D., for his time to give correction and suggestion in
the final process of producing this thesis. I also thank all secretariat staff of
ix

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

English Language Education Study Program and Faculty of Teachers
Training and Education of Sanata Dharma University and all librarians for
giving the best and friendly service.
Then, I would like to thank all friends in PBI especially PBI 2010 C, my
group in Play Performance, Velum, my work partners in Green Millet, PKS
Gloria and EEPro. For every support and companion, I thank Dita, Tiwi,
Pandhu, Disa, Maki, Ijah, Nutnut, Monic, Wara, Dochi, Yos, Kapuk, Siwi,
Andre, Puput, and Sartika. I thank them for being there in my ups and downs.
The laughter, discussion, and happy moments we shared won’t ever be forgotten.
I would not have been able to finish my thesis without the masterpiece of
John Mayer, John Legend, Jamie Cullum, Gabrielle Aplin, Birdy, Norah
Jones, Lala Karmela, and Monita Tahalea. I thank God for blues, jazz, folk and
pop.
Lastly, I thank everyone who have helped and supported me -those whom
I cannot mention one by one. May God shower them with His exceeding
blessings.
The writer

Ineke Duanaya

x

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................

i

APPROVAL PAGES ..................................................................................

ii

DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................

iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...........................................

v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ...........................................

vi

ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................

vii

ABSTRAK ...................................................................................................

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................

xi

LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................

xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background .........................................................

1

B. Research Problems .............................................................

5

C. Problem Limitation .............................................................

5

D. Research Objectives ...........................................................

6

E. Research Benefits ...............................................................

6

F. Definition of Terms ............................................................

7

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description .......................................................

10

1. Corpus Linguistics .........................................................

10

2. Semantics Approach ......................................................

15

3. Conjunctions ..................................................................

20

4. Clause ............................................................................

21

5. Basic Sentence ...............................................................

26

xi

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................

32

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method ................................................................

35

B. Research Setting .................................................................

37

C. Research Subjects ...............................................................

37

D. Instrument and Data Gathering Techniques .......................

38

E. Data Analysis Techniques ..................................................

39

F. Research Procedure ............................................................

40

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. The Frequencies of Since and Because in COCA ...............

43

1. The frequency of since in COCA 2010 – 2012 ..............

44

2. The frequency of because in COCA 2010 – 2012……. .

48

B. The Pattern of Since and Because as Subordinating
Conjunctions in Adverbial Clause of Reason in COCA …..

51

1. The clause pattern following since as a subordinating
conjunction in adverbial clause of reason ......................

51

2. The clause pattern following because as a subordinating
conjunction in adverbial clause of reason ......................

59

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions ........................................................................

69

B. Implications ........................................................................

71

C. Recommendations ...............................................................

73

REFERENCES ...........................................................................................

74

APPENDICES ...........................................................................................

77

xii

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

LIST OF TABLES
Table
4.1

Page
Since’s Frequency of Occurrence in 400 Samples in
COCA 2010 – 2012 ............................................................

4.2

Because’s Frequency of Occurrence in 121 Samples in
COCA 2010 – 2012 ............................................................

4.3

46

49

Basic Clause Pattern Following Since as a Subordinating
Conjunction in Adverbial Clause of Reason in COCA
2010 – 2012 ........................................................................

4.4

Basic

Clause

Pattern

Following

Because

as

52

a

Subordinating Conjunction in Adverbial Clause of
Reason in COCA 2010 – 2012 ...........................................

xiii

60

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

4.1

Chart of Since in COCA 2010 – 2012 ................................

45

4.2

Chart of Because in COCA 2010 – 2012 ...........................

48

xiv

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix

Page

APPENDIX A The Tokens of Since 2010 – 2012 in COCA ..................
APPENDIX B

The Tokens of Because 2010 – 2012 in COCA .............

77
104

APPENDIX C The Tokens of Basic Clause Pattern Following Since
in COCA 2010 – 2012 ....................................................

113

APPENDIX D The Tokens of Basic Clause Pattern Following
Because in COCA 2010 – 2012 ......................................

xv

118

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher discusses the background of this research. The
background of the research describes the researcher’s ideas. This chapter consists
of the research background, the problem formulations, the problem limitation, the
research objectives, and the definition of terms.

