Comparative Analysis of American and Indonesian Democracies: A Literature Review | Burhanuddin | Journal of Society and Governance 1695 2874 1 SM
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Comparative Analysis of American and Indonesian Democracies:
A Literature Review
Agussalim Burhanuddin
Dept. of International Relations Universitas Hasanuddin
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
United States of America and Indonesia have been claimed as two of democratic countries in
the world. While Indonesian democracy is considered relatively new, it poses a promising commitment
of a full-fledged democracy. The long-time-established American political system, on the other hand,
has not yet achieved a satisfactory model of democracy. This article aims to observe the strength and
the weaknesses of the two democracies using literature reviews in a comparative approach. It is revealed
that American and Indonesian democracies still have a long way to become a perfect model of political
system.
Keywords: Democracy, American democracy, Indonesian democracy.
Introduction
order
Democracy is not only a fluid and
to
enhance
their
legitimacy,
open idea, but also an essentially contested
nationally and internationally. For example,
concept. Since the time it was invented as a
Suharto when in power often referred to the
form of politics and governance, the
Pancasila democracy and insisted that his
conceptualization and the application of
regime was democratic one. In a more
democracy has never achieved a universal
contemporary example, the government of
agreement. Theoretically and practically,
today’s
democracy has emerged in different
republic, North Korea, persistently uses
versions and connotations, and even
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea as
manifested in forms that are entirely
its official name, despite of its notorious
contrasted to its ideals and principles. Many
dictator practices.
most
well-known
totalitarian
world authoritarian regimes have claimed
Measuring one country more or less
their governments as democratic regime in
democratic is even more intriguing. The
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Journal of Society and Governance – Volume 1 No.1 January 2017
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United States of America that is often
This article aims to observe the
referred as a well-established democratic
elements of democracy in the American and
country and claims democracy as one of the
Indonesia political system in a comparative
principles of its foreign policy, has
approach. Before discussing democracy in
frequently been a target of criticism over its
the two countries political systems, the
unilateralism. Moreover, the electoral
article is started with a conceptual
college of the current American political
exploration of the history of democracy and
system is again questioned over its
the emergence of modern democracies.
representation of a democratic electoral
Reviews by some experts and prominent
system. Donald Trump won the 2016 US
authors
Presidential election over Hillary Clinton
perspectives and insights on American and
despite the latter managed to gain the
Indonesian democracies.
will
provide
some
critical
majority the American votes in a significant
number through the popular vote.
The history of modern democracies
In another part of the world,
Robert Dahl in On Democracy
Indonesia is often admired of its fast-track
(1998) explores the history of democracy’s
democratization transforming from an
theoretical and practical development and
authoritarian system to a full-fledged
argues that democracy has been invented
democracy in a relatively short period.
and reinvented in multiple times and places
However, after almost two decades of
as long as the appropriate conditions are
transformation under a spirit of what so-
met. The spirit of democracy can be found
called reformasi (reform), the country is
even in simple tribal communities, as they
still struggling with its democratization.
practice what Dahl calls “the logic of
While institutions of democracy such as
equality” (10). Dahl, like most of political
political parties and free elections have
scientists,
successfully been installed into the current
recognizable form of democracy was
Indonesian political system, the presence of
Athens around 500 BC, an ancient Greek
“un-democratic”
community that adopted a system of
elements
such
as
suggests
government.
that
the
Yet,
older
corruption, money politics and politics of
popular
Simon
intolerance is still evident in the daily
Hornblower shows a different finding,
activities of the political actors.
arguing that it was not in Athens where
democracy was first invented, but in Sparta.
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This assertion seems controversial as
what it is implement by today’s modern
Sparta has rarely regarded as a democratic
democracies.
community, but Hornblower argues that
democracy that is commonly adopted by
Sparta had already a popular assembly
many modern states, the Greek democracy
dating back to about 600 BC, a century a
was directly ‘participatory.’ In this system,
head of Athens (Hornblower, 1992: 1).
the citizens of Athens attended a popular
Whether democracy was first established in
assembly (ecclesia) themselves rather than
Sparta or Athens, classical Greece has laid
elect certain few people to represent their
practical
political voices. Although the specific
foundations
of
popular
concept
participation for a modern democracy.
of
Unlike
citizenship
representative
in
Athenian
term
democracy suggests that the right to
democracy was invented from the Greek
participate in the popular assembly was not
word demokratia that literally means
applied to women, slaves, and foreigners,
“people to rule” or “people power” (Dahl,
all free men are treated equal in politics.
