Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:
Use of geographical information systems (GIS)
mapping procedures to support educational policy
analysis and school site management
James E. Bruno
Pro fe sso r o f Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Lo s Ange le s, USA
Observes that while most
school site management
personnel are familiar with
the multitude of visual
representations of statistical
data, via graphs and charts,
the value of visual representations of geographical
information remains largely
unknown in educational
management. Explains that
geographical information
systems (GIS), in addition to
determining the exact
geographical street address
location of a client, can also
overlay important SES, thematic information such as
demographic characteristics
(per capita household
income, percentage, minority,
etc.), and man-made, and
when natural geographical
barriers are combined a
powerful visual representation or picture of a client
service area emerges.
Describes how these visual
representations of
educational service areas can
then be used to support
educational policy analysis
and school site management.
Presents several illustrations
of how GIS mapping
procedures can be applied to
school site management,
planning and policy analysis.
Draws three illustrations of
GIS mapping from the school
management areas of
co-ordination of school site
outreach services to
educational policy areas of
ensuring “ equity” in access
to instructional services.
Explores extensions of GIS
mapping procedures to other
areas in educational policy
analysis and school site
management.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 2 4 –3 1
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 24 ]
Introduction
With th e in tr odu ction of book s su ch a s th e
V isu a liz a tion of Qu a n tita tiv e In for m a tion [1],
edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysts a n d sch ool site
a dm in istr a tor s wer e in tr odu ced to power fu l
m eth ods of r epr esen tin g a n d visu a lizin g
qu a n tita tive in for m a tion via gr a ph s a n d
ch a r ts. P r esen tin g sta tistica l in for m a tion in
th e for m of im a ges a n d pictu r es h a s been
fou n d to be a n effective m eth od for edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysts a n d sch ool site a dm in istr a tion s to con vey en or m ou s a m ou n ts of
“n oise fr ee” in for m a tion to clien t gr ou ps –
especia lly less sta tistica lly soph istica ted
gr ou ps su ch a s sch ool boa r ds, th e gen er a l
pu blic, m edia r epr esen ta tives, tea ch er s a n d
pa r en ts. Recen tly, a cla ss of pr ocedu r es ca lled
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion system s, or GIS
m a ppin g, h a s been a dded to th e list of m eth ods a n d tech n iqu es for m a n a gem en t, policy
a n d pla n n in g th a t a r e design ed to display
in for m a tion [2-5]. Of cou r se pa per m a ps h ave
been u sed a gr ea t dea l in edu ca tion a l
r esea r ch , bu t th ey a r e lim ited in th e types of
in for m a tion th ey ca n con vey to clien t gr ou ps.
Mor e im por ta n tly, th ese m a ps ca n n ot be u sed
to illu str a te clien t popu la tion ch a n ges a n d
a r e difficu lt, a s well a s expen sive, to u pda te.
Recen tly, m icr ocom pu ter -ba sed, digitized
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es h ave becom e a n
extr em ely power fu l a n d in expen sive
m ech a n ism for pr esen tin g a visu a l im a ge of
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion . Usin g a n a ctu a l
m a p of a r e gion , cou n ty, city, sch ool distr ict,
or sch ool site a tten da n ce a r ea , or a n y oth er
m a n -m a de geogr a ph ica l bou n da r y, th e visu a liza tion of a n edu ca tion a l ser vice a r ea ca n
ea sily be obta in ed. In essen ce, w ith a geogr a ph ica l m a p “seein g is believin g”. Sim ila r
to th e u se of a ph on e book , a m a p is pr oba bly
th e m ost fr equ en tly cited sou r ce of in for m a tion th a t is u sed by citizen s in a com m u n ity.
In a ddition to geogr a ph ica l str eet m a ps of a
specific sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea , th e exa ct
loca tion (to w ith in five feet) of va r iou s stu den ts, tea ch er s or oth er clien t popu la tion s
fr om ba sic a ddr ess in for m a tion , ca n a lso be
deter m in ed a n d pr ecisely n oted on th e m a p.
Th e la bou r -in ten sive a n d tim e-con su m in g
colou r pin pla cem en t m eth od of m a ppin g,
typica lly u sed by sch ool a dm in istr a tive
per son n el, is th u s elim in a ted. If m u ltiple
clien t gr ou ps a r e m a pped th en th ese gr ou pin gs ca n ea sily be colou r or sym bol coded on
th e m a p a n d cost effectively u pda ted a s
n eeded. F in a lly, ea ch m a p gen er a ted w ith a
GIS pr ocedu r e ca n be “over la id” w ith im por ta n t dem ogr a ph ic (in com e, SE S, m in or ity)
in for m a tion of a specific r e gion of th e m a p
(su ch a s zip code).
Th e GIS com pu ter -ba sed pr ocedu r e pr esen ted in th ese illu str a tion s a r e ba sed on
th e TIGE R (Typogr a ph ica l In te gr a ted Geogr a ph ic E n codin g a n d Refer en cin g) developed by th e US Geogr a ph ic Su r vey. N ea r ly 80
per cen t of th e USA h a s n ow been geogr a ph ica lly m a pped for a ll its m a n -m a de a n d n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l fea tu r es[6]. Th e GIS pr ocedu r e, of cou r se, is a pplica ble to n ea r ly a ll
a r ea s of th e wor ld, a n d m ost of th e m a jor
cities of th e wor ld h ave n ow been m a pped
w ith a GIS type of for m a t. Wh en specifi c
dem ogr a ph ic in for m a tion for a specific
r e gion on th e m a p (aver a ge h ou seh old
in com e, pa r en t m in or ity, per cen ta ge of sin gle
pa r en t h ou seh old, etc.), a r e colou r coded,
a dded to th e m a p a n d th en lin k ed to
geogr a ph ica l loca tion s, a m or e com plete
“pictu r e” of th e geogr a ph ic ser vice a r ea
em er ges. For th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor
wh en a ll th r ee da ta sou r ces a r e u sed a n d
displayed in com bin a tion , i.e. m a p,
in dividu a l a ddr ess loca tion , m a n -m a de a n d
n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l fea tu r es, a n d
dem ogr a ph ic th em e, a power fu l visu a l r epr esen ta tion or “pictu r e” of a policy issu e, sch ool
a dm in istr a tive-m a n a gem en t pr oblem , or
clien t ser vice a r ea em er ges. F in a lly,
geogr a ph ica l visu a l r epr esen ta tion s of
in for m a tion , wh en u sed in com bin a tion w ith
m or e tr a dition a l sta tistica l r epr esen ta tion s of
in for m a tion , per m it th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor or edu ca tion a l policy or m a n a gem en t
th em e. N a tu r a lly, GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es
ca n a lso ser ve a s a n excellen t sta r tin g-poin t
on wh ich to esta blish th e n eed for fu r th er,
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
m or e soph istica ted sta tistica l a n d a n a lytica l
stu dies.
Th e pu r pose of th is stu dy is to illu str a te
h ow geogr a ph y a n d geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
m igh t be a n im por ta n t, yet n ot fu lly r ecogn ized or a ppr ecia ted com pon en t, in u n der sta n din g cer ta in pr oblem a r ea s in edu ca tion a l r esea r ch , pla n n in g, m a n a gem en t a n d
a dm in istr a tion . Beca u se GIS pr ocedu r es
pr esen t both a pictu r e of geogr a ph ica l dista n ces to sca le, a lon g w ith th e m a n -m a de a n d
n a tu r a l geogr a ph y of th e clien t ser vice a r ea ,
it ca n a lso ser ve a s a n im por ta n t veh icle to
en h a n ce sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d a dm in istr a tion .
In th e USA, GIS, a lth ou gh u sed exten sively
in bu sin ess a n d com m er ce, h ave on ly r ecen tly
been a pplied in th e con text of edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tion , m a n a gem en t, pla n n in g a n d
policy[7,8]. Most of th ese US-ba sed GIS a pplica tion s in edu ca tion h ave been in th e gen er a l
a r ea of sch ool site loca tion w ith in specified
sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea s th a t a r e exper ien cin g en r olm en t gr ow th . Th ese a pplica tion s of
th e GIS pr ocedu r e dir ectly pa r a llel th ose
a pplica tion s wh ich geogr a ph ica lly m a p sa les
gr ow th a n d site loca tion in th e r eta il a n d
pu blic u tility in du str y.
