INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS - Unika Repository
PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University
Nijmegen
The following full text is a publisher's version.
For additional information about this publication click this link.
http://hdl.handle.net/2066/56268
Please be advised that this information was generated on 2018-02-28 and may be subject to
change.
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
exploratory studies
A. RACHMAD DJATI WINARNO
Indonesian adolescent sexuality and
romantic relationships: Exploratory studies
Een wetenschappelijke proeve op het gebied van de
Sociale Wetenschappen
Proefschrift
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen
op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. mr. S.C.J.J. Kortmann,
volgens besluit van het College van Decanen
in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 29 oktober 2007
om 13.30 uur precies
door
A. Rachmad Djati Winamo
geboren op 7 augustus 1961
te Wonogiri (Indonesia)
Promotores:
prof. dr. P. G. Heymans, Universiteit Utrecht
prof. dr. F. J. Monks
Manuscriptcommissie:
prof. dr. Th. C. M. Bergen, voorzitter
prof. dr. J.J.L. Derksen
dr. Bagus Wismanto, Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang, Indonesia
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS:
Exploratory Studies
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Parti
Chapter 1 SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENTS
1. Rationale
2. Design of the Study
3. Structure of Dissertation
4. References
1
3
5
6
7
Partii
Chapter 2 THE DESIGN OF THE INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT
SEXUAL HEALTH RESEARCH PROJECT
1. Introduction
2. Identification of Variables and Detailing Research
Questions
3. The Pilot Study
4. Study I: Large-scale Survey
4.1. Participants
4.2. Sampling
4.3. Instruments
4.4. Procedure of Data Collection
5. Study Π: A Closer Look at Adolescent Intimate
Relationships: The Pacaran Study
5.1. Instrument
5.2. Data Collection
6. Analyses and Reporting
7. References
9
11
12
15
16
16
17
20
23
25
25
25
26
28
Partin
Chapter 3 THE SEXUAL SITUATIONS OF CENTRAL JAVA
ADOLESCENTS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Questionnaires
3. Results
3.1. Adolescent intimate experiences - in-school students
and other parties
3.2. Out-school student reports
3.3. Knowledge about sexual matters
3.4. Problems with Sexual Development
33
35
36
37
38
39
39
45
50
56
111
4. Summary and Discussion
4.1. Romantic relationships among adolescents from
several points of view
4.2. Blended knowledge and beliefs
4.3. Psychosexual development in senior highs schools: A
relevant issue
4.4. Demographic conditions do matter
4.5. Same-sex attraction
4.6. Strengths and weaknesses of this study
5. References
Chapter 4 PACARAN: INDONESIAN ADOLESCENTS IN LOVE
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. The characteristics of pacaran couples
3.2. If there is no sexual attraction in the world...
3.3. Definitions and purposes of pacaran
3.4. The practice of pacaran
3.5. Emotional consequences of sexual behaviours
3.6. Course of relationships
3.7. Feelings and predictions about pacaran
4. Discussion
4.1. Pacaran in Indonesia: is it specific?
4.2. Dating activities as intimacy
rituals
4.3. Relationship experiences and expectations about its
future
4.4. Strengths and weaknesses of this study
5. References
Chapter 5 PERSONAL RESOURCES IN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.2. Participants
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Results of the coping study
3.2. Results of the self-efficacy study
3.3. Results concerning self-concept
3.4. Correlations among personal resources
4. Summary and discussion
4.1. Shared socio-demographic effects
4.2. The roles of religiosity for Central Java adolescents
iv
59
59
61
62
63
64
65
67
71
73
74
74
74
75
77
77
77
78
78
81
85
89
91
92
93
93
95
96
97
101
103
106
109
109
110
110
110
119
127
131
133
133
134
4.3. Correlations between specific personal resources
4.4. Methodological note
5. References
Chapter 6 SEXUAL SITUATIONS AND PERSONAL RESOURCES
OF CENTRAL JAVA ADOLESCENTS
1. Introduction
1.1. A brief overview
1.2. A review of related literature
2. Method
2.1. Participants, variables, and measurements
2.2. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Correlates of psychosexual problems
3.2. Correlates of adolescent romantic experience
3.3. Predictors of adolescent involvement in dyadic sexual
behaviours
4. Summary and discussion
4.1. Comparability of findings from in-school and outschool data collection
4.2. Gender differences
4.3. Minimum contribution of knowledge
4.4. Methodological notes: strengths and weaknesses
5. References
Chapter 7 PROVIDING INFORMATION ABOUT SEXUALITY AND
RELATIONSHIPS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measurements
3. Results
3.1. Preferred sources of information about sexual matters
3.2. Characteristics of information sources and information
exchange process
3.3. Contents of information and training related to sexual
development
3.4. Contents of information and training related to
interpersonal development
3.5. Sexuality education at Senior High School
4. Discussion
4.1. Adolescents' preferences form several points of view