1998: 11-2). However, the term only
Another specific feature of democracy in
became known and central to political
Athens was the selection process by lot to
discourse particularly in Europe in the mid
assign
thirteenth
after
institutions. Selection by lot was favored
Aristotle’s work Politics was translated by
instead of competitive selection to maintain
William of Moerbeke into English. It is
the principle that every citizen has an equal
interesting that the term was conceptually
right (Hornblower, 1992: 1-15). Having
introduced by Aristotle who was also
such features, the Athens system can be
known as one of early opponents of the idea
considered as highly democratic due to its
of democracy. By Aristotle, democracy was
popular participatory model.
Etymologically,
century.
the
Especially
people
in
public
duties
and
meant “the rule of the mob” indicating a
One may argue that the Athenian
bad type of government, and until the
vision of democracy is impossible to apply
seventeenth century, it continued to be
in a modern nation-state for particular
regarded negatively (Skinner, 1992: 59).
reason. For instance, it requires a small size
The Athenian democracy that lasted
of population and gathering citizens in a
two centuries before subjugated by the
number of thousands in the popular
Macedonians
distinctive
assembly would be unimaginable. Even in
features that are significantly different from
a relatively tiny country like Singapore, to
had
several
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gather all citizens in the popular assembly
population were bigger and dispersed than
is extremely difficult especially to meet in
those of the Greek, direct participatory
a regular basis. Citizens also have to be
politics continued to be maintained. The
relatively homogenous and harmonious in
break from the direct participatory system
terms of economic and cultural possession
only occurred in England during the Civil
in order to create an effective popular
War, when the Levellers emerged as a
assembly. Citizens with different interests
significant political force and introduced a
may become reluctant to participate in
form of representative government. As the
particular agenda. In addition, the state
term ‘democracy’ was at that time still seen
should
and
as a bad form of government, the Levellers
autonomous in terms of politics, economic,
did not say that they wanted ‘democracy,’
and more importantly militarily in order to
but they called for ‘political equality’
maintain the sovereignty of the assembly
instead (Wotton, 1994: 73). A century later,
within the state. Yet, despite the complexity
the idea of political representation was
or perhaps the simplicity of the Athenian
conceptualized and written in the English
democracy, there is an important lesson to
constitution by Montesquieu: “since it was
draw, “the spirit of popular participation”.
impossible in a large state for the people to
In addition, the Athenian democracy, as
meet as a legislative body, they must
Dahl argues, presents political ideals that
choose representatives to do what they
should
modern
could not do themselves” (Montesquieu in
democrats. In the Greek political vision,
Dahl, 1989: 29). From this time on,
politics is simply a natural social activity
representation has been seen as a solution
that a citizen cannot separate it from his
for the limitation of the ancient Greece
daily life. Accordingly, the state and
democracy, and transformed democracy
government are not perceived as remote or
from a form of government that was only
alien entities by their citizens (Dahl, 1989:
suitable for small city-state to be applicable
18-9).
to the large nation-states.
be
have
fully
independent
inspired
the
In fact, political history suggests
that democracy was not in a representative
American Democracy
form until it was first applied in England in
The American Revolution brought
the seventeenth century. Even in the Italian
about a new development of representative
city-republics
democracy. It established a new political
where
territory
and
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Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
system,
a
representative
generally perceived as ‘direct participatory
republican
the
government’ based on the experience of the
European system of hereditary monarchy.
Greek city-states. As American political
The essence of the new political system was
system developed and inspired many
the commitment to equality, despite the
newly-established governments to adopt it,
contradictory
was
‘democracy’ has been used as a label for
maintained in American social system until
‘elected representative government’ and
the nineteenth century. In comparison to the
representation has become the fundamental
British ‘virtual representation’ system in
mechanism
that members of House of Commons do not
pioneered by American system.
government,
which
fact
challenged
that
slavery
constituents,
American
modern
democracy
However, Robert Dahl in his
necessary represent individual interest of
their
of
provocative work How Democratic is the
system
developed ‘actual representation’ that
American
resulted in the expanding suffrage and the
assumption that American political system
increasing participation of ordinary people
has been ideally democratic since the early
in the government (Wood, 1992: 91-103).
days. He reveals that the Framers of
Such innovation posed a clear challenge to
American Constitution did not intend to
the Aristotelian ideas that common people
established democratic system in the sense
could not be entrusted with leadership due
of popular government. For Dahl, the
to their ill-equipped ability for such
original American Constitution conveyed
responsibility. It can be argued that; while
some un-democratic elements into political
American democracy in some degree it
practices. First, the Constitution failed to
represented a spirit of Athenian equality, it
forbid the practice of slavery that was
is
is
prevalent in the early American social
substantially different from the Athenian
system, and it failed to empower the
direct participatory system.
