Training Teachers for Multilingual and Multiethnic Classrooms in Indonesia
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Training Teachers for Multilingual and Multiethnic Classrooms in Indonesia
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Training Teachers for Multilingual and Multiethnic Classrooms in Indonesia
Rebecca Fanany
Faculty of Arts and EducationDeakin University Australia
rebecca.fanany@deakin.edu
INTRODUCTION
The linguistic/cultural environment in Indonesia is extremely complex, with some 700 locallanguages in use by various ethnic
groups located in different parts of the country and a nationallanguage that is used as the medium of instruction in all modern
education (and many other)contexts. This national language, bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian), is linguistically related to Malay,
whichfor many centuries was a lingua franca in island Southeast Asia, has been developed a result offormal language planning and
has also evolved through natural contexts of usage. At the presenttime, Indonesian is extremely dynamic and has changed very
rapidly since the expansion of nationaltelevision and through the influence of increased media usage. What is now
consideredstandard Indonesian usage, as measured by language use in the formal media such as on television and innewspapers as
well as by the language Indonesian speakers consider natural in a range of communicationcontexts, has been strongly influenced by
certain regional dialects and local languages, amongothers the Jakarta variety of Indonesian and Javanese, and must be mastered for
a person to participatefully in national culture which takes place in Indonesian.
Today, however, a majority of Indonesians still do not speak Indonesian as their firstlanguage. While there are now a significant
number of young people who have grown up inIndonesian speaking environments, often because their parents have made a
conscious effort touse the language rather than a local language or because they come from different ethnic groupsand speak
different local languages themselves, most children still speak a local language as their firstlanguage and are first formally exposed
to Indonesian when they begin school. While it is likely that theyhave heard Indonesian before this, especially on television, most of
them have never experienced an Indonesian speaking environment. Further, the kind of Indonesian used on entertainment
andchildren's television programming tends to be informal in style and limited in the social contexts itrefers to. In practice, most
children will experience formal, standard Indonesian when they begin tointeract with teachers and classmates in the educational
context.
Not surprisingly, mastery of Indonesian has always been a central focus of national education inIndonesia because ability to use the
national language is an important predictor of success informal education which, in turn, determines the kind of work and eventual
socioeconomic statusa person will be able to achieve. Despite this, it has been observed that many students still fail toachieve the
level of mastery required to use Indonesia in a full range of social functions,including in the context of education itself, and that this
may limit participation in national culture.
Multilingualism in the Context of Education
Much of the research on multilingual classroom and educational environments has concernedsituations where a number of speakers
of another language must be integrated in to aneducational system that uses the majority language of the society in question. A great
deal of thisresearch comes from the English speaking world and, as such, addresses and investigates thespecific context of language
use that dominates those societies. As a result, much of theresearch in this area relates to what has been called ?multiculturalism? in
education which hasgenerally referred to a situation where students from non-majority backgrounds are presentamong native
speakers of English and where concerns have arisen about the imposition anddominance of Anglo-Saxon cultural norms as well as
language use on people whose norms and expectations may differ (May and Sleeter, 2010). In the US specifically, multiculturalism
is most often discussed in the context of race (McCarthy et al, 2005).
The situation in Indonesia is quite different however. The vast majority of Indonesian students does not speak Indonesian as a first
language and, in some parts of the country, also speak one of severallocal languages in use in the same location, meaning they may
not share a language with classmates or teachers.However, nearly all of these students are indigenous to the nation and come from
culturalbackgrounds that arose within Indonesia or that were established there in the distant past. Theaim of the educational system,
therefore, is to give students the ability to use a second language thathappens to be the national language and that will give them
access to a cultural mainstreamalongside the framework provided by their first (ethnic) language (Government of Indonesia,2010).
In this context, students have as much claim to Indonesian as to their local language, and bothlanguages contribute to individual
identity as a member of an ethnic group and as a citizen ofIndonesia.
While most people simply accept that a certain language is used as the language of instruction inschools in the place where they live,
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students' attitudes about language use provide usefulinsight into how young speakers may view the need to master a second
language. In fact, manystudents who do not speak the majority language/dialect believe their native language to beinappropriate for
the formal educational context (Sciriha, 1996). Others may view use of their firstlanguage to constitute uneducated behavior
(Papapavlou, 1998). This interpretation is held bymany Indonesians because of the close association of mastery of Indonesian with
success in formaleducation. It is important to understand that such attitudes on the part of students themselveslikely reflect views of
the wider community and may in fact be reinforced by the teaching of themajority language itself. In the context of Indonesia, there
is some evidence that the widespreademphasis on mastery of Indonesian has contributed to attitudes favoring the language in certain
contextsand also associating it with certain views and perceptions (see Fanany and Effendi, 1999).