Specifica lly, th e pu r pose of th is stu dy is to
illu str a te h ow GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es a r e
bein g a pplied in th e con text of sch ool m a n a gem en t w ith specifi c r eleva n ce to th e u n iqu e
pr oblem fou n d a t Am er ica n sch ools. Va r iou s
“cla sses” of geogr a ph y-r eleva n t pr oblem
a r ea s th a t dea l w ith sch ool equ ity (m a gn et
sch ool a dm ission s, sch ool r estr u ctu r in g,
m a ppin g of in equ ities), co-or din a tion of
sch ool ser vices (ou tr ea ch pr ogr a m m es to th e
com m u n ity), sch ool sa fety (cr im e a n d va n da lism ), a n d m iscella n eou s a pplica tion s (wh ite
fligh t, fu n dr a isin g, stu den t tr a n sien cy,
pa r en ta l pa r ticipa tion , bu ssin g) a r e illu str a ted. Wh ile th ese a pplica tion s ten d to be
u n iqu e to Am er ica n sch ool m a n a gem en t
pr oblem s, th e GIS pr ocedu r es pr esen ted h er e
a r e a pplica ble to m a ppin g sch ool a tten da n ce
a r ea s a t sch ool sites th r ou gh ou t th e wor ld.
Wh ile ea ch of th e a bove geogr a ph y-ba sed
pr oblem a r ea s in sch ool site a dm in istr a tion
a n d m a n a gem en t h ave been su ccessfu lly
m a pped, ow in g to spa ce lim ita tion s on ly
th r ee r epr esen ta tive GIS a pplica tion s w ill be
descr ibed. On e GIS a pplica tion dea ls w ith a n
im por ta n t Am er ica n edu ca tion a l policy issu e
a ssocia ted w ith sch ool “equ ity”. Specifica lly,
th is a pplica tion exa m in es stu den t a pplica tion s a n d a dm ission s to specia lly design ed
m a gn et or h igh qu a lity cen tr a lized edu ca -
tion a l pr ogr a m m es in a la r ge u r ba n a r ea .
Th is type of GIS a pplica tion sh ou ld be of
specia l in ter est to th ose edu ca tion a l
r esea r ch er s a n d policy a n a lysts in ter ested in
exa m in in g issu es a ssocia ted w ith sch ool
ch oice a n d “equ ity”. Th e secon d GIS a pplica tion exa m in es th e im por ta n t sch ool site
a dm in istr a tion a n d m a n a gem en t pr oblem of
loca tin g im por ta n t ou tr ea ch ser vices a n d
pr ogr a m m es (in th is ca se in str u ction a l su ppor t) in th e com m u n ity. Th is type of sch oolcen tr ed a n d geogr a ph y-ba sed a pplica tion
sh ou ld be of specia l in ter est to sch ool site
a dm in istr a tive per son n el. Th e th ir d a pplica tion explor es th e u se of GIS m a ppin g for
loca tin g n ew a n d con tin u in g stu den ts
en r olled a t a la r ge edu ca tion cen tr e. Th is type
of a pplica tion wou ld be of im por ta n t u se for
cen tr a l office sch ool a dm in istr a tive per son n el co-or din a tin g specia l sem in a r s, for
design in g ca r -poolin g pr ogr a m m es, a n d for
en h a n cin g a lu m n i r ela tion s.
Equity and geographical distance
Beca u se of th e u n iqu e n a tu r e a n d th e le ga l
con str a in ts th a t im pa ct on US pu blic sch ool
policy, pr ovidin g a ccess to equ a l edu ca tion a l
oppor tu n ity in a sch ool ser vice a r ea is a
m a jor goa l. Th e r esea r ch liter a tu r e on
pa r en ta l ch oice a n d sch ool equ ity in la r ge
u r ba n sch ool distr ict settin g is va st[9-12].
Mu ch a tten tion in th is liter a tu r e is devoted to
en su r in g th a t th er e is equ a l a ccess a n d r epr esen ta tion in th ese h igh -qu a lity in str u ction a l
pr ogr a m m es loca ted a t “m a gn et” sch ools.
Recen t tr en ds tow a r ds sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d th e developm en t of specia lized
m a gn et pr ogr a m m es in la r ge u r ba n sch ool
distr icts th a t a r e design ed to en h a n ce
“equ ity”, u n der scor e th e n eed to exa m in e
h ow geogr a ph ica l dista n ce m igh t be a ssocia ted w ith th e n a tu r e of a pplica tion s to th e
m a gn et pr ogr a m m e a n d th e even tu a l selection of a su bset of th ese stu den ts[13]. An
a dded ben efit of geogr a ph ica l stu dies to th is
type of policy issu e is th a t th ose stu den ts w ith
close geogr a ph ica l pr oxim ity to on e a n oth er,
yet ch oosin g differ en t m a gn et sch ool in str u ction a l pr ogr a m m es, ca n be specifica lly iden tified a n d exa m in ed. Th e in for m a tion th ese
“pa ir s” of stu den ts u se to m a k e th eir “ch oice”
or decision to a tten d on e of th e two differ en t
types of “m a gn et” sch ool pr ogr a m m es, ca n
h ave en or m ou s im plica tion s for r esea r ch on
fa m ily ch oice. In sh or t, th e n otion of “ch oice”
ca n n ow be specifica lly exa m in ed in th e con text of sim ila r geogr a ph ica l dista n ce “pa ir s”
[ 25 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
r a th er th a n in vestiga tin g th e issu e of ch oice
by a ggr e ga tin g a ll th e da ta .
Ma sk in g im por ta n t in for m a tion th a t
r ela tes to wh y cer ta in sch ools wer e ch osen
over oth er sch ools is on e of th e lim ita tion s
of stu dyin g fa m ily ch oice u sin g a ggr e ga te
da ta .
In r esea r ch stu dies of fa m ily ch oice, u su a lly
a ll r espon den ts a r e su r veyed for th e va r iou s
in for m a tion fa ctor s (sa fety, a tta in m en t, pr ogr a m m es, etc.) wh ich im pa ct on th eir decision to a tten d a cer ta in sch ool site in a la r ge
distr ict. Th e u su a l su r vey r esea r ch type of
pr ocedu r e th u s ten ds la r gely to over wh elm ,
in a sta tistica l fa sh ion , th e m ost im por ta n t
fa ctor s th a t con stitu te ch oice for pa r en ts wh o
h ave sim ila r geogr a ph ica l dista n ces fr om
ea ch oth er yet ch ose differ en t sch ools[9,14,15].
Th e geogr a ph ica l m a p of a pplica tion s of
stu den ts to m a gn et pr ogr a m m es ca n th u s
becom e a power fu l m ech a n ism for visu a lizin g th e im pa ct of cer ta in sch ool ch oice,
policies, a n d for eva lu a tin g th e effectiven ess
of va r iou s types of in for m a tion a bou t th e
m a gn et sch ools to pa r en ts.
In th is illu str a tion , two m a gn et sch ool
pr ogr a m m es, ten m iles a pa r t, wer e su bm itted
to a geogr a ph ica l m a ppin g a n a lysis. Th e
r esu lts of th is GIS m a p of stu den t a pplica n t
loca tion a r e pr esen ted in F igu r e 1. N ote th a t
th em a tic layer s, su ch a s aver a ge h ou seh old
in com e a n d per cen t bla ck by geogr a ph ic
r e gion on th e m a p (zip code or cen su s tr a ck ),
cou ld a lso over la id on th e r e gion m a p. Ow in g
to th e pr oh ibitive cost of gen er a tin g a color
m a p, on ly clien t (stu den t a pplica n ts) loca tion s a n d zip codes a r e r epr esen ted. N ote th e
obviou s clu ster in g of a pplica tion s by fa m ilies
wh ich live in close pr oxim ity. F a r m or e in ter estin g for th e fa m ily ch oice r esea r ch er, h ow ever, a r e th ose a pplica tion s wh ich a r e fou n d
in close pr oxim ity to ea ch oth er, yet wh o
ch ose differ en t sch ools (see F igu r e 2). Also
n ote h ow a m a n -m a de geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier,
su ch a s a m a jor h igh w ay or fr eew ay, a lso
seem s to im pa ct on th e sch ool ch oice decision
(see F igu r e 2). N ote h ow th e h igh w ay seem s to
divide th ose wh o desir e to go to on e sch ool
fr om th ose wh o desir e to go to th e oth er
sch ool.