Congress to do so. This most profound
a
representative
system
that
Constitution
challenges
the
As the term ‘democracy’ has been
violation of human rights permitted by the
largely accepted, the American innovation
original constitution was not corrected until
on citizens participation in politics marked
the adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth,
a dramatic shift in the interpretation of
and Fifteenth Amendments between 1865
‘democracy.’
Before
and 1870. Second, the original constitution
century,
term
the
the
eighteenth
‘democracy’
was
did not guarantee the equal rights of
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suffrage for all Americans, but only left the
seemingly more favorable than the Greek
states to regulate the qualification of
participatory system. The influence of the
suffrage. For considerable long time,
Roman republic model is not only visually
women as well as Native and African
found on the architecture of American
American were excluded in electoral
prominent buildings and monuments, but
participation. Third, American president
even in political practices and literature.
was not elected directly by all citizens,
For example, terms like senate and republic
rather by certain persons in the Electoral
are directly descended from classical
College
Roman
as
it
is
emanated
by the
institution.
James
Madison,
Constitution. Fourth, the senators were to
Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay adopted
be chosen not by the people but by the state
the Roman pseudonym publius when they
legislatures. Fifth, all states were awarded
were
the same number of senator, disregarding
However, Dahl rejects the assumption that
the size of state’s population. Sixth, the
the Framers were in a situation to choose
constitution of the Framers did not limit the
between
power of the judiciary to veto the laws that
Rather, they were in a polemic of how
had been passed the Congress and signed
democratic
by the president. Finally, the Congress had
government would be (Dahl, 2003: 159-
limited power to prevent the federal
62). It can be seen here that the variation of
government fully controlling the economy
political system was not ‘republic’ versus
(Dahl, 2003). Although certain amendment
‘democracy,’ but between the elected
have abolished some of these elements, but
representative system and the popular
some are still taken into practice and
participatory system.
writing
the
Federalist
‘republic’
of
and
their
Papers.
‘democracy.’
representative
Another event that marked the
continue presenting undemocratic features
transformation of democracy from classical
of American political system.
According to Dahl, the Framers
Greek to modern system was the French
lack
of
Revolution of 1789, by which the French
democracy as guidance, and it was apparent
despotic monarch was destroyed and
that they were limited to considering
replaced by the first republican government
‘republic’ as a form of government. (Dahl,
ruled over one the largest population in
2003: 5). On this point, the model of Roman
Europe.
republic with representative system was
significant
were
of
alternative
model
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Journal of Society and Governance
The
revolution
achievements
produced
of
the
Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
transformation
of
democracy.
nineteenth
These
century.
The
first
global
achievements include the production of the
democratic wave began around 1820s and
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
lasted for a century with thirty-three
Citizen that proclaimed individual political
countries became democratic. This wave
equality, personal liberty, security of
had its roots in the two revolutions that has
property, legal guarantees and freedom of
been discussed earlier in this essay, and
thought, of opinion and religion (Fontana,
posed impacts mainly in European and
1992: 115). These points described in the
American continents. However, many of
declaration are the main premises of
those countries returned to authoritarian
democracy
rule around the World War I, in a period of
that
today
democratic
what Huntington calls as reverse wave. The
institutions are still dependent upon.
In the modern time, the term
second wave was marked by the end of the
democracy became more flexible and open
World War II lasted until 1962 and
than the people understood prior to the
embraced
eighteenth century. There have been scores
countries of former European colonies.
of democratic variations based on emphasis
Again, this followed by reverse wave that
and interpretation. For instance, people
was particularly evident in South America
today have been familiar with the terms
and among many of the former colonies.
such as
electoral
The third wave was initiated by the 1974
democracy,
Portugal Revolution and largely marked the
democracy,
liberal
democracy,
constitutional
many
changes
newly
in
independent
consolidated democracy, and so on. In
political
Eastern
Europe
practice, it became a global trend as many
following the collapse of the Soviet Union
governments and figures ranging from
(Huntington, 1991).
Is the third wave of democratization
Capitalist, Socialist, religious adherent, to
claimed
over? Larry Diamond argues that it has
themselves as democrats. However, there
come to an end in the late of 1990s as
must be a certain indicators to define
almost all countries that had favorable
democracy and the most prominent one is
conditions
the presence of fair and free elections.
democratized. As the overall expansion of
even
authoritarian,
have
for
democracy
have
Samuel Huntington in his seminal
the number of democracy halts for a
work The Third Wave formulates a pattern
sustained period, he concludes that that the
of global democratic expansion since the
third wave is over in 1990s (Diamond,
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1999: 60). However, It seems that Dahl’s
withdrawn
observation is not entirely correct as some
amendment of the constitution to meet
authoritarian countries transformed to
democratic demands. More importantly,
democracy. There is also no indication of
Free and fair elections have taken place four
reverse wave. More interestingly, the
times (in 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014) in
continuation of the third wave is now more
which the last three included direct
evident in the Muslim world. Initiated by
presidential elections. Such features have
the case of Indonesia in 1998, the global
positioned
democratization spread into the Arab
democracy in the region, while democracy
contries. By the end of 2011, some
in its neighboring countries such as
authoritarian Arab leaders including Ben
Malaysia, Thailand, and Philippine is often
Ali of Tunisia, Hosni Mubarak of Egypt,
considered stagnant.