4.2. Integrated contents related to adolescent sexuality and
interpersonal relationships
4.3. Notes for future research
5. References
135
135
136
141
143
143
144
149
149
150
151
151
154
155
158
158
159
160
161
161
165
167
168
168
168
170
170
178
180
182
187
192
192
194
194
195
ν
Part IV
Chapter 8 IMPLICATIONS OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS FOR
SEXUALITY EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN CENTRAL
JAVA
197
Summary
Samenvatting
Acknowledgments
Curriculum Vitae
207
210
214
215
Indonesian Adolescent Sexuality and Romantic Relationships:
Exploratory Studies
Chapter 1 :
SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF INDONESIAN
ADOLESCENTS
Exploratory Studies Contributing to Reproductive Health Education in Central
Java
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
1
2
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
Chapter 1
SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF INDONESIAN
ADOLESCENTS
Exploratory Studies Contributing to Reproductive Health Education in Central Java
Rationale
Kêlek, kêlek, biyung sira aneng êndi
Enggal tulungana
Awakku kêcêmplung warih
Gulagêpan wus mehpêjah
(Maskumambang, NN)
Chiap, chiap, where are you, mom,
Help me, hurry up!
I am plunged into water
Bulp, bulp, I'm dying
This quote is from a Javanese traditional song, Maskumambang which is a type of
Macapat. It describes a small chicken crying and calling her mother to come and help her.
The chicken is plunged into water and, because she can not swim, is almost dying.
This song, in my opinion, illustrates the situation of young people, especially in
Indonesia, when they are involved in unwanted pregnancy as a result of premarital sex. Most
of adolescent pregnancy in Indonesia happens in a romantic relationship context. The
situation is much worse for the girl involved. She often has to bear all the burdens alone:
psychological problems, physical burdens, and many other socio-economical burdens.
Moreover, if she is a high school student or at a lower level of education, she is expelled
from school. She has to stay at home, sometimes is married without any preparation, has
(very) limited access to education, and an unpromising future. She is, like a small chicken in
the water, in a situation that "traps" her. She can do little else except survive and seek help to
get out of the entrapping situation.
Adolescent pregnancy is one of several problems related to adolescent reproductive
health. Some problems in the area of reproductive health in Indonesia are unwanted
pregnancy, unsafe abortion, and sexually transmitted infections (STI), including HFV
(Kilboume-Brook, 2000). However, well documented data on adolescent reproductive
health, especially in Indonesia, are scarce. In analysing the availability and quality of data on
reproductive health in Indonesia, Utomo (2001) found that not much data on reproductive
health was available and the available data lacked quality. Utomo's review also did not
mention data concerning adolescent reproductive or sexual health. Although there are no
official data, adolescent pregnancy and unsafe abortion in Indonesia is apparently increasing.
The General Director of Public Health, Department of Social Welfare and Health has stated
that there are about 2.3 million abortion cases among adolescents in Indonesia (Kompas
Cyber Media, 2001). According to Indonesian Reproductive Health Profile 2003 (Ministry
Of Health, 2003) there are many young woman who have children before they reach the age
of 20 years. The Profile also mentions that unsafe abortion is a major cause of maternal
death for 15-19 year old women.
Adolescent reproductive health problems are associated, although not exclusively,
with sexual behaviours. Sexual behaviour itself consists of two main aspects, i.e. sexuality
and relationships with others. Sexuality in the form of biological development has to be dealt
with by adolescents starting with puberty. At the same time, adolescents are experiencing
changes in their relationships with others (e.g. Steinberg, 2002). Interpersonal development
moves from friendships to dating relationships (e.g. Zimmer-Gembeck, Siebenbruner, &
Collins, 2001). Adolescents may have same-sex friends only, may have both same- and
opposite-sex friends but no dating relationships, or may be involved in casual and short-term
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
3
dating relationships casually or in long-term dating or intimate relationships. When involved
in intimate relationships, young people have to learn strategies for starting and maintaining
these relationships (Jackson, Jacob, Landman-Peeters, & Lanting, 2001; Nieder & SeiffgeKrenke, 2001). Different coping strategies may be used to deal with different problematic
situations in the relationships. In some cases difficulties occur in maintaining existing
friendships while involved in a new romantic relationship (Roth & Parker, 2001). Weisfeld
and Woodward (2004) pointed out that there are many problematic and difficult situations
related to romantic relationships among adolescents. Using animal behaviours as an analogy,
they identified problems related to competitiveness, mate selection, pair bonding,
promiscuity and premarital pregnancy.