In su m m a r y, th ose edu ca tion a l r esea r ch er s
a n d policy a n a lysts in ter ested in sch oolfa m ily issu es ch oice wou ld fin d th is type of
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion extr em ely u sefu l
for exa m in in g th e im pa ct of geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce on ch oice a n d fi n din g “ch oice” pa ir s
of a pplica n ts wh o cou ld by su r veyed in m or e
depth in or der to pr ovide a better u n der sta n din g of th e r ole of in for m a tion in th e fin a l
ch oice selection of a m a gn et sch ool site.
Figure 1
Map o f stude nt applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o l site X and site Y
Applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o ls
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Magne t sc ho o l
X–applic atio ns
Magne t sc ho o l
Y–applic atio ns
SITE Y
SITE X
Mile s
0
[ 26 ]
2
4
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 2
Map o f stude nt applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o l site X and site Y with man-made ge o graphic al
barrie rs (fre e way)
Applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o ls
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
Magne t sc ho o l
X–applic atio ns
Magne t sc ho o l
Y–applic atio ns
Majo r highways
SITE Y
SITE X
Mile s
0
School outreach services to the
community and geographical
location
Th e secon d illu str a tion of th e GIS m a ppin g
pr ocedu r e en ta ils th e system a tic pla n n in g of
sch ool site ou tr ea ch edu ca tion a l pr ogr a m m es
to th e com m u n ity. Sch ool site a dm in istr a tor s
wou ld be pa r ticu la r ly in ter ested in th ese
types of GIS a pplica tion s sin ce th ey ca n be
u sed to loca te stu den ts w ith specia l a ca dem ic
n eeds. On ce th ese popu la tion s a r e iden tified
on a m a p, sch ool a dm in istr a tor s m igh t be
better a ble to a ddr ess th ose a ca dem ic n eeds
w ith r em ote, off-site in str u ction a l su ppor t
pr ogr a m m es a n d/ or oth er socia l ser vice
su ppor t pr ogr a m m es[16,17]. In th is a pplica tion , a geogr a ph ica l a n a lysis w a s u sed to
loca te a ll stu den ts wh o wer e sign ifica n tly
a bove a n d below gr a de levels. Aga in , th e m a p
cou ld be layer ed w ith dem ogr a ph ic in for m a tion , su ch a s aver a ge h ou seh old in com e, a n d
per cen t m in or ity, a n d th en colou r coded by
r e gion (in th is ca se zip code).
Note fr om F igu r e 3 th a t th er e wer e clu ster s
of stu den ts in specific r egion s of th e com m u n ity wh er e m a n y of th e below gr a de level
stu den ts r esided. Most of th ese clu ster s of
stu den ts wer e som e dista n ce fr om th e a ctu a l
sch ool site, th er efor e, geogr aph ica l dista n ce
im peded th e a ttr a ctiven ess of offer in g
2
4
a fter -sch ool, on -site in str u ction a l su ppor t
pr ogr a m m es. In stea d, a pr oject w a s developed
wh ich m a de u se of a tr a iler -va n equ ipped w ith
com pu ter wor k sta tion s, ta bles, a n d sta ffed
w ith edu ca tion a l per son n el. Th e tr a iler -va n
w a s th en br ou gh t to th e com m u n ity loca tion
con ta in in g th e h igh est clu ster s of below gr a de
level stu den ts. In sh or t, GIS pr ocedu r es wer e
u sed to pr ovide edu ca tion a l a n d in str u ction a l
su ppor t ser vices to stu den ts a t loca tion s
wh ich wer e in close pr oxim ity to th eir
a ddr ess, r ath er th a n pr ovidin g th ese ser vices
a t th e sch ool site. Note th a t in th is a pplica tion
a geogr aph ica l m a p is gen er a ted to deter m in e
th e clu ster s of stu den ts (see F igu r e 4). Th e
sa m e m a p ca n th en be u sed to deter m in e th e
best loca tion for th e r em ote or off-site in str u ction a l su ppor t pr ogr a m m e. Geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce, a s a fa ctor in u n der a ch ievem en t, ca n
th en be pa r tia lly a ddr essed by th e geogr aph ica l loca tion of a ser vice veh icle for edu ca tion a l
su ppor t ser vices in th e com m u n ity. In a sim ila r a n d ea r lier a pplica tion of th e GIS m a ppin g
pr ocedu r e for com m u n ity ou tr ea ch , m oth er s
of low bir th weigh t ba bies a n d sin gle pa r en t
h om es wer e m a tch ed to in ocu la tion ser vice
cen tr es in th e Atla n ta , Geor gia a r ea [17]. Wh en
u sin g GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es for th ese types
of geogr aph ica l “loca tion ” a pplica tion s, cer ta in specific qu estion s m u st be a ddr essed.
Th ese qu estion s in clu de:
[ 27 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 3
Lo c atio n o f instruc tio nal suppo rt se rvic e s fo r abo ve and be lo w grade le ve l stude nts
1 9 9 5 Z IP Co de s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
Railways
Majo r highways
Abo ve grade le ve l
Be lo w grade le ve l
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
0 .5
1
Figure 4
Lo c atio n o f instruc tio nal suppo rt se rvic e s re mo te o ff-site lo c atio n analysis
Stude nt attainme nt
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Railways
Stre e ts
Majo r highways
Abo ve grade le ve l
Be lo w grade le ve l
REM OTE OFF-SITE LOCATION
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
[ 28 ]
0 .2 0 .4
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
• a n exa ct a ssessm en t of com m u n ity n eeds;
• r esea r ch in to th e loca tion of cu r r en t
com m u n ity r esou r ces to ser vice th ose
n eeds; a n d
• developin g a ser vice com pon en t th a t lin k s
th e n eeds of th e com m u n ity to th e
r esou r ces ava ila ble.
All th r ee of th ese issu es ca n be a ddr essed
u sin g GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es.
New and continuing student
participation and geographical
distance
In th e fin a l illu str a tive a pplica tion of GIS
m a ppin g, clien ts (n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den ts) of a la r ge edu ca tion a l cen tr e wer e
iden tified in ter m s of th eir geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce. Th e pu r pose h er e w a s n ot on ly to
exa m in e geogr a ph ica lly n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den t loca tion s a t th e edu ca tion a l cen tr e,
bu t to pr ovide som e in sigh ts r e ga r din g th e
dista n ces tr avelled. On ce n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den t loca tion s wer e deter m in ed, qu estion s
su ch a s wh er e to pla ce a sa tellite ca m pu s,
h ow best to esta blish ca r pools, wh er e to pla ce
a lu m n i cen tr es a n d fu n ction s, wh er e to pla ce
r ecr u itm en t, cen tr es etc., cou ld be a ddr essed.
F igu r e 5 displays a ll n ew stu den ts en r olled
in th e edu ca tion a l pr ogr a m m e. Over la id on
th e m a p ca n a lso be com m u n ity r esou r ces,
su ch a s libr a r ies a n d oth er edu ca tion a l
fa cilities, so th a t m or e effective co-or din a tion
of socia l ser vices cou ld be a tta in ed.
F igu r e 6 sh ow s both n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den ts in th e pr ogr a m m e. Her e, possible
pa ir in gs of stu den ts by geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
ca n be a ch ieved. P a ir in g of n ew a n d con tin u in g stu den ts for pu r poses of ca r poolin g, sem in a r s, etc. ca n a lso be a ch ieved w ith th is type
of m a p.
F in a lly, if com m u n ity r epr esen ta tion a t th e
edu ca tion cen tr e is a goa l of th e com m u n ity,
th en th em a tic in for m a tion , su ch a s fa m ily
in com e, per cen t bla ck , etc., in ea ch r e gion of
th e m a p (zip code) cou ld be over la id on th e
m a p.
Extensions of GIS
Th ese th r ee illu str a tive a pplica tion s of th e
GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r e n icely dem on str a te
th a t th e visu a liza tion of geogr a ph ica l dista n ce in a sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea ca n be u sed
to pr esen t a n im por ta n t “pictu r e” of n eed to
th e edu ca tion a l r esea r ch er a n d sch ool site
a dm in istr a tor. In on e of th e th r ee illu str a tive
a pplica tion s pr esen ted h er e, th e GIS m a p
ser ved a s th e in tr odu ction to th e com plex
policy issu e of en su r in g “equ ity” w ith r e ga r d
to sch ool ch oice in a la r ge u r ba n settin g. Th e
Figure 5
Multiple partic ipatio n in an instruc tio nal pro gramme in a large urban are a (ne w and c o ntinuing
stude nts)
Co ntinuing stude nts
Ne w stude nts
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
5
10
[ 29 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 6
Multiple partic ipatio n in an instruc tio nal pro gramme in a large urban are a (ne w stude nts o nly)
Ne w stude nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
secon d GIS a pplica tion exa m in ed th e qu estion of h ow to pr ovide edu ca tion a l su ppor t
ser vices in th e com m u n ity th r ou gh a n offsite, a fter -sch ool in str u ction a l su ppor t pr ogr a m m e. Th e th ir d a pplica tion w a s a pu r ely
descr iptive clien t loca tion type of a n a lysis for
a la r ge cen tr a lized edu ca tion cen tr e.