from
politics,
Indonesia
as
and
the
the
leading
Applying the three phases of
and Gaddafi of Libya, were overthrown by
popular movements. The phenomenon of
political
change
in
the
course
democratization in various Arab countries,
democratization
often mentioned as the Arab Spring,
Huntington (1991), it is apparent that
espouses the assertion that Islam can be
Indonesia has passed the first two phases:
compatible with democracy. However, of
the regime breakdown and the democratic
these post authoritarian countries only
transition, and is now struggling in the last
Indonesia has embarked upon a significant
phase: the democratic consolidation. As the
democratic transformation.
democratic institutions and procedures
conceptualized
of
by
have been brought into existent, especially
Indonesia’s electoral democracy
Since
Suharto’s
arguably in the process of consolidating its
authoritarian regime in 1998, Indonesia
democracy. However, this phase poses
experienced
greater challenges from that of in the
change.
the
fall
of
fair and free elections, Indonesia is
tremendous
From
a
democratic
formal
transitional
perspective,
phase,
so
Indonesia’s
has
consolidating democracy is not an easy
significantly transformed with various
task. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan argue
democratic achievements including the
that three criteria have to be met in order to
introduction of a multi- party system,
achieve
decentralization
Behaviorally, no significant institutions or
Indonesian
political
system
process,
military
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Journal of Society and Governance
a
consolidated
democracy.
Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
resources
Attitudinally, the democratic procedures
attempting to achieve their objectives by
and institutions as ‘the only game in town’
creating a non-democratic regime or
are undermined by the presence of political
turning to violence. Attitudinally, a strong
gangsterism. It is widely known among
majority of citizens believe that the
Indonesians that many local officials and
democratic procedures and institutions are
elites use gangsters (locally called preman)
‘the only game in town’ to govern
to achieve their political objectives or to
collective life in society. Constitutionally,
maintain their power. In many cases, social
governmental and non-governmental forces
and student movements have to confront a
alike become committed to resolving
group of armed-civilians employed by
conflicts
elites,
actions
spend
significant
within
the
specific
laws,
creating
‘horizontal
conflict’
the
between citizens. Constitutionally, state
democratic process (Linz and Stepan, 1996:
apparatus have not fully prepared with
5-6).
adequate doctrine and procedures to be
procedures
and
sanctioned
by
democratic-professional,
Using the conceptual framework of
leaving
state
Linz and Stepan in analyzing the current
officers tend to act unconstitutionally
situation of Indonesia’s politics, it seems
especially when they are facing mass
there is still a long way to go before
actions. At the same time, citizens are well
achieving a consolidated democracy. There
informed about their civil rights but not
are still some prevailing undemocratic
about civil responsibility when pursuing
features
former
their rights. In a recent case of resident
authoritarian regime continue to be major
protest against a mining company in Bima
obstacles for the country's democratization.
of Nusa Tenggara, two people were shot
Behaviorally, although formal political
dead during a clash between police and
institutions do not dare to take any
protesters.
inherited
unconstitutional
from
measures
the
to
In general, the following are the
achieve
power, some social groups still take violent
common
actions to achieve their institutional goals.
consolidated democracy during a decade of
The most prominent example is the Islam
non-authoritarian rule. Corruption is still
Defender Fronts (FPI), which regularly
rampant and systemic in the sense that it is
conducts raids on public spaces that is
ingrained in the state apparatus, its
consider
structures, procedures and policies, and
un-Islamic
by
the
FPI.
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Journal of Society and Governance
obstacles
to
Indonesia’s
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affects the everyday lives of many citizens.
organizations, and mass public. Having this
Several anti-corruption institutions were
condition,
established to fight corruption practices in
democracy, whether it will be consolidated,
state administration, but none have been
stagnant, or even reversed, is fully
effective enough to achieve a total
determined by the commitment of all
eradication. The existence of various
Indonesians
militant and violent groups poses a critical
democracy in Indonesia will never be
threat to Indonesia’s pluralism and the
achieved if even one of elements of the
current democratization. Ironically, these
society refuses to accept the legitimacy of
groups are often used by political or formal
democracy in their life.
the
future
themselves.