When the attitudes of parents are considered, it is generally the case that they prefer that theirchildren's education occur in the
majority language (Hoover, 1978; McGroarty, 1996; Hoover etal, 1997). On the other hand, it has also been found that some parents
want the languages theyuse at home to be recognized in school and their children's language heritage respected(Epstein and Xu,
2003). These somewhat contradictory views are also found in Indonesia, wherelocal languages have an institutionalized role in
society and are protected in the nation'sconstitution. The teaching of local languages comes under the local content provision ofthe
national curriculum and, although a choice of subjects to fill this slot has been allowed(Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,
2012), many schools do teach a local language at the elementary school level.While this practice has generally been well accepted,
special problems arise in locations wherethe student body consists of individuals from a wide range of linguistic/cultural
backgrounds due to migration and urbanization, for example, or because the area has traditionally been inhabitedby several ethnic
groups each with its own language.
Teachers' attitudes are also important because they may affect students' performance in school and also impact on the way students
view their own and other people's language use. There is considerable research that indicates teachers often have a negative
impression of students who do not or cannot use the majority language (Wilberschied and Dassier, 1995; Garrett et al, 1999; Haig
and Oliver, 2003). When teachers have difficulty understanding or interacting with students from different linguistic backgrounds,
they may develop negative feelings which can affect the academic progress of the students in question (Byrnes and Cortez, 1996).
Such perceptions on the part of teachers have been shown to potentially influence the language acquisition of students (Gardner and
MacIntyre, 1993; Cargile et al, 1994). Again, the situation in Indonesia is somewhat different from that in many parts of the world.
For one thing, most teachers are also non-native speakers of Indonesian, just as their students are, but they have mastered the
language to a high level. This is a prerequisite of their employment and is required to complete the university education that leads to
a teaching credential. For this reason, some teachers may be less tolerant of students who seem to have difficulty with Indonesian,
perhaps viewing the use of the language as simply a part of school that they, and many other people, coped with successfully. A
second issue is that teachers may not come from the same first language background as some or most of the students they have to
teach. This situation might occur when an individual takes a teaching job in a part of the country far from where they come from,
when they teach in an urban school where many of the students' families are recent domestic migrants from elsewhere, or when they
teach in a school in a part of the country where multiple local languages are used in a small geographic area. In each of these
situations, it is assumed that children will gradually master Indonesian in school and the language will become the medium of
communication between different linguistic communities. In many cases, this does in fact occur, but the difficulties of teachers in
supporting the process of acquisition of Indonesian have not been rigorously addressed.
Mastery of Indonesian as a Goal of the Educational System
In many educational contexts around the world, mutltilingual/mutliethnic classrooms consist ofsome number of native speaker
students from the majority linguistic/cultural groups and another,usually smaller, number of non-native speakers. The aim in these
situations is give thenon-native speaker students the capacity to achieve levels of mastery of the majority languagethat are equivalent
to those of native speakers and hence to be able to function fully in allcontexts of communication. The situation in Indonesia is
different however. In a majority ofschools, there are few native speakers of Indonesian, and almost all students, as well asteachers,
speak another language as their first language. This is further complicated by the factthat some local languages in Indonesia are
closer linguistically to Indonesian (for example,Malay), while others belong to a different family of languages and are linguistically
unrelated (manylanguages in Eastern Indonesia). Despite this, it has been assumed in Indonesia that every childcan master
Indonesian to the level required to participate in national culture and the nationalmainstream.
Despite the fact that research on the variable attainment of proficiency in a second language haslargely been conducted in western
language speaking environments where non-native speaker studentsfrom a variety of language backgrounds must be integrated into
the larger society, some of thefindings in this area are relevant to Indonesia and to the context of teacher training. The
literaturecontains considerable discussion about the extent to which non-native speakers can uselanguage in the same way as native
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speakers. While this has not been a meaningfulconsideration in Indonesia for much of its history, since so much of the population is
composedof non-native speakers, it is increasingly important as children's exposure to Indonesian nowtends to begin at younger
ages, through exposure to television and other contexts of use, and because there are parents who use Indonesian exclusively or
almost exclusively with theirchildren. For this reason, it worth considering that the language facility of bilingual speakers israrely
identical to that of native speakers (Coppetiers, 1987; Bongaerts et al, 1997). (Whetherthis is desirable or required is another issue.)