Wh ile th ese a pplica tion s r epr esen t a cla ss of
pr oblem s in m a n a gem en t (loca tion ) a n d policy (ch oice), th er e a r e oth er cla sses of geogr a ph ica lly sen sitive pr oblem a r ea wh er e GIS
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es cou ld be of im por ta n t
u se. With r ecen t m a r k etin g or clien t-dr iven
effor ts in Am er ica tow a r ds br ea k in g u p la r ge
u r ba n sch ool distr icts in to sm a ller a n d m or e
m a n a gea ble u n its, GIS m eth ods cou ld pr ove to
be a n inva lu a ble tool for loca tin g th ose
clu ster s of r econ figu r ed sch ools[18]. Not on ly
cou ld stu den ts be located a n d th en com pa r ed
w ith existin g sch ool site a tten da n ce a r ea s, bu t
dem ogr a ph ic th em es cou ld a lso be over la id, to
en su r e th a t th e r econ figu r ed sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea is cu ltu r a lly a n d econ om ica lly
diver se. Na tu r a l geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier s su ch
a s r iver s a n d m ou n ta in s, a s well a s m a n -m a de
geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier s su ch a s fr eew ays a n d
r a ilw ays, cou ld a lso be m apped so th a t tr avel
tim e a n d conven ien ce for th e stu den t a n d
pa r en t cou ld be m a in ta in ed. Th is type of
a pplica tion of th e GIS pr ocedu r es r epr esen ts a
cla ss of pla n n in g or site location pr oblem s
wh ich ca n be exten ded to in clu de sch ool bu s
[ 30 ]
5
10
r ou tein g a n d ca r poolin g. Th is type of GIS
pr oblem is sim ila r to th ose fou n d in th e r eta il
sector wh ich focu s on idea l stor efr on t
loca tion s in a com m u n ity, given cu stom er
pa tr on a ge pa tter n s.
On e cou ld a lso u se GIS to exa m in e decibel
r ea din gs, sch ool site loca tion s a n d fligh t
pa th s to a ir por ts. Th ese da ta ca n th en be
visu a lly displayed on th e sa m e geogr a ph ic
m a p a n d th eir im pa ct on stu den t per for m a n ce n oted.
F in a lly, GIS m a ppin g cou ld be a va lu a ble
in for m a tion con veyin g m ech a n ism for
pa r en ts a n d tea ch er s for descr ibin g cer ta in
ch a r a cter istics of a sch ool site. For exa m ple,
th e m a ppin g of liqu or stor es, cr im e a n d
va n da lism (felon ies a n d m isdem ea n ou r s)
a cr oss a n en tir e sch ool distr ict m igh t pr ovide
in for m a tion to sch ool boa r ds con cer n in g
wh er e to in cr ea se sch ool site secu r ity a n d to
pa r en ts con cer n ed w ith sch ool sa fety. Th ese
types of descr iptive sch ool in for m a tion a l GIS
a pplica tion s cou ld per h a ps be th e m ost va lu a ble con tr ibu tion of th e m a ppin g pr ocedu r e
to sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d pla n n in g.
Conclusion
In con clu sion , th e visu a l r epr esen ta tion of
geogr a ph ica l da ta h a s w idespr ea d a pplica tion in edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysis a n d sch ool
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
site m a n a gem en t. Th e for m a l r ecogn ition of
geogr a ph ic loca tion , geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
a n d m a n -m a de a n d n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l
ba r r ier s in a ddr essin g im por ta n t pr oblem
a r ea s in policy a n d m a n a gem en t m a k e th e
pr ocedu r e extr em ely a ppea lin g in both th e
USA a n d th e r est of th e wor ld. Of cou r se, GIS
m a ps cou ld a lso be m a de on a m on th -tom on th or yea r -to-yea r ba sis a n d th e ch a n ge in
th e geogr a ph ic in for m a tion itself cou ld be
m a pped. Th is type of ch a n ge-or ien ted GIS
pr ocedu r e wou ld be u sed to pr ovide a
dyn a m ic qu a lity to th e m a p a n d m igh t pr ove
ver y u sefu l in sch ool site m a n a gem en t wh er e
th er e is h igh stu den t tu r n over. F in a lly, th e
visu a liza tion of econ om ic, cu ltu r a l, dem ogr a ph ic a n d politica l in for m a tion in a geospa ce pr ovides th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor
a n d edu ca tion a l policy a n a lyst w ith a power fu l visu a l tech n iqu e for u n der sta n din g
m igr a tion s, wh ite fligh t, a n d oth er sch ool
beh aviou r s th a t a r e a ssocia ted w ith geogr a ph y. Specia lized topic a r ea s fr om a tten da n ce
bou n da r y optim iza tion th a t con sider s r a ce,
gr a de level a n d sch ool size to th e en h a n cem en t of com m u n ity ou tr ea ch ser vices cou ld
a lso be explor ed w ith th e GIS pr ocedu r e. In
essen ce, w ith GIS m a ppin g on e gets to “see
wh a t we th in k we k n ow ” displayed on a per fectly pr opor tion ed m a p. As m icr ocom pu ter
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es becom e m or e w idespr ea d a n d th e pr ocedu r e is ta u gh t in gr a du a te pr ogr a m m es in sch ool a dm in istr a tion in
th e fu tu r e, we sh ou ld fin d m a ppin g to be a s
com m on a s pr epa r in g ch a r ts a n d gr a ph s for
pa r en ts a n d sch ool boa r ds.
References
1 Tu fte, E .R., T h e V isu a l Display of Qu a n tita tiv e
In for m a tion , Gr a ph ics P r ess, Ch esh ir e, CT,
1983.
2 Ca stle, G.H., Profi tin g from a Geogra ph ic In for m a tion S ystem , GIS Wor ld In c., For t Collin s,
CO, 1993.
3 F r a n k lin , C., “An in tr odu ction to geogr a ph ic
in for m a tion system s: lin k in g m a ps to da ta ba ses”, Da tab a se, Vol. 15, 2 Apr il 1992, pp. 12-21.
4 Wik le, T.A., “P u ttin g you r idea on a m a p”,
B yte, J a n u a r y 1993, pp. 54-61.
5 Wise, A.P., “Th e developm en t of geogr a ph ic
da ta ba ses a n d com pu ter m a ppin g”, R egion a l
Econ om ic Dev elopm en t In stitu te Pa per N o. 1,
Wa sh in gton , DC, 1975.
6 P a gh a r t, F.W., “Dem ogr a ph ic m a ppin g via
com pu ter gr a ph ics”, F lor ida Sta te Un iver sity,
Ta lla h a ssee Depa r tm en t of E du ca tion a l
Adm in istr a tion , Ta lla h a ssee, F L, Au gu st 1970.
7 Taylor, R., In tegra ted Pla n n in g for S ch ool a n d
Com m u n ity, N o. OR/ E d. La bor a tor ies,
Or ien ta l, N C, 1995.
8 DeVoe, T., “Ser vin g th e six m ile elem en ta r y
sch ool distr ict: developin g m or e efficien t
com pu ter ized bu s r ou tes”, u n pu blish ed
doctor a l disser ta tion , Un iver sity of N or th
Ca r olin a , Ch a pel Hill, N C, 1985.
9 Asch er, C., “Retr avellin g th e ch oice r oa d”,
Ha r va rd Ed u ca tion a l R eview , Vol 64 N o. 2, 1994,
pp. 209-21.
10 Ba stia n , A., “Wh ich ch oice? Wh ose ch oice?”,
Clea r in g Hou se, Vol. 66 N o. 2, N ovem ber Decem ber 1992, pp. 96-9.
11 Tya ck , D., “Ca n we bu ild a system of ch oice
th a t is n ot ju st a ‘sor tin g m a ch in e’ or a m a r k etba sed ‘fr ee-for -a ll’?”, Equ ity a n d Ch oice, Vol. 9
N o. 1, 1992, pp. 13-17.