of
Indonesia’s
Consolidated
actors to achieve the objectives. Some areas
are still vulnerable to the eruption of ethnic
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Journal of Society and Governance
Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan KM.10 Tamalanrea, Makassar 90245
Telp/fax. +62 411585024
Email: [email protected]
Online Journal : http://journal.unhas.ac.id/index.php/jsg
Comparative Analysis of American and Indonesian Democracies:
A Literature Review
Agussalim Burhanuddin
Dept. of International Relations Universitas Hasanuddin
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
United States of America and Indonesia have been claimed as two of democratic countries in
the world. While Indonesian democracy is considered relatively new, it poses a promising commitment
of a full-fledged democracy. The long-time-established American political system, on the other hand,
has not yet achieved a satisfactory model of democracy. This article aims to observe the strength and
the weaknesses of the two democracies using literature reviews in a comparative approach. It is revealed
that American and Indonesian democracies still have a long way to become a perfect model of political
system.
Keywords: Democracy, American democracy, Indonesian democracy.
Introduction
order
Democracy is not only a fluid and
to
enhance
their
legitimacy,
open idea, but also an essentially contested
nationally and internationally. For example,
concept. Since the time it was invented as a
Suharto when in power often referred to the
form of politics and governance, the
Pancasila democracy and insisted that his
conceptualization and the application of
regime was democratic one. In a more
democracy has never achieved a universal
contemporary example, the government of
agreement. Theoretically and practically,
today’s
democracy has emerged in different
republic, North Korea, persistently uses
versions and connotations, and even
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea as
manifested in forms that are entirely
its official name, despite of its notorious
contrasted to its ideals and principles. Many
dictator practices.
most
well-known
totalitarian
world authoritarian regimes have claimed
Measuring one country more or less
their governments as democratic regime in
democratic is even more intriguing. The
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United States of America that is often
This article aims to observe the
referred as a well-established democratic
elements of democracy in the American and
country and claims democracy as one of the
Indonesia political system in a comparative
principles of its foreign policy, has
approach. Before discussing democracy in
frequently been a target of criticism over its
the two countries political systems, the
unilateralism. Moreover, the electoral
article is started with a conceptual
college of the current American political
exploration of the history of democracy and
system is again questioned over its
the emergence of modern democracies.
representation of a democratic electoral
Reviews by some experts and prominent
system. Donald Trump won the 2016 US
authors
Presidential election over Hillary Clinton
perspectives and insights on American and
despite the latter managed to gain the
Indonesian democracies.
will
provide
some
critical
majority the American votes in a significant
number through the popular vote.
The history of modern democracies
In another part of the world,
Robert Dahl in On Democracy
Indonesia is often admired of its fast-track
(1998) explores the history of democracy’s
democratization transforming from an
theoretical and practical development and
authoritarian system to a full-fledged
argues that democracy has been invented
democracy in a relatively short period.
and reinvented in multiple times and places
However, after almost two decades of
as long as the appropriate conditions are
transformation under a spirit of what so-
met. The spirit of democracy can be found
called reformasi (reform), the country is
even in simple tribal communities, as they
still struggling with its democratization.
practice what Dahl calls “the logic of
While institutions of democracy such as
equality” (10). Dahl, like most of political
political parties and free elections have
scientists,
successfully been installed into the current
recognizable form of democracy was
Indonesian political system, the presence of
Athens around 500 BC, an ancient Greek
“un-democratic”
community that adopted a system of
elements
such
as
suggests
government.
that
the
Yet,
older
corruption, money politics and politics of
popular
Simon
intolerance is still evident in the daily
Hornblower shows a different finding,
activities of the political actors.
arguing that it was not in Athens where
democracy was first invented, but in Sparta.
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Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
This assertion seems controversial as
what it is implement by today’s modern
Sparta has rarely regarded as a democratic
democracies.
community, but Hornblower argues that
democracy that is commonly adopted by
Sparta had already a popular assembly
many modern states, the Greek democracy
dating back to about 600 BC, a century a
was directly ‘participatory.’ In this system,
head of Athens (Hornblower, 1992: 1).
the citizens of Athens attended a popular
Whether democracy was first established in
assembly (ecclesia) themselves rather than
Sparta or Athens, classical Greece has laid
elect certain few people to represent their
practical
political voices. Although the specific
foundations
of
popular
concept
participation for a modern democracy.
of
Unlike
citizenship
representative
in
Athenian
term
democracy suggests that the right to
democracy was invented from the Greek
participate in the popular assembly was not
word demokratia that literally means
applied to women, slaves, and foreigners,
“people to rule” or “people power” (Dahl,
all free men are treated equal in politics.