In their effort to understand their own development, adolescents may learn sexuality
by themselves, often discreetly, exchanging information and sharing experiences with their
friends. They may seek answers to questions from (perceived) competent figures, or from
anonymous sources (magazines, newspapers, and audio visual media). While young people
leam about sexuality and interpersonal relationships from various sources, they do have
some preferences (Hatmadji & Rochani, 1995; Wellings & Field, 1996). Adolescents mostly
prefer to find or exchange information about sexuality with their friends, who are likely to
possess a similar (low) level of knowledge about sexuality. Older figures are not the main
preference because they are usually judgmental about adolescent behaviours (Adioetomo, et
al., 1999). Some local and national mass media in Indonesia provide facilities for adolescent
consultation, with capable consultants, and sometimes in cooperation with institutions
working in reproductive health area.
Adolescent sexuality has been a focus of attention for many years in Indonesia.
Research and intervention programs have been carried out in many institutions. However,
their impact on adolescent health has not been as intended. Hatmadji and Rochani (1995)
found out that adolescent knowledge about reproductive processes and HIV is inadequate.
Adioetomo et al. (1999) reported that parents did not prepare their children for reproductive
health issues of adolescence because the parents themselves lacked reproductive health
knowledge and were inhibited by various taboos, while teachers admitted that students
nowadays are not as "polite and sincere" as they used to be. Similar to a finding of
Adioetomo and colleagues (1999), Beni (2005) also found that the family, especially the
parents, is a barrier to effective HIV/AIDS prevention programs in Indonesia. The barriers
include cultural constraints, lack of knowledge and awareness about the problem, and lack of
support and encouragement from related institutions, including government. According to
Djaja, Surjadi, and Susilawati (2002) the main reproductive health problems among
Indonesian adolescents are lack of information about adolescent reproductive health,
behaviours, health services, and regulations. The main problems include controversies over
sex education, risky sexual behaviours, unwanted pregnancy, and schooling for pregnant
arlr)lp
Nijmegen
The following full text is a publisher's version.
For additional information about this publication click this link.
http://hdl.handle.net/2066/56268
Please be advised that this information was generated on 2018-02-28 and may be subject to
change.
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
exploratory studies
A. RACHMAD DJATI WINARNO
Indonesian adolescent sexuality and
romantic relationships: Exploratory studies
Een wetenschappelijke proeve op het gebied van de
Sociale Wetenschappen
Proefschrift
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen
op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. mr. S.C.J.J. Kortmann,
volgens besluit van het College van Decanen
in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 29 oktober 2007
om 13.30 uur precies
door
A. Rachmad Djati Winamo
geboren op 7 augustus 1961
te Wonogiri (Indonesia)
Promotores:
prof. dr. P. G. Heymans, Universiteit Utrecht
prof. dr. F. J. Monks
Manuscriptcommissie:
prof. dr. Th. C. M. Bergen, voorzitter
prof. dr. J.J.L. Derksen
dr. Bagus Wismanto, Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang, Indonesia
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS:
Exploratory Studies
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Parti
Chapter 1 SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF
INDONESIAN ADOLESCENTS
1. Rationale
2. Design of the Study
3. Structure of Dissertation
4. References
1
3
5
6
7
Partii
Chapter 2 THE DESIGN OF THE INDONESIAN ADOLESCENT
SEXUAL HEALTH RESEARCH PROJECT
1. Introduction
2. Identification of Variables and Detailing Research
Questions
3. The Pilot Study
4. Study I: Large-scale Survey
4.1. Participants
4.2. Sampling
4.3. Instruments
4.4. Procedure of Data Collection
5. Study Π: A Closer Look at Adolescent Intimate
Relationships: The Pacaran Study
5.1. Instrument
5.2. Data Collection
6. Analyses and Reporting
7. References
9
11
12
15
16
16
17
20
23
25
25
25
26
28
Partin
Chapter 3 THE SEXUAL SITUATIONS OF CENTRAL JAVA
ADOLESCENTS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Questionnaires
3. Results
3.1. Adolescent intimate experiences - in-school students
and other parties
3.2. Out-school student reports
3.3. Knowledge about sexual matters
3.4. Problems with Sexual Development
33
35
36
37
38
39
39
45
50
56
111
4. Summary and Discussion
4.1. Romantic relationships among adolescents from
several points of view
4.2. Blended knowledge and beliefs
4.3. Psychosexual development in senior highs schools: A
relevant issue
4.4. Demographic conditions do matter
4.5. Same-sex attraction
4.6. Strengths and weaknesses of this study
5. References
Chapter 4 PACARAN: INDONESIAN ADOLESCENTS IN LOVE
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedure
2.3. Measures
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. The characteristics of pacaran couples