A. Research Background
To introduce a clause expressing the cause/reason or the idea expressed in
the independent clause, people need a subordinating conjunction. The subordinating
conjunction is called subordinating conjunction/subordinator in adverbial clause of
reason. The subordinating conjunctions that can be used to introduce adverbial of
reason are since, because, so (that), or now that (Azar, 2009). Based on the findings
in Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), because occurs 592,769
times, since occurs 225,237 times, so (that) occurs 62,555 times, and now that
occurs 23,104 times. Because takes the highest number of the frequencies. Then, it
is followed by since who took 225,237 times. It can be concluded that because is
the subordinator in adverbial clause of reason that commonly used. Moreover, since
stands on the second rank of subordinator in adverbial clause of reason that mostly
used in COCA.
By looking at the meaning and the etymology of since and because, they
share the same meaning when they function as a subordinating conjunction in

1

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

2
adverbial clause of reason. According to Oxford Learners Dictionaries online
version, since can be categorized in three word classes, they are preposition, adverb,
and conjunction (“Since”). Since can be functioned as a conjunction in adverbial
clause of time and a conjunction in adverbial clause of reason. Oxford Learner
Dictionaries online version states that since has a function as because (“Since”).
Meanwhile, the meaning of because based on Oxford Learners Dictionaries online
version is for the reason that (“Because”). In Oxford Learners Dictionaries online
version, because is classified as a conjunction (“Because”). Moreover, Online
Etymology Dictionary reveals that the etymology of since as a conjunction came
from the late fourteenth century, while the origin word of because is bi cause “by
cause” which appeared in 1300 (“Since”). Oxford Learners Dictionaries online
version also states that word origin of because is influenced by Old French par
cause de which means by reason of (“Because”).
Referring to the definition of since and because, it can be seen that those
words share the same meaning and function. It can be said that they are synonymous
words since they have the same meaning. In fact, people often find words which
have the same meaning with other words. It is called synonymous. Lyons (2005)
states, “words with the same meaning are synonymous” (p. 60). According to
Adisutrisno (2008), synonymy is sameness of meaning which is not concerned with
the conceptual meaning of words, but relations of words which have more are less
the same conceptual meaning like a: elevator and lift, gala and festivy. It is
supported by Finegan (2012), “the words are said to be synonymous if they mean
the same thing” (p. 192). He explains that to address the notion of synonymy more

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

3
formally, we can say that term A is synonymous with term B if every referent of A
is a referent of B and vice versa. The point of synonymy is two or more words mean
the same thing. The word since and because refer to the subordinator which
introduces the reason.
Since the word since and because have the same meaning and also similarity
in function, the researcher wants to analyze the linguistic phenomenon that can be
appeared with those subordinating conjunctions. In order to investigate the data of
language like language variation and use, some linguists use corpus. In this study,
corpus will be used to collect the data of since and because. By using corpus, the
researcher is able to discover the data. Biber, Conrad, and Reppen (2002) say that
a corpus which is the collection of written and spoken language that is stored in
computers, can be used to present all the contexts in which a word occurs. By
looking at the data from the corpus, the researcher can investigate the frequencies
of since and because in corpus. Moreover, corpus enables the researcher to see the
grammatical pattern of clause following since and because.
McEnery and Wilson (2001) have described the relation between corpus
linguistics and syntactic study:
Grammatical or syntactic studies have been the most frequent types of
research which have used corpora. Corpora are important for syntactic
research because it has potential for the representative quantification of the
grammar of a whole language variety. The corpora’s empirical data are
also quantifiable and representative, for the testing of hypotheses derived
from grammatical theory” (pp. 109-110).
The use of corpus-based analysis in this research is useful to gather the data
for analyzing the grammatical pattern of adverbial clauses following since and
because. Kennedy (1998) states that conjunctions have an important role in

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

4
interclausal cohesion. Since is one of the conjunctions which have temporal and
causal uses. The use of since as a subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of
reason appears in both written and spoken English. By using corpus-based analysis,
the researcher is able to know the use of since in written or spoken English. A
research conducted by Kennedy (1998) shows these following results:
Thirty five percent of the 542 tokens of since in the LOB Corpus express
causation. However, in the academic genre 64% of the uses of since
express causation. In the academic section of the Brown Corpus, 86%
mark since as causation. In the LLC of spoken British English, on the other
hand, 24% of 161 tokens of since are causal (p. 148).
Those data example proves that the use of corpus analysis is useful to collect
data. Since corpus is a great database of words, corpus enable a researcher to take
data in great numbers. Based on the data collected, the researcher is able to know
the pattern of clause following the adverbial clause of reason like since and because.
The source of the corpus needed will be obtained from Corpus of
Contemporary American English (COCA). COCA consists of written and spoken
corpus from 1990 to 2012 (Davies, n.d.). It is chosen as the data because it contains
the largest freely-available corpus of English which contains 450 million words of
text. To comprehend the recent use of the subordinators since and because, the
study will use corpus from 2010 to 2012 because the latest corpus in COCA comes
from those years.
According to Kennedy (1998), in the language sciences, a corpus is a body
of written text or transcribed speech which can serve as a basic for linguistic
analysis and description. Kennedy (1998) states that linguists use corpora to answer
questions and solve problems. It is possible to do linguistic analysis using a corpus,