1998: 11-2). However, the term only
Another specific feature of democracy in
became known and central to political
Athens was the selection process by lot to
discourse particularly in Europe in the mid
assign
thirteenth
after
institutions. Selection by lot was favored
Aristotle’s work Politics was translated by
instead of competitive selection to maintain
William of Moerbeke into English. It is
the principle that every citizen has an equal
interesting that the term was conceptually
right (Hornblower, 1992: 1-15). Having
introduced by Aristotle who was also
such features, the Athens system can be
known as one of early opponents of the idea
considered as highly democratic due to its
of democracy. By Aristotle, democracy was
popular participatory model.
Etymologically,
century.
the
Especially
people
in
public
duties
and
meant “the rule of the mob” indicating a
One may argue that the Athenian
bad type of government, and until the
vision of democracy is impossible to apply
seventeenth century, it continued to be
in a modern nation-state for particular
regarded negatively (Skinner, 1992: 59).
reason. For instance, it requires a small size
The Athenian democracy that lasted
of population and gathering citizens in a
two centuries before subjugated by the
number of thousands in the popular
Macedonians
distinctive
assembly would be unimaginable. Even in
features that are significantly different from
a relatively tiny country like Singapore, to
had
several
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gather all citizens in the popular assembly
population were bigger and dispersed than
is extremely difficult especially to meet in
those of the Greek, direct participatory
a regular basis. Citizens also have to be
politics continued to be maintained. The
relatively homogenous and harmonious in
break from the direct participatory system
terms of economic and cultural possession
only occurred in England during the Civil
in order to create an effective popular
War, when the Levellers emerged as a
assembly. Citizens with different interests
significant political force and introduced a
may become reluctant to participate in
form of representative government. As the
particular agenda. In addition, the state
term ‘democracy’ was at that time still seen
should
and
as a bad form of government, the Levellers
autonomous in terms of politics, economic,
did not say that they wanted ‘democracy,’
and more importantly militarily in order to
but they called for ‘political equality’
maintain the sovereignty of the assembly
instead (Wotton, 1994: 73). A century later,
within the state. Yet, despite the complexity
the idea of political representation was
or perhaps the simplicity of the Athenian
conceptualized and written in the English
democracy, there is an important lesson to
constitution by Montesquieu: “since it was
draw, “the spirit of popular participation”.
impossible in a large state for the people to
In addition, the Athenian democracy, as
meet as a legislative body, they must
Dahl argues, presents political ideals that
choose representatives to do what they
should
modern
could not do themselves” (Montesquieu in
democrats. In the Greek political vision,
Dahl, 1989: 29). From this time on,
politics is simply a natural social activity
representation has been seen as a solution
that a citizen cannot separate it from his
for the limitation of the ancient Greece
daily life. Accordingly, the state and
democracy, and transformed democracy
government are not perceived as remote or
from a form of government that was only
alien entities by their citizens (Dahl, 1989:
suitable for small city-state to be applicable
18-9).
to the large nation-states.
be
have
fully
independent
inspired
the
In fact, political history suggests
that democracy was not in a representative
American Democracy
form until it was first applied in England in
The American Revolution brought
the seventeenth century. Even in the Italian
about a new development of representative
city-republics
democracy. It established a new political
where
territory
and
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Journal of Society and Governance
Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
system,
a
representative
generally perceived as ‘direct participatory
republican
the
government’ based on the experience of the
European system of hereditary monarchy.
Greek city-states. As American political
The essence of the new political system was
system developed and inspired many
the commitment to equality, despite the
newly-established governments to adopt it,
contradictory
was
‘democracy’ has been used as a label for
maintained in American social system until
‘elected representative government’ and
the nineteenth century. In comparison to the
representation has become the fundamental
British ‘virtual representation’ system in
mechanism
that members of House of Commons do not
pioneered by American system.
government,
which
fact
challenged
that
slavery
constituents,
American
modern
democracy
However, Robert Dahl in his
necessary represent individual interest of
their
of
provocative work How Democratic is the
system
developed ‘actual representation’ that
American
resulted in the expanding suffrage and the
assumption that American political system
increasing participation of ordinary people
has been ideally democratic since the early
in the government (Wood, 1992: 91-103).
days. He reveals that the Framers of
Such innovation posed a clear challenge to
American Constitution did not intend to
the Aristotelian ideas that common people
established democratic system in the sense
could not be entrusted with leadership due
of popular government. For Dahl, the
to their ill-equipped ability for such
original American Constitution conveyed
responsibility. It can be argued that; while
some un-democratic elements into political
American democracy in some degree it
practices. First, the Constitution failed to
represented a spirit of Athenian equality, it
forbid the practice of slavery that was
is
is
prevalent in the early American social
substantially different from the Athenian
system, and it failed to empower the
direct participatory system.
Congress to do so. This most profound
a
representative
system
that
Constitution
challenges
the
As the term ‘democracy’ has been
violation of human rights permitted by the
largely accepted, the American innovation
original constitution was not corrected until
on citizens participation in politics marked
the adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth,
a dramatic shift in the interpretation of
and Fifteenth Amendments between 1865
‘democracy.’