3.2. If there is no sexual attraction in the world...
3.3. Definitions and purposes of pacaran
3.4. The practice of pacaran
3.5. Emotional consequences of sexual behaviours
3.6. Course of relationships
3.7. Feelings and predictions about pacaran
4. Discussion
4.1. Pacaran in Indonesia: is it specific?
4.2. Dating activities as intimacy
rituals
4.3. Relationship experiences and expectations about its
future
4.4. Strengths and weaknesses of this study
5. References
Chapter 5 PERSONAL RESOURCES IN ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.2. Participants
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Results of the coping study
3.2. Results of the self-efficacy study
3.3. Results concerning self-concept
3.4. Correlations among personal resources
4. Summary and discussion
4.1. Shared socio-demographic effects
4.2. The roles of religiosity for Central Java adolescents
iv
59
59
61
62
63
64
65
67
71
73
74
74
74
75
77
77
77
78
78
81
85
89
91
92
93
93
95
96
97
101
103
106
109
109
110
110
110
119
127
131
133
133
134
4.3. Correlations between specific personal resources
4.4. Methodological note
5. References
Chapter 6 SEXUAL SITUATIONS AND PERSONAL RESOURCES
OF CENTRAL JAVA ADOLESCENTS
1. Introduction
1.1. A brief overview
1.2. A review of related literature
2. Method
2.1. Participants, variables, and measurements
2.2. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Correlates of psychosexual problems
3.2. Correlates of adolescent romantic experience
3.3. Predictors of adolescent involvement in dyadic sexual
behaviours
4. Summary and discussion
4.1. Comparability of findings from in-school and outschool data collection
4.2. Gender differences
4.3. Minimum contribution of knowledge
4.4. Methodological notes: strengths and weaknesses
5. References
Chapter 7 PROVIDING INFORMATION ABOUT SEXUALITY AND
RELATIONSHIPS
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measurements
3. Results
3.1. Preferred sources of information about sexual matters
3.2. Characteristics of information sources and information
exchange process
3.3. Contents of information and training related to sexual
development
3.4. Contents of information and training related to
interpersonal development
3.5. Sexuality education at Senior High School
4. Discussion
4.1. Adolescents' preferences form several points of view
4.2. Integrated contents related to adolescent sexuality and
interpersonal relationships
4.3. Notes for future research
5. References
135
135
136
141
143
143
144
149
149
150
151
151
154
155
158
158
159
160
161
161
165
167
168
168
168
170
170
178
180
182
187
192
192
194
194
195
ν
Part IV
Chapter 8 IMPLICATIONS OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS FOR
SEXUALITY EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN CENTRAL
JAVA
197
Summary
Samenvatting
Acknowledgments
Curriculum Vitae
207
210
214
215
Indonesian Adolescent Sexuality and Romantic Relationships:
Exploratory Studies
Chapter 1 :
SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF INDONESIAN
ADOLESCENTS
Exploratory Studies Contributing to Reproductive Health Education in Central
Java
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
1
2
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
Chapter 1
SEXUALITY AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF INDONESIAN
ADOLESCENTS
Exploratory Studies Contributing to Reproductive Health Education in Central Java
Rationale
Kêlek, kêlek, biyung sira aneng êndi
Enggal tulungana
Awakku kêcêmplung warih
Gulagêpan wus mehpêjah
(Maskumambang, NN)
Chiap, chiap, where are you, mom,
Help me, hurry up!
I am plunged into water
Bulp, bulp, I'm dying
This quote is from a Javanese traditional song, Maskumambang which is a type of
Macapat. It describes a small chicken crying and calling her mother to come and help her.
The chicken is plunged into water and, because she can not swim, is almost dying.
This song, in my opinion, illustrates the situation of young people, especially in
Indonesia, when they are involved in unwanted pregnancy as a result of premarital sex. Most
of adolescent pregnancy in Indonesia happens in a romantic relationship context. The
situation is much worse for the girl involved. She often has to bear all the burdens alone:
psychological problems, physical burdens, and many other socio-economical burdens.