12 Tya ck , D.B., “Th e pu blic sch ools: a m on opoly
or a con tested pu blic dom a in ?”, in Clu n e, W.H.
a n d Witte, J .F. (E ds), Ch oice a n d Con trol in
A m er ica n Ed u ca tion , F a lm er P r ess, Taylor &
F r a n cis, Br istol, PA, 1990, pp. 86-90.
13 Rossell, C.H., “Wh a t is a ttr a ctive a bou t m a gn et
sch ools”, Ur b a n Ed u ca tion , Vol. 20 N o. 1, 1985,
pp. 7-22.
14 Rayw in d, M.A., “F a m ily ch oice a r r a n gem en ts
in pu blic sch ools: a r eview of th e liter a tu r e”,
R eview of Ed u ca tion a l R esea rch , Vol. 55 N o. 4,
1985, pp. 435-67.
15 Sh u k la , P.K. a n d Br u n o, J ., Defi n in g th e
Con cept of “Ch oice” in Fa m ily Ch oice Policy
S tu d ies: Use of Con join t A n a lysis M eth od s in
S ch ool Distr ict S u r v eys, Ch a pm a n Colle ge, CA,
1994.
16 Ma zia r z, T.J ., “A fa ctor ia l ecology of Cin cin n a ti’s bla ck r esiden tia l a r ea s”, Oh io Geogra ph ers, Vol. II, 1974, pp. 10-15.
17 Saw ick i, D.S., “Ma ppin g effor ts br in g h ope to
in n er -city r esiden ts”, GIS World, J u n e 1993,
pp. 30-3.
18 Tor r en ce, L. a n d Wa ldr on , C., “Ma r k etin g tips
for edu ca tion ”, T h e Ed u ca tion Digest, Vol. 61
N o. 2, 1991, pp. 17-23.
[ 31 ]
mapping procedures to support educational policy
analysis and school site management
James E. Bruno
Pro fe sso r o f Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Califo rnia, Lo s Ange le s, USA
Observes that while most
school site management
personnel are familiar with
the multitude of visual
representations of statistical
data, via graphs and charts,
the value of visual representations of geographical
information remains largely
unknown in educational
management. Explains that
geographical information
systems (GIS), in addition to
determining the exact
geographical street address
location of a client, can also
overlay important SES, thematic information such as
demographic characteristics
(per capita household
income, percentage, minority,
etc.), and man-made, and
when natural geographical
barriers are combined a
powerful visual representation or picture of a client
service area emerges.
Describes how these visual
representations of
educational service areas can
then be used to support
educational policy analysis
and school site management.
Presents several illustrations
of how GIS mapping
procedures can be applied to
school site management,
planning and policy analysis.
Draws three illustrations of
GIS mapping from the school
management areas of
co-ordination of school site
outreach services to
educational policy areas of
ensuring “ equity” in access
to instructional services.
Explores extensions of GIS
mapping procedures to other
areas in educational policy
analysis and school site
management.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 2 4 –3 1
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 24 ]
Introduction
With th e in tr odu ction of book s su ch a s th e
V isu a liz a tion of Qu a n tita tiv e In for m a tion [1],
edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysts a n d sch ool site
a dm in istr a tor s wer e in tr odu ced to power fu l
m eth ods of r epr esen tin g a n d visu a lizin g
qu a n tita tive in for m a tion via gr a ph s a n d
ch a r ts. P r esen tin g sta tistica l in for m a tion in
th e for m of im a ges a n d pictu r es h a s been
fou n d to be a n effective m eth od for edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysts a n d sch ool site a dm in istr a tion s to con vey en or m ou s a m ou n ts of
“n oise fr ee” in for m a tion to clien t gr ou ps –
especia lly less sta tistica lly soph istica ted
gr ou ps su ch a s sch ool boa r ds, th e gen er a l
pu blic, m edia r epr esen ta tives, tea ch er s a n d
pa r en ts. Recen tly, a cla ss of pr ocedu r es ca lled
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion system s, or GIS
m a ppin g, h a s been a dded to th e list of m eth ods a n d tech n iqu es for m a n a gem en t, policy
a n d pla n n in g th a t a r e design ed to display
in for m a tion [2-5]. Of cou r se pa per m a ps h ave
been u sed a gr ea t dea l in edu ca tion a l
r esea r ch , bu t th ey a r e lim ited in th e types of
in for m a tion th ey ca n con vey to clien t gr ou ps.
Mor e im por ta n tly, th ese m a ps ca n n ot be u sed
to illu str a te clien t popu la tion ch a n ges a n d
a r e difficu lt, a s well a s expen sive, to u pda te.
Recen tly, m icr ocom pu ter -ba sed, digitized
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es h ave becom e a n
extr em ely power fu l a n d in expen sive
m ech a n ism for pr esen tin g a visu a l im a ge of
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion . Usin g a n a ctu a l
m a p of a r e gion , cou n ty, city, sch ool distr ict,
or sch ool site a tten da n ce a r ea , or a n y oth er
m a n -m a de geogr a ph ica l bou n da r y, th e visu a liza tion of a n edu ca tion a l ser vice a r ea ca n
ea sily be obta in ed. In essen ce, w ith a geogr a ph ica l m a p “seein g is believin g”. Sim ila r
to th e u se of a ph on e book , a m a p is pr oba bly
th e m ost fr equ en tly cited sou r ce of in for m a tion th a t is u sed by citizen s in a com m u n ity.
In a ddition to geogr a ph ica l str eet m a ps of a
specific sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea , th e exa ct
loca tion (to w ith in five feet) of va r iou s stu den ts, tea ch er s or oth er clien t popu la tion s
fr om ba sic a ddr ess in for m a tion , ca n a lso be
deter m in ed a n d pr ecisely n oted on th e m a p.
Th e la bou r -in ten sive a n d tim e-con su m in g
colou r pin pla cem en t m eth od of m a ppin g,
typica lly u sed by sch ool a dm in istr a tive
per son n el, is th u s elim in a ted. If m u ltiple
clien t gr ou ps a r e m a pped th en th ese gr ou pin gs ca n ea sily be colou r or sym bol coded on
th e m a p a n d cost effectively u pda ted a s
n eeded. F in a lly, ea ch m a p gen er a ted w ith a
GIS pr ocedu r e ca n be “over la id” w ith im por ta n t dem ogr a ph ic (in com e, SE S, m in or ity)
in for m a tion of a specific r e gion of th e m a p
(su ch a s zip code).
Th e GIS com pu ter -ba sed pr ocedu r e pr esen ted in th ese illu str a tion s a r e ba sed on
th e TIGE R (Typogr a ph ica l In te gr a ted Geogr a ph ic E n codin g a n d Refer en cin g) developed by th e US Geogr a ph ic Su r vey. N ea r ly 80
per cen t of th e USA h a s n ow been geogr a ph ica lly m a pped for a ll its m a n -m a de a n d n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l fea tu r es[6]. Th e GIS pr ocedu r e, of cou r se, is a pplica ble to n ea r ly a ll
a r ea s of th e wor ld, a n d m ost of th e m a jor
cities of th e wor ld h ave n ow been m a pped
w ith a GIS type of for m a t. Wh en specifi c
dem ogr a ph ic in for m a tion for a specific
r e gion on th e m a p (aver a ge h ou seh old
in com e, pa r en t m in or ity, per cen ta ge of sin gle
pa r en t h ou seh old, etc.), a r e colou r coded,
a dded to th e m a p a n d th en lin k ed to
geogr a ph ica l loca tion s, a m or e com plete
“pictu r e” of th e geogr a ph ic ser vice a r ea
em er ges. For th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor
wh en a ll th r ee da ta sou r ces a r e u sed a n d
displayed in com bin a tion , i.e. m a p,
in dividu a l a ddr ess loca tion , m a n -m a de a n d
n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l fea tu r es, a n d
dem ogr a ph ic th em e, a power fu l visu a l r epr esen ta tion or “pictu r e” of a policy issu e, sch ool
a dm in istr a tive-m a n a gem en t pr oblem , or
clien t ser vice a r ea em er ges. F in a lly,
geogr a ph ica l visu a l r epr esen ta tion s of
in for m a tion , wh en u sed in com bin a tion w ith
m or e tr a dition a l sta tistica l r epr esen ta tion s of
in for m a tion , per m it th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor or edu ca tion a l policy or m a n a gem en t
th em e. N a tu r a lly, GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es
ca n a lso ser ve a s a n excellen t sta r tin g-poin t
on wh ich to esta blish th e n eed for fu r th er,
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
m or e soph istica ted sta tistica l a n d a n a lytica l
stu dies.