Before
and 1870. Second, the original constitution
century,
term
the
the
eighteenth
‘democracy’
was
did not guarantee the equal rights of
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suffrage for all Americans, but only left the
seemingly more favorable than the Greek
states to regulate the qualification of
participatory system. The influence of the
suffrage. For considerable long time,
Roman republic model is not only visually
women as well as Native and African
found on the architecture of American
American were excluded in electoral
prominent buildings and monuments, but
participation. Third, American president
even in political practices and literature.
was not elected directly by all citizens,
For example, terms like senate and republic
rather by certain persons in the Electoral
are directly descended from classical
College
Roman
as
it
is
emanated
by the
institution.
James
Madison,
Constitution. Fourth, the senators were to
Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay adopted
be chosen not by the people but by the state
the Roman pseudonym publius when they
legislatures. Fifth, all states were awarded
were
the same number of senator, disregarding
However, Dahl rejects the assumption that
the size of state’s population. Sixth, the
the Framers were in a situation to choose
constitution of the Framers did not limit the
between
power of the judiciary to veto the laws that
Rather, they were in a polemic of how
had been passed the Congress and signed
democratic
by the president. Finally, the Congress had
government would be (Dahl, 2003: 159-
limited power to prevent the federal
62). It can be seen here that the variation of
government fully controlling the economy
political system was not ‘republic’ versus
(Dahl, 2003). Although certain amendment
‘democracy,’ but between the elected
have abolished some of these elements, but
representative system and the popular
some are still taken into practice and
participatory system.
writing
the
Federalist
‘republic’
of
and
their
Papers.
‘democracy.’
representative
Another event that marked the
continue presenting undemocratic features
transformation of democracy from classical
of American political system.
According to Dahl, the Framers
Greek to modern system was the French
lack
of
Revolution of 1789, by which the French
democracy as guidance, and it was apparent
despotic monarch was destroyed and
that they were limited to considering
replaced by the first republican government
‘republic’ as a form of government. (Dahl,
ruled over one the largest population in
2003: 5). On this point, the model of Roman
Europe.
republic with representative system was
significant
were
of
alternative
model
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Journal of Society and Governance
The
revolution
achievements
produced
of
the
Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
transformation
of
democracy.
nineteenth
These
century.
The
first
global
achievements include the production of the
democratic wave began around 1820s and
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
lasted for a century with thirty-three
Citizen that proclaimed individual political
countries became democratic. This wave
equality, personal liberty, security of
had its roots in the two revolutions that has
property, legal guarantees and freedom of
been discussed earlier in this essay, and
thought, of opinion and religion (Fontana,
posed impacts mainly in European and
1992: 115). These points described in the
American continents. However, many of
declaration are the main premises of
those countries returned to authoritarian
democracy
rule around the World War I, in a period of
that
today
democratic
what Huntington calls as reverse wave. The
institutions are still dependent upon.
In the modern time, the term
second wave was marked by the end of the
democracy became more flexible and open
World War II lasted until 1962 and
than the people understood prior to the
embraced
eighteenth century. There have been scores
countries of former European colonies.
of democratic variations based on emphasis
Again, this followed by reverse wave that
and interpretation. For instance, people
was particularly evident in South America
today have been familiar with the terms
and among many of the former colonies.
such as
electoral
The third wave was initiated by the 1974
democracy,
Portugal Revolution and largely marked the
democracy,
liberal
democracy,
constitutional
many
changes
newly
in
independent
consolidated democracy, and so on. In
political
Eastern
Europe
practice, it became a global trend as many
following the collapse of the Soviet Union
governments and figures ranging from
(Huntington, 1991).
Is the third wave of democratization
Capitalist, Socialist, religious adherent, to
claimed
over? Larry Diamond argues that it has
themselves as democrats. However, there
come to an end in the late of 1990s as
must be a certain indicators to define
almost all countries that had favorable
democracy and the most prominent one is
conditions
the presence of fair and free elections.
democratized. As the overall expansion of
even
authoritarian,
have
for
democracy
have
Samuel Huntington in his seminal
the number of democracy halts for a
work The Third Wave formulates a pattern
sustained period, he concludes that that the
of global democratic expansion since the
third wave is over in 1990s (Diamond,
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1999: 60). However, It seems that Dahl’s
withdrawn
observation is not entirely correct as some
amendment of the constitution to meet
authoritarian countries transformed to
democratic demands. More importantly,
democracy. There is also no indication of
Free and fair elections have taken place four
reverse wave. More interestingly, the
times (in 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014) in
continuation of the third wave is now more
which the last three included direct
evident in the Muslim world. Initiated by
presidential elections. Such features have
the case of Indonesia in 1998, the global
positioned
democratization spread into the Arab
democracy in the region, while democracy
contries. By the end of 2011, some
in its neighboring countries such as
authoritarian Arab leaders including Ben
Malaysia, Thailand, and Philippine is often
Ali of Tunisia, Hosni Mubarak of Egypt,
considered stagnant.