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

5
and to discover the facts about language which have never been noticed or written
about previously. Therefore, corpus makes this study possible to examine the
characteristics of since and because as subordinating conjunction in adverbial
clause of reason.

B. Research Problems
Based on the background, the research problems are:
1.

What are the frequencies of since and because specifically as the subordinating
conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 – 2012?

2.

What clause patterns occur with since and because as subordinating
conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason?

C. Problem Limitation
In this research, the researcher focuses on two points: (1) the frequency of
since and because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause
of reason in 2010 – 2012; (2) the clause pattern occurs in since and because as
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA 2010 – 2012.
The researcher analyzes the frequency of since and because and the clause pattern
following them in the sentence taken. The researcher uses Contemporary American
English (COCA) as the source of the data. COCA is the largest freely-available
corpus of English, and the only large and balanced corpus of American English
(Davies, n.d.). The corpus created by Mark Davies of Brigham Young University

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

6
contains more than 450 million words of text and was equally divided among
spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic text (Davies, n.d.).

D. Research Objectives
First, the objective of this research is to see the frequency of since and
because specifically as the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason.
Second, another objective of this research is to identify the pattern of clause
following since and because as subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of
reason in COCA 2010 – 2012.

E. Research Benefits
This research has some benefits. For the English Language learners, this
research gives them understanding about the use of since and because as the
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason. They will be able to
differentiate the use of since and because in a sentence. Moreover, they will be able
to apply the clause pattern in order to use English correctly.
For academic benefit, this research will contribute in linguistic study
especially in grammar study and corpus linguistic study. Corpus linguistic study is
a new field in the study of linguistics. Therefore, the use of corpus analysis in this
research will contribute the understanding of corpus linguistic study.

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

7
F. Definition of Terms
1.

Corpus-based Analysis
Kennedy (1998) states, “corpus is a body of written text or transcribed

speech which can serve as a basic for linguistic analysis and description” (p. 1).
Corpus linguistics is not a branch of linguistics in the same sense as syntax,
semantics, sociolinguistics, and so on. Corpus linguistics in contract is a
methodology rather than an aspect of language requiring explanation or description.
Therefore, corpus linguistics is a methodology that may be used in almost any area
of linguistics, but it does not limit an area of linguistics itself.
According to Biber (2002), corpus-based analysis has some essential
characteristics:
It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts; it
utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a
“corpus”, as the basis for analysis; it makes extensive use of computers for
analysis, using both automatic and interactive techniques; it depends on
both quantitative and analytical techniques (p. 4).
Corpus-based analysis uses computers for the whole processes. Computers
make it enable to identify and analyze complex pattern of language use, allowing
the storage and analysis of a larger database of natural language than could be dealt
with by hand.
2.

Subordinating Conjunction
Subordinating conjunction is a word that introduces adverbial clause. This

conjunctions typically occur between two clauses. According to Finch (2005), in a
sentence the clause following the conjunction elaborates a requirement that has to
be fulfilled for the action in the main clause to be accomplished. The examples of

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

8
subordinating conjunctions are if, when, while, whether, because, and since. Since
and because are subordinating conjunctions which have function to introduce
adverbial clause of reason.
3.

Since
According to Cambridge Dictionaries online, since has two meanings as the

conjunction of time and the conjunction which has the same meaning as because
(“Since”). The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the origin meaning of the
word since as a conjunction came from the late of 14th century, while since as a
preposition came in the year 1510s (“Since”). According to Longman Language
Activator, the word since which has the same meaning as because is usually used
to introduce the reason why you decide to do something or suggest doing something
(“Since”). In this research, the researcher would like to analyze since as the
conjunction which has the same meaning as because. Since belongs to
subordinating conjunction in adverbial clause of reason.
4.