Moreover, if she is a high school student or at a lower level of education, she is expelled
from school. She has to stay at home, sometimes is married without any preparation, has
(very) limited access to education, and an unpromising future. She is, like a small chicken in
the water, in a situation that "traps" her. She can do little else except survive and seek help to
get out of the entrapping situation.
Adolescent pregnancy is one of several problems related to adolescent reproductive
health. Some problems in the area of reproductive health in Indonesia are unwanted
pregnancy, unsafe abortion, and sexually transmitted infections (STI), including HFV
(Kilboume-Brook, 2000). However, well documented data on adolescent reproductive
health, especially in Indonesia, are scarce. In analysing the availability and quality of data on
reproductive health in Indonesia, Utomo (2001) found that not much data on reproductive
health was available and the available data lacked quality. Utomo's review also did not
mention data concerning adolescent reproductive or sexual health. Although there are no
official data, adolescent pregnancy and unsafe abortion in Indonesia is apparently increasing.
The General Director of Public Health, Department of Social Welfare and Health has stated
that there are about 2.3 million abortion cases among adolescents in Indonesia (Kompas
Cyber Media, 2001). According to Indonesian Reproductive Health Profile 2003 (Ministry
Of Health, 2003) there are many young woman who have children before they reach the age
of 20 years. The Profile also mentions that unsafe abortion is a major cause of maternal
death for 15-19 year old women.
Adolescent reproductive health problems are associated, although not exclusively,
with sexual behaviours. Sexual behaviour itself consists of two main aspects, i.e. sexuality
and relationships with others. Sexuality in the form of biological development has to be dealt
with by adolescents starting with puberty. At the same time, adolescents are experiencing
changes in their relationships with others (e.g. Steinberg, 2002). Interpersonal development
moves from friendships to dating relationships (e.g. Zimmer-Gembeck, Siebenbruner, &
Collins, 2001). Adolescents may have same-sex friends only, may have both same- and
opposite-sex friends but no dating relationships, or may be involved in casual and short-term
Adolescent Sexuality - Chapter 1
3
dating relationships casually or in long-term dating or intimate relationships. When involved
in intimate relationships, young people have to learn strategies for starting and maintaining
these relationships (Jackson, Jacob, Landman-Peeters, & Lanting, 2001; Nieder & SeiffgeKrenke, 2001). Different coping strategies may be used to deal with different problematic
situations in the relationships. In some cases difficulties occur in maintaining existing
friendships while involved in a new romantic relationship (Roth & Parker, 2001). Weisfeld
and Woodward (2004) pointed out that there are many problematic and difficult situations
related to romantic relationships among adolescents. Using animal behaviours as an analogy,
they identified problems related to competitiveness, mate selection, pair bonding,
promiscuity and premarital pregnancy.
In their effort to understand their own development, adolescents may learn sexuality
by themselves, often discreetly, exchanging information and sharing experiences with their
friends. They may seek answers to questions from (perceived) competent figures, or from
anonymous sources (magazines, newspapers, and audio visual media). While young people
leam about sexuality and interpersonal relationships from various sources, they do have
some preferences (Hatmadji & Rochani, 1995; Wellings & Field, 1996). Adolescents mostly
prefer to find or exchange information about sexuality with their friends, who are likely to
possess a similar (low) level of knowledge about sexuality. Older figures are not the main
preference because they are usually judgmental about adolescent behaviours (Adioetomo, et
al., 1999). Some local and national mass media in Indonesia provide facilities for adolescent
consultation, with capable consultants, and sometimes in cooperation with institutions
working in reproductive health area.
Adolescent sexuality has been a focus of attention for many years in Indonesia.
Research and intervention programs have been carried out in many institutions. However,
their impact on adolescent health has not been as intended. Hatmadji and Rochani (1995)
found out that adolescent knowledge about reproductive processes and HIV is inadequate.
Adioetomo et al. (1999) reported that parents did not prepare their children for reproductive
health issues of adolescence because the parents themselves lacked reproductive health
knowledge and were inhibited by various taboos, while teachers admitted that students
nowadays are not as "polite and sincere" as they used to be. Similar to a finding of
Adioetomo and colleagues (1999), Beni (2005) also found that the family, especially the
parents, is a barrier to effective HIV/AIDS prevention programs in Indonesia. The barriers
include cultural constraints, lack of knowledge and awareness about the problem, and lack of
support and encouragement from related institutions, including government. According to
Djaja, Surjadi, and Susilawati (2002) the main reproductive health problems among
Indonesian adolescents are lack of information about adolescent reproductive health,
behaviours, health services, and regulations. The main problems include controversies over
sex education, risky sexual behaviours, unwanted pregnancy, and schooling for pregnant
arlr)lp