from
politics,
Indonesia
as
and
the
the
leading
Applying the three phases of
and Gaddafi of Libya, were overthrown by
popular movements. The phenomenon of
political
change
in
the
course
democratization in various Arab countries,
democratization
often mentioned as the Arab Spring,
Huntington (1991), it is apparent that
espouses the assertion that Islam can be
Indonesia has passed the first two phases:
compatible with democracy. However, of
the regime breakdown and the democratic
these post authoritarian countries only
transition, and is now struggling in the last
Indonesia has embarked upon a significant
phase: the democratic consolidation. As the
democratic transformation.
democratic institutions and procedures
conceptualized
of
by
have been brought into existent, especially
Indonesia’s electoral democracy
Since
Suharto’s
arguably in the process of consolidating its
authoritarian regime in 1998, Indonesia
democracy. However, this phase poses
experienced
greater challenges from that of in the
change.
the
fall
of
fair and free elections, Indonesia is
tremendous
From
a
democratic
formal
transitional
perspective,
phase,
so
Indonesia’s
has
consolidating democracy is not an easy
significantly transformed with various
task. Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan argue
democratic achievements including the
that three criteria have to be met in order to
introduction of a multi- party system,
achieve
decentralization
Behaviorally, no significant institutions or
Indonesian
political
system
process,
military
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Journal of Society and Governance
a
consolidated
democracy.
Agussalim – Comparative Analysis of America ….
resources
Attitudinally, the democratic procedures
attempting to achieve their objectives by
and institutions as ‘the only game in town’
creating a non-democratic regime or
are undermined by the presence of political
turning to violence. Attitudinally, a strong
gangsterism. It is widely known among
majority of citizens believe that the
Indonesians that many local officials and
democratic procedures and institutions are
elites use gangsters (locally called preman)
‘the only game in town’ to govern
to achieve their political objectives or to
collective life in society. Constitutionally,
maintain their power. In many cases, social
governmental and non-governmental forces
and student movements have to confront a
alike become committed to resolving
group of armed-civilians employed by
conflicts
elites,
actions
spend
significant
within
the
specific
laws,
creating
‘horizontal
conflict’
the
between citizens. Constitutionally, state
democratic process (Linz and Stepan, 1996:
apparatus have not fully prepared with
5-6).
adequate doctrine and procedures to be
procedures
and
sanctioned
by
democratic-professional,
Using the conceptual framework of
leaving
state
Linz and Stepan in analyzing the current
officers tend to act unconstitutionally
situation of Indonesia’s politics, it seems
especially when they are facing mass
there is still a long way to go before
actions. At the same time, citizens are well
achieving a consolidated democracy. There
informed about their civil rights but not
are still some prevailing undemocratic
about civil responsibility when pursuing
features
former
their rights. In a recent case of resident
authoritarian regime continue to be major
protest against a mining company in Bima
obstacles for the country's democratization.
of Nusa Tenggara, two people were shot
Behaviorally, although formal political
dead during a clash between police and
institutions do not dare to take any
protesters.
inherited
unconstitutional
from
measures
the
to
In general, the following are the
achieve
power, some social groups still take violent
common
actions to achieve their institutional goals.
consolidated democracy during a decade of
The most prominent example is the Islam
non-authoritarian rule. Corruption is still
Defender Fronts (FPI), which regularly
rampant and systemic in the sense that it is
conducts raids on public spaces that is
ingrained in the state apparatus, its
consider
structures, procedures and policies, and
un-Islamic
by
the
FPI.
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Journal of Society and Governance
obstacles
to
Indonesia’s
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affects the everyday lives of many citizens.
organizations, and mass public. Having this
Several anti-corruption institutions were
condition,
established to fight corruption practices in
democracy, whether it will be consolidated,
state administration, but none have been
stagnant, or even reversed, is fully
effective enough to achieve a total
determined by the commitment of all
eradication. The existence of various
Indonesians
militant and violent groups poses a critical
democracy in Indonesia will never be
threat to Indonesia’s pluralism and the
achieved if even one of elements of the
current democratization. Ironically, these
society refuses to accept the legitimacy of
groups are often used by political or formal
democracy in their life.
the
future
themselves.
of
Indonesia’s
Consolidated
actors to achieve the objectives. Some areas
are still vulnerable to the eruption of ethnic
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