Because
According to Cambridge Dictionaries online, because as a conjunction

means for the reason that (“Because”). Moreover, Longman Language Activator
states that because is word used when you are explaining why something happened
or why you did something (“Because”). The Online Etymology Dictionary states
that the word because comes from the phrase by cause (“Because”). According to
the Online Etymology Dictionary, because is often followed by a subordinate clause
introduced by that or why (“Because”). The word because belongs to subordinating

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

9
conjunction in adverbial clause of reason. The function of because is to be the
conjunction in adverbial clause of reason.
5.

Adverbial Clause of Reason
Adverbial clause of reason modifies the independent clause (Miller, 2002).

Miller (2002) says that all adverbial clauses modify the whole clauses. Adverbial
clause of reason is introduced by a subordinator conjunction/subordinator. Warriner
(1982) explains that the subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason
have a function to introduce clauses expressing the cause or reason or the idea
expressed in the independent clause. The subordinators are as, since, because,
whereas, or now that (Azar, 1993; Warriner, 1982).

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher discusses two major parts which are theoritical
description and theoritical framework. The theoritical description presents the theory
of corpus linguistics, corpus-based analysis, conjunction, COCA, and word classes.
Meanwhile, the theoritical framework describes the theories used to answer the
research problems.

A. Theoritical Description
In this part, the resarcher discusses the theory of corpus linguitics, corpusbased analysis, word classes, and conjunction.
1.

Corpus Linguistics
In 2010, Kaplan states that “corpus linguistics is a research approach that

has developed over the past several decades to support empirical investigations of
language variation and use, resulting in research findings that have much greater
generalizability and validity that would be otherwise be feasible” (p. 548). Corpus
linguistics is a kind of way to see or investigate the language variation and use.
According to Kaplan (2010), corpus linguistics contributes to document. Moreover,
the existence of linguistics constructs such as words and grammatical construction
to pattern together in particular ways. A research in corpus linguistics will identify
the strong tendencies for words and grammatical constructions to pattern together.

10

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

11
According to Biber, Conrad, and Reppen, corpus linguistics could be regarded as
primarly a methodological approach because:
It is empirical, analyzing the actual pattern of use in natural texts; It utilizes
a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a corpus, as the
basis for analysis; It makes extensive use of computers for analysis,
employing both automatic and interactive techniques; It depends on both
quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques (as cited in Kaplan, 2010,
p. 548).
Davies and Elder (2004) state, “corpus linguistics aims to improve language
description and theory, and the task for applied linguistics is to assess the relevance
of this work to practical application. It is essential for accurately describing
language use, and have shown how lexis, grammar, and semantic interact” (p. 106).
This statement is quite similar to Kaplan’s statement. All of them state that corpus
linguistics is used to gather the data of language. According to Davies and Elder
(2004), corpora provide observable evidence about language use, which leads to
new descriptions, which in turn are embodied in dictionaries, grammars, and
teaching materials (pp. 106-107). However, corpus is used as the source of
evidences in this research. Corpus study is useful for a study of grammar because
grammarian might want to know the differences or the similarities of constructions
between two synonymous words. Therefore, Davies and Elder (2004) conclude that
“it is an empirical approach to study language, which uses observations of attesed
data in order to make generalizations about lexis, grammar, and semantics and
therefore corpora solve the problem of observing pattern of language use” (p. 107).
a.

Corpus-based Analysis
The reason why the linguists use linguistic corpora is to provide the basic

for more accurate and reliable descriptions of how language are structured and used.

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

12
Using corpus-based approach means studying the use of language characteristics
by considering the proper pattern. Biber et al. (2002) say, “association patterns
represent quantitative relations, measuring the extent to which features and variants
are associated with contextual factors” (p. 4). However, they add that functional
(qualitative) interpretation is also an essential step in any corpus-based analysis, so
the relationship between quantitative and qualitative techniques will be discussed
in corpus-based approach (p. 4).
Corpus-based analysis has some characteristics. Biber et al. (2002) mentions
the essential charactheristic of corpus-based analysis are:
1. It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts;
2. It utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a
“corpus,” as the basis for analysis;
3. It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using both automatic
and interactive techniques.
4. It depends on both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques (p.
4).
The use of computer is essential in corpus-based approach. According to
Bieber et al. (2002), computers make it possible to identify and analyze complex
pattern of language use, allowing the storage and analysis of a larger database of
natural language than could be dealt by hand (p. 4). Furthermore, computer is
consistent and reliable since it gives reliable analysis. Computer does not change
its mind or becomes tired during analysis, so computer is reliable for analysis
research. According to Davies and Elder (2004), computer technologies are
essential in corpus since the study gives priority to observe millions of running
words (p. 107). The use of computer makes linguistics become natural sciences,
where it is observational and measuring instrument. Davies and Elder (2004) state,