Th e pu r pose of th is stu dy is to illu str a te
h ow geogr a ph y a n d geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
m igh t be a n im por ta n t, yet n ot fu lly r ecogn ized or a ppr ecia ted com pon en t, in u n der sta n din g cer ta in pr oblem a r ea s in edu ca tion a l r esea r ch , pla n n in g, m a n a gem en t a n d
a dm in istr a tion . Beca u se GIS pr ocedu r es
pr esen t both a pictu r e of geogr a ph ica l dista n ces to sca le, a lon g w ith th e m a n -m a de a n d
n a tu r a l geogr a ph y of th e clien t ser vice a r ea ,
it ca n a lso ser ve a s a n im por ta n t veh icle to
en h a n ce sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d a dm in istr a tion .
In th e USA, GIS, a lth ou gh u sed exten sively
in bu sin ess a n d com m er ce, h ave on ly r ecen tly
been a pplied in th e con text of edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tion , m a n a gem en t, pla n n in g a n d
policy[7,8]. Most of th ese US-ba sed GIS a pplica tion s in edu ca tion h ave been in th e gen er a l
a r ea of sch ool site loca tion w ith in specified
sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea s th a t a r e exper ien cin g en r olm en t gr ow th . Th ese a pplica tion s of
th e GIS pr ocedu r e dir ectly pa r a llel th ose
a pplica tion s wh ich geogr a ph ica lly m a p sa les
gr ow th a n d site loca tion in th e r eta il a n d
pu blic u tility in du str y.
Specifica lly, th e pu r pose of th is stu dy is to
illu str a te h ow GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es a r e
bein g a pplied in th e con text of sch ool m a n a gem en t w ith specifi c r eleva n ce to th e u n iqu e
pr oblem fou n d a t Am er ica n sch ools. Va r iou s
“cla sses” of geogr a ph y-r eleva n t pr oblem
a r ea s th a t dea l w ith sch ool equ ity (m a gn et
sch ool a dm ission s, sch ool r estr u ctu r in g,
m a ppin g of in equ ities), co-or din a tion of
sch ool ser vices (ou tr ea ch pr ogr a m m es to th e
com m u n ity), sch ool sa fety (cr im e a n d va n da lism ), a n d m iscella n eou s a pplica tion s (wh ite
fligh t, fu n dr a isin g, stu den t tr a n sien cy,
pa r en ta l pa r ticipa tion , bu ssin g) a r e illu str a ted. Wh ile th ese a pplica tion s ten d to be
u n iqu e to Am er ica n sch ool m a n a gem en t
pr oblem s, th e GIS pr ocedu r es pr esen ted h er e
a r e a pplica ble to m a ppin g sch ool a tten da n ce
a r ea s a t sch ool sites th r ou gh ou t th e wor ld.
Wh ile ea ch of th e a bove geogr a ph y-ba sed
pr oblem a r ea s in sch ool site a dm in istr a tion
a n d m a n a gem en t h ave been su ccessfu lly
m a pped, ow in g to spa ce lim ita tion s on ly
th r ee r epr esen ta tive GIS a pplica tion s w ill be
descr ibed. On e GIS a pplica tion dea ls w ith a n
im por ta n t Am er ica n edu ca tion a l policy issu e
a ssocia ted w ith sch ool “equ ity”. Specifica lly,
th is a pplica tion exa m in es stu den t a pplica tion s a n d a dm ission s to specia lly design ed
m a gn et or h igh qu a lity cen tr a lized edu ca -
tion a l pr ogr a m m es in a la r ge u r ba n a r ea .
Th is type of GIS a pplica tion sh ou ld be of
specia l in ter est to th ose edu ca tion a l
r esea r ch er s a n d policy a n a lysts in ter ested in
exa m in in g issu es a ssocia ted w ith sch ool
ch oice a n d “equ ity”. Th e secon d GIS a pplica tion exa m in es th e im por ta n t sch ool site
a dm in istr a tion a n d m a n a gem en t pr oblem of
loca tin g im por ta n t ou tr ea ch ser vices a n d
pr ogr a m m es (in th is ca se in str u ction a l su ppor t) in th e com m u n ity. Th is type of sch oolcen tr ed a n d geogr a ph y-ba sed a pplica tion
sh ou ld be of specia l in ter est to sch ool site
a dm in istr a tive per son n el. Th e th ir d a pplica tion explor es th e u se of GIS m a ppin g for
loca tin g n ew a n d con tin u in g stu den ts
en r olled a t a la r ge edu ca tion cen tr e. Th is type
of a pplica tion wou ld be of im por ta n t u se for
cen tr a l office sch ool a dm in istr a tive per son n el co-or din a tin g specia l sem in a r s, for
design in g ca r -poolin g pr ogr a m m es, a n d for
en h a n cin g a lu m n i r ela tion s.
Equity and geographical distance
Beca u se of th e u n iqu e n a tu r e a n d th e le ga l
con str a in ts th a t im pa ct on US pu blic sch ool
policy, pr ovidin g a ccess to equ a l edu ca tion a l
oppor tu n ity in a sch ool ser vice a r ea is a
m a jor goa l. Th e r esea r ch liter a tu r e on
pa r en ta l ch oice a n d sch ool equ ity in la r ge
u r ba n sch ool distr ict settin g is va st[9-12].
Mu ch a tten tion in th is liter a tu r e is devoted to
en su r in g th a t th er e is equ a l a ccess a n d r epr esen ta tion in th ese h igh -qu a lity in str u ction a l
pr ogr a m m es loca ted a t “m a gn et” sch ools.
Recen t tr en ds tow a r ds sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d th e developm en t of specia lized
m a gn et pr ogr a m m es in la r ge u r ba n sch ool
distr icts th a t a r e design ed to en h a n ce
“equ ity”, u n der scor e th e n eed to exa m in e
h ow geogr a ph ica l dista n ce m igh t be a ssocia ted w ith th e n a tu r e of a pplica tion s to th e
m a gn et pr ogr a m m e a n d th e even tu a l selection of a su bset of th ese stu den ts[13]. An
a dded ben efit of geogr a ph ica l stu dies to th is
type of policy issu e is th a t th ose stu den ts w ith
close geogr a ph ica l pr oxim ity to on e a n oth er,
yet ch oosin g differ en t m a gn et sch ool in str u ction a l pr ogr a m m es, ca n be specifica lly iden tified a n d exa m in ed. Th e in for m a tion th ese
“pa ir s” of stu den ts u se to m a k e th eir “ch oice”
or decision to a tten d on e of th e two differ en t
types of “m a gn et” sch ool pr ogr a m m es, ca n
h ave en or m ou s im plica tion s for r esea r ch on
fa m ily ch oice. In sh or t, th e n otion of “ch oice”
ca n n ow be specifica lly exa m in ed in th e con text of sim ila r geogr a ph ica l dista n ce “pa ir s”
[ 25 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
r a th er th a n in vestiga tin g th e issu e of ch oice
by a ggr e ga tin g a ll th e da ta .
Ma sk in g im por ta n t in for m a tion th a t
r ela tes to wh y cer ta in sch ools wer e ch osen
over oth er sch ools is on e of th e lim ita tion s
of stu dyin g fa m ily ch oice u sin g a ggr e ga te
da ta .
In r esea r ch stu dies of fa m ily ch oice, u su a lly
a ll r espon den ts a r e su r veyed for th e va r iou s
in for m a tion fa ctor s (sa fety, a tta in m en t, pr ogr a m m es, etc.) wh ich im pa ct on th eir decision to a tten d a cer ta in sch ool site in a la r ge
distr ict. Th e u su a l su r vey r esea r ch type of
pr ocedu r e th u s ten ds la r gely to over wh elm ,
in a sta tistica l fa sh ion , th e m ost im por ta n t
fa ctor s th a t con stitu te ch oice for pa r en ts wh o
h ave sim ila r geogr a ph ica l dista n ces fr om
ea ch oth er yet ch ose differ en t sch ools[9,14,15].
Th e geogr a ph ica l m a p of a pplica tion s of
stu den ts to m a gn et pr ogr a m m es ca n th u s
becom e a power fu l m ech a n ism for visu a lizin g th e im pa ct of cer ta in sch ool ch oice,
policies, a n d for eva lu a tin g th e effectiven ess
of va r iou s types of in for m a tion a bou t th e
m a gn et sch ools to pa r en ts.