This is not to say that the non-native speaker has alanguage deficit but rather highlights the fact that differences in mastery may be
apparent and mayalso have the potential to impact on the individual's ability to communicate appropriately.
One aspect of appropriate communication relates to the perceptions of other speakers. While itmay be the case that a variety of
language is considered acceptable and functional by linguists,this does not necessarily mean it will be perceived that way by
members of the public with whomthe speaker must interact. In the case of school students who must master a second language,they
will have to fit into and interact as adults in a society that has certain expectations forlanguage use and certain preferred varieties of
the majority language (Cook, 2002).
Observations in Indonesia suggest that the preferred variety of Indonesian is an extremely dynamic form of the language that is
heavily influenced by certain local language elements as well as borrowings from English that draws much of its form from usage in
the capital, Jakarta. This variety of language is used in the media, by influential speakers, by professionals and by those with a high
level of education. This is not to say that this variety of Indonesian is in common use in Indonesian-language interaction in every
part of Indonesia. In fact, many localities have a distinctive variety of Indonesian that is used in those places when Indonesian is
required. This may be quite different from the ?national? variety that tends to be high prestige and that is often imitated by speakers
from other parts of the country. Interestingly, anecdotal evidence suggests that it is within this dialect of Indonesian that there tend to
be an increasing number of native speakers.
There has been little discussion of what constitutes an adequate level of language mastery bynon-native speakers of any language,
although some work has been done from the point of view ofcomprehensibility (see Jenkins, 2000; Perdue, 2002). The most
appropriate goal in terms oflanguage mastery may, in fact, be relative, depending on what the individual in question needs
thelanguage for (Cook, 2002). However, in the context of school level students in Indonesia, it isaccepted that fluency in Indonesian
is required, even if it is not possible to define exactly what this means.
Indonesian mastery can be seen as a continuum, ranging from near native ability at one end tomostly passive ability at the other.
There are speakers beyond this continuum at both endshowever. Interestingly, especially among older speakers, those with the
greatest facility inIndonesian created the usage that became the basis for today's native ability. For those at the otherend of the
continuum, it may be extremely difficult to use Indonesian in a communicativemanner, especially in ways that can be understood by
speakers from other linguistic groups, asthe use of the language across Indonesia tends to be highly colored by local conventions
andinfluence from local languages, regardless of the origin of the speaker.
For school students, the level of mastery of Indonesian has important consequences. A highlevel of facility in the language is
required to successfully complete any level of formal education,with demands rising with the level of schooling. University study
requires near native ability in thelanguage, as does any kind of employment in the formal sector. Again, however, the problem arises
of defining near native ability. What this means for a person who mightspend his or her whole career in the region of which he or
she is a native may be very differentthan for a person who intends to seek employment in Jakarta or a part of the nation he or
shedoes not come from. In other words, near native fluency in Indonesian is relative, depending onthe specific social context of
interest. For this reason, it may be more meaningful toconsider near native ability in Indonesian, which is generally agreed to be
demanded as one outcome of the educational process, in the context of function, where teachers are charged withdeveloping fluency
in students that will allow them to interact as adults in a variety of naturalcommunicative contexts relevant to them. It probably must
be accepted, in the case of Indonesia, that these contexts will vary depending on the student's aims and ability.Nonetheless, the
demands on teachers in Indonesia are very great with respect to language.
First, students' lives take place in a multilingual society. For many, their exposure to Indonesianmay come largely through the media
(where usage is not interactive) and in school. When they are not in school, they may have few or no opportunities to hear
Indonesian in use in naturallanguage contexts. In many cases, however, language teaching is based on the external goal ofallowing
non-native speakers to interact with native speakers (Wilkins, 1976; Cook, 2002). Evenin light of the specific characteristics of
language use in Indonesia discussed above, the fact thatteachers may be the main language model for students cannot be overlooked.
Second,knowledge of a new language, especially when the language must be used by non-nativespeakers in real situations that
matter, changes the way in which those involve think andconceptualize information. In the case of Indonesia, giving students the
ability and understandingto conceptualize information in accordance with the cognitive framework of Indonesian hasalways been an
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important aspect of the educational system (see Fanany and Effendi, 1999).
This ability comes with time and exposure, but for teachers especially in the early grades of school, managing learning among
students with very different cognitive strategies and worldviews that cone from local languages may be a major challenge. Third,