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

13
“observation is not restricted to any single method, but concordances are essential
for studying lexical, grammatical, and semantic patterns” (p. 107). Corpus-based
analysis is not only dealing with the simple counts of linguitics feature. Therefore,
it is essential to include qualitative research in corpus-based analysis.
b. Frequency
A corpus presents the data which are varied enough, coming from multiple
sources that shows the tendencies from multiple registers or sections. Since corpus
has large data, researcher can examine the frequency of the word occurrence in
corpus. Biber et al. (2002) say, “one use of frequency list is to compare the
frequency of a target words to other words” (p. 29). Hunston (2002) defines that a
frequency list is simply a list of all the types in a corpus together with the
occurrences of each type (p. 67). The list can be shown in any different kinds such
as frequency order, alphabetical order, and the first occurrences of the type in the
corpus. Moreover, Hunston (2002) mentions that the frequency list from corpora
can be useful for identifying possible differences between the corpora that can then
be studied in more details (p. 5).
Comparing the frequency lists of two or more words in a corpus can give
interesting information about the differences between them. Investigating the
frequency of words in corpus can reveal the most common and uncommon words
in English (Biber et al., 2002). In addition, it is one of the functions of frequency to
compare the frequency of target word to other words (Biber et al., 2002). For this
reason, the researcher wants to investigate the frequency of the words since and
because as subordinator conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in order to know

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

14
which common subordinator is used in English. Furthermore, using online corpus
like COCA gives an automatic list of word and shows the number of occurrences
frequency of certain words.
c.

Corpus Studys with a Grammatical Focus
A corpus study in this research concerns in the grammatical focus since the

researcher examines the clause pattern that appears after since and because as
subordinating conjunctions in adverbial clause of reason in COCA. Kaplan (2010)
states, “appliying corpus-based analysis to show how grammatical feature can be
described for structural characteristic as well as pattern of use across spoken and
written registers” (p. 554). Using corpus study to analyze grammatical construction
is very useful. According to Biber (2002), there might be an association between
the words and their grammatical environment which is called lexico-grammatical
associations. Lexico-grammatical analysis can be used for attempting to distinguish
between the words or the structure that are nearly synonymous in meaning.
Therefore, the researcher can distinguish two nearly synonymous words by
considering their association with different grammatical construction or different
word classes (p. 84).
d. Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is the largest freelyavailable corpus of English, and the only large and balanced corpus of American
English (Davies, n.d.). COCA is created by Mark Davies of Brigham Young
University containing 450 million words of text. The corpus is equally divided

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

15
among spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It
includes 20 million words each year from 1900 – 2012.
COCA allows the users to easily limit the searches through frequency and
compare the frequency of words, phrases, and grammatical construction, at least in
two main ways:
a. By genre: comparisons between spoken, fiction, popular magazines,
newspapers, and academic, or even between sub-genres, such as movie
scripts, newspaper editorial, or scientific journals.
b. Over time: compare different years from 1990 to the present time
(Davies, n.d.).
By using COCA, the users can easily carry out semantically-based queries
of the corpus like to identify the contrast and the comparison of the collocations of
two related words in order to determine the differences in the meaning or the use
between the words. Moreover, the users can identify the frequency and the
distribution of synonyms for nearly 60,000 words and also compare their frequency
in different genres, and also use these word lists as a part of other queries.
2.

Semantics Approach
Semantics concerns in the sentence meaning. Semantics is the technical term

used to refer the study of meaning (Palmer, 1981). According to Leech (1981), there
are six types of meaning which are conceptual meaning, connotative meaning,
social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.
However, the researcher only uses conceptual meaning related to the dictionary
meaning used in this study especially to choose since as a subordinating conjunction
in adverbial clause of reason among the words’ since of functions/meanings. Leech

PLAGIAT
PLAGIATMERUPAKAN
MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI

16
(1981) says that conceptual/denotative/cognitive meaning is the central factor in
linguistic communication.
a.

The Etymology of Since and Because
The word since and because have their origin meaning. According to the

Online Etymology Dictionary, the word since belongs into two word classes which
are adverb and conjunction (