In th is illu str a tion , two m a gn et sch ool
pr ogr a m m es, ten m iles a pa r t, wer e su bm itted
to a geogr a ph ica l m a ppin g a n a lysis. Th e
r esu lts of th is GIS m a p of stu den t a pplica n t
loca tion a r e pr esen ted in F igu r e 1. N ote th a t
th em a tic layer s, su ch a s aver a ge h ou seh old
in com e a n d per cen t bla ck by geogr a ph ic
r e gion on th e m a p (zip code or cen su s tr a ck ),
cou ld a lso over la id on th e r e gion m a p. Ow in g
to th e pr oh ibitive cost of gen er a tin g a color
m a p, on ly clien t (stu den t a pplica n ts) loca tion s a n d zip codes a r e r epr esen ted. N ote th e
obviou s clu ster in g of a pplica tion s by fa m ilies
wh ich live in close pr oxim ity. F a r m or e in ter estin g for th e fa m ily ch oice r esea r ch er, h ow ever, a r e th ose a pplica tion s wh ich a r e fou n d
in close pr oxim ity to ea ch oth er, yet wh o
ch ose differ en t sch ools (see F igu r e 2). Also
n ote h ow a m a n -m a de geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier,
su ch a s a m a jor h igh w ay or fr eew ay, a lso
seem s to im pa ct on th e sch ool ch oice decision
(see F igu r e 2). N ote h ow th e h igh w ay seem s to
divide th ose wh o desir e to go to on e sch ool
fr om th ose wh o desir e to go to th e oth er
sch ool.
In su m m a r y, th ose edu ca tion a l r esea r ch er s
a n d policy a n a lysts in ter ested in sch oolfa m ily issu es ch oice wou ld fin d th is type of
geogr a ph ica l in for m a tion extr em ely u sefu l
for exa m in in g th e im pa ct of geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce on ch oice a n d fi n din g “ch oice” pa ir s
of a pplica n ts wh o cou ld by su r veyed in m or e
depth in or der to pr ovide a better u n der sta n din g of th e r ole of in for m a tion in th e fin a l
ch oice selection of a m a gn et sch ool site.
Figure 1
Map o f stude nt applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o l site X and site Y
Applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o ls
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Magne t sc ho o l
X–applic atio ns
Magne t sc ho o l
Y–applic atio ns
SITE Y
SITE X
Mile s
0
[ 26 ]
2
4
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 2
Map o f stude nt applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o l site X and site Y with man-made ge o graphic al
barrie rs (fre e way)
Applic atio ns to magne t sc ho o ls
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
Magne t sc ho o l
X–applic atio ns
Magne t sc ho o l
Y–applic atio ns
Majo r highways
SITE Y
SITE X
Mile s
0
School outreach services to the
community and geographical
location
Th e secon d illu str a tion of th e GIS m a ppin g
pr ocedu r e en ta ils th e system a tic pla n n in g of
sch ool site ou tr ea ch edu ca tion a l pr ogr a m m es
to th e com m u n ity. Sch ool site a dm in istr a tor s
wou ld be pa r ticu la r ly in ter ested in th ese
types of GIS a pplica tion s sin ce th ey ca n be
u sed to loca te stu den ts w ith specia l a ca dem ic
n eeds. On ce th ese popu la tion s a r e iden tified
on a m a p, sch ool a dm in istr a tor s m igh t be
better a ble to a ddr ess th ose a ca dem ic n eeds
w ith r em ote, off-site in str u ction a l su ppor t
pr ogr a m m es a n d/ or oth er socia l ser vice
su ppor t pr ogr a m m es[16,17]. In th is a pplica tion , a geogr a ph ica l a n a lysis w a s u sed to
loca te a ll stu den ts wh o wer e sign ifica n tly
a bove a n d below gr a de levels. Aga in , th e m a p
cou ld be layer ed w ith dem ogr a ph ic in for m a tion , su ch a s aver a ge h ou seh old in com e, a n d
per cen t m in or ity, a n d th en colou r coded by
r e gion (in th is ca se zip code).
Note fr om F igu r e 3 th a t th er e wer e clu ster s
of stu den ts in specific r egion s of th e com m u n ity wh er e m a n y of th e below gr a de level
stu den ts r esided. Most of th ese clu ster s of
stu den ts wer e som e dista n ce fr om th e a ctu a l
sch ool site, th er efor e, geogr aph ica l dista n ce
im peded th e a ttr a ctiven ess of offer in g
2
4
a fter -sch ool, on -site in str u ction a l su ppor t
pr ogr a m m es. In stea d, a pr oject w a s developed
wh ich m a de u se of a tr a iler -va n equ ipped w ith
com pu ter wor k sta tion s, ta bles, a n d sta ffed
w ith edu ca tion a l per son n el. Th e tr a iler -va n
w a s th en br ou gh t to th e com m u n ity loca tion
con ta in in g th e h igh est clu ster s of below gr a de
level stu den ts. In sh or t, GIS pr ocedu r es wer e
u sed to pr ovide edu ca tion a l a n d in str u ction a l
su ppor t ser vices to stu den ts a t loca tion s
wh ich wer e in close pr oxim ity to th eir
a ddr ess, r ath er th a n pr ovidin g th ese ser vices
a t th e sch ool site. Note th a t in th is a pplica tion
a geogr aph ica l m a p is gen er a ted to deter m in e
th e clu ster s of stu den ts (see F igu r e 4). Th e
sa m e m a p ca n th en be u sed to deter m in e th e
best loca tion for th e r em ote or off-site in str u ction a l su ppor t pr ogr a m m e. Geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce, a s a fa ctor in u n der a ch ievem en t, ca n
th en be pa r tia lly a ddr essed by th e geogr aph ica l loca tion of a ser vice veh icle for edu ca tion a l
su ppor t ser vices in th e com m u n ity. In a sim ila r a n d ea r lier a pplica tion of th e GIS m a ppin g
pr ocedu r e for com m u n ity ou tr ea ch , m oth er s
of low bir th weigh t ba bies a n d sin gle pa r en t
h om es wer e m a tch ed to in ocu la tion ser vice
cen tr es in th e Atla n ta , Geor gia a r ea [17]. Wh en
u sin g GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es for th ese types
of geogr aph ica l “loca tion ” a pplica tion s, cer ta in specific qu estion s m u st be a ddr essed.
Th ese qu estion s in clu de:
[ 27 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 3
Lo c atio n o f instruc tio nal suppo rt se rvic e s fo r abo ve and be lo w grade le ve l stude nts
1 9 9 5 Z IP Co de s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
Railways
Majo r highways
Abo ve grade le ve l
Be lo w grade le ve l
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
0 .5
1
Figure 4
Lo c atio n o f instruc tio nal suppo rt se rvic e s re mo te o ff-site lo c atio n analysis
Stude nt attainme nt
1 9 9 5 Z IP c o de s
Railways
Stre e ts
Majo r highways
Abo ve grade le ve l
Be lo w grade le ve l
REM OTE OFF-SITE LOCATION
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
[ 28 ]
0 .2 0 .4
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
• a n exa ct a ssessm en t of com m u n ity n eeds;
• r esea r ch in to th e loca tion of cu r r en t
com m u n ity r esou r ces to ser vice th ose
n eeds; a n d
• developin g a ser vice com pon en t th a t lin k s
th e n eeds of th e com m u n ity to th e
r esou r ces ava ila ble.
All th r ee of th ese issu es ca n be a ddr essed
u sin g GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r es.
New and continuing student
participation and geographical
distance
In th e fin a l illu str a tive a pplica tion of GIS
m a ppin g, clien ts (n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den ts) of a la r ge edu ca tion a l cen tr e wer e
iden tified in ter m s of th eir geogr a ph ica l
dista n ce. Th e pu r pose h er e w a s n ot on ly to
exa m in e geogr a ph ica lly n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den t loca tion s a t th e edu ca tion a l cen tr e,
bu t to pr ovide som e in sigh ts r e ga r din g th e
dista n ces tr avelled. On ce n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den t loca tion s wer e deter m in ed, qu estion s
su ch a s wh er e to pla ce a sa tellite ca m pu s,
h ow best to esta blish ca r pools, wh er e to pla ce
a lu m n i cen tr es a n d fu n ction s, wh er e to pla ce
r ecr u itm en t, cen tr es etc., cou ld be a ddr essed.
F igu r e 5 displays a ll n ew stu den ts en r olled
in th e edu ca tion a l pr ogr a m m e. Over la id on
th e m a p ca n a lso be com m u n ity r esou r ces,
su ch a s libr a r ies a n d oth er edu ca tion a l
fa cilities, so th a t m or e effective co-or din a tion
of socia l ser vices cou ld be a tta in ed.
F igu r e 6 sh ow s both n ew a n d con tin u in g
stu den ts in th e pr ogr a m m e. Her e, possible
pa ir in gs of stu den ts by geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
ca n be a ch ieved. P a ir in g of n ew a n d con tin u in g stu den ts for pu r poses of ca r poolin g, sem in a r s, etc. ca n a lso be a ch ieved w ith th is type
of m a p.
F in a lly, if com m u n ity r epr esen ta tion a t th e
edu ca tion cen tr e is a goa l of th e com m u n ity,
th en th em a tic in for m a tion , su ch a s fa m ily
in com e, per cen t bla ck , etc., in ea ch r e gion of
th e m a p (zip code) cou ld be over la id on th e
m a p.
Extensions of GIS
Th ese th r ee illu str a tive a pplica tion s of th e
GIS m a ppin g pr ocedu r e n icely dem on str a te
th a t th e visu a liza tion of geogr a ph ica l dista n ce in a sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea ca n be u sed
to pr esen t a n im por ta n t “pictu r e” of n eed to
th e edu ca tion a l r esea r ch er a n d sch ool site
a dm in istr a tor. In on e of th e th r ee illu str a tive
a pplica tion s pr esen ted h er e, th e GIS m a p
ser ved a s th e in tr odu ction to th e com plex
policy issu e of en su r in g “equ ity” w ith r e ga r d
to sch ool ch oice in a la r ge u r ba n settin g. Th e
Figure 5
Multiple partic ipatio n in an instruc tio nal pro gramme in a large urban are a (ne w and c o ntinuing
stude nts)
Co ntinuing stude nts
Ne w stude nts
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
5
10
[ 29 ]
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Figure 6
Multiple partic ipatio n in an instruc tio nal pro gramme in a large urban are a (ne w stude nts o nly)
Ne w stude nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
SCHOOL SITE
Mile s
0
secon d GIS a pplica tion exa m in ed th e qu estion of h ow to pr ovide edu ca tion a l su ppor t
ser vices in th e com m u n ity th r ou gh a n offsite, a fter -sch ool in str u ction a l su ppor t pr ogr a m m e. Th e th ir d a pplica tion w a s a pu r ely
descr iptive clien t loca tion type of a n a lysis for
a la r ge cen tr a lized edu ca tion cen tr e.
Wh ile th ese a pplica tion s r epr esen t a cla ss of
pr oblem s in m a n a gem en t (loca tion ) a n d policy (ch oice), th er e a r e oth er cla sses of geogr a ph ica lly sen sitive pr oblem a r ea wh er e GIS
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es cou ld be of im por ta n t
u se. With r ecen t m a r k etin g or clien t-dr iven
effor ts in Am er ica tow a r ds br ea k in g u p la r ge
u r ba n sch ool distr icts in to sm a ller a n d m or e
m a n a gea ble u n its, GIS m eth ods cou ld pr ove to
be a n inva lu a ble tool for loca tin g th ose
clu ster s of r econ figu r ed sch ools[18]. Not on ly
cou ld stu den ts be located a n d th en com pa r ed
w ith existin g sch ool site a tten da n ce a r ea s, bu t
dem ogr a ph ic th em es cou ld a lso be over la id, to
en su r e th a t th e r econ figu r ed sch ool a tten da n ce a r ea is cu ltu r a lly a n d econ om ica lly
diver se. Na tu r a l geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier s su ch
a s r iver s a n d m ou n ta in s, a s well a s m a n -m a de
geogr a ph ica l ba r r ier s su ch a s fr eew ays a n d
r a ilw ays, cou ld a lso be m apped so th a t tr avel
tim e a n d conven ien ce for th e stu den t a n d
pa r en t cou ld be m a in ta in ed. Th is type of
a pplica tion of th e GIS pr ocedu r es r epr esen ts a
cla ss of pla n n in g or site location pr oblem s
wh ich ca n be exten ded to in clu de sch ool bu s
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5
10
r ou tein g a n d ca r poolin g. Th is type of GIS
pr oblem is sim ila r to th ose fou n d in th e r eta il
sector wh ich focu s on idea l stor efr on t
loca tion s in a com m u n ity, given cu stom er
pa tr on a ge pa tter n s.
On e cou ld a lso u se GIS to exa m in e decibel
r ea din gs, sch ool site loca tion s a n d fligh t
pa th s to a ir por ts. Th ese da ta ca n th en be
visu a lly displayed on th e sa m e geogr a ph ic
m a p a n d th eir im pa ct on stu den t per for m a n ce n oted.
F in a lly, GIS m a ppin g cou ld be a va lu a ble
in for m a tion con veyin g m ech a n ism for
pa r en ts a n d tea ch er s for descr ibin g cer ta in
ch a r a cter istics of a sch ool site. For exa m ple,
th e m a ppin g of liqu or stor es, cr im e a n d
va n da lism (felon ies a n d m isdem ea n ou r s)
a cr oss a n en tir e sch ool distr ict m igh t pr ovide
in for m a tion to sch ool boa r ds con cer n in g
wh er e to in cr ea se sch ool site secu r ity a n d to
pa r en ts con cer n ed w ith sch ool sa fety. Th ese
types of descr iptive sch ool in for m a tion a l GIS
a pplica tion s cou ld per h a ps be th e m ost va lu a ble con tr ibu tion of th e m a ppin g pr ocedu r e
to sch ool site m a n a gem en t a n d pla n n in g.
Conclusion
In con clu sion , th e visu a l r epr esen ta tion of
geogr a ph ica l da ta h a s w idespr ea d a pplica tion in edu ca tion a l policy a n a lysis a n d sch ool
Jame s E. Bruno
Use o f ge o graphic al
info rmatio n syste ms (GIS)
mapping pro c e dure s to
suppo rt e duc atio nal po lic y
analysis and sc ho o l site
manage me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 4 –3 1
site m a n a gem en t. Th e for m a l r ecogn ition of
geogr a ph ic loca tion , geogr a ph ica l dista n ce
a n d m a n -m a de a n d n a tu r a l geogr a ph ica l
ba r r ier s in a ddr essin g im por ta n t pr oblem
a r ea s in policy a n d m a n a gem en t m a k e th e
pr ocedu r e extr em ely a ppea lin g in both th e
USA a n d th e r est of th e wor ld. Of cou r se, GIS
m a ps cou ld a lso be m a de on a m on th -tom on th or yea r -to-yea r ba sis a n d th e ch a n ge in
th e geogr a ph ic in for m a tion itself cou ld be
m a pped. Th is type of ch a n ge-or ien ted GIS
pr ocedu r e wou ld be u sed to pr ovide a
dyn a m ic qu a lity to th e m a p a n d m igh t pr ove
ver y u sefu l in sch ool site m a n a gem en t wh er e
th er e is h igh stu den t tu r n over. F in a lly, th e
visu a liza tion of econ om ic, cu ltu r a l, dem ogr a ph ic a n d politica l in for m a tion in a geospa ce pr ovides th e sch ool site a dm in istr a tor
a n d edu ca tion a l policy a n a lyst w ith a power fu l visu a l tech n iqu e for u n der sta n din g
m igr a tion s, wh ite fligh t, a n d oth er sch ool
beh aviou r s th a t a r e a ssocia ted w ith geogr a ph y. Specia lized topic a r ea s fr om a tten da n ce
bou n da r y optim iza tion th a t con sider s r a ce,
gr a de level a n d sch ool size to th e en h a n cem en t of com m u n ity ou tr ea ch ser vices cou ld
a lso be explor ed w ith th e GIS pr ocedu r e. In
essen ce, w ith GIS m a ppin g on e gets to “see
wh a t we th in k we k n ow ” displayed on a per fectly pr opor tion ed m a p. As m icr ocom pu ter
m a ppin g pr ocedu r es becom e m or e w idespr ea d a n d th e pr ocedu r e is ta u gh t in gr a du a te pr ogr a m m es in sch ool a dm in istr a tion in
th e fu tu r e, we sh ou ld fin d m a ppin g to be a s
com m on a s pr epa r in g ch a r ts a n d gr a ph s for
pa r en ts a n d sch ool boa r ds.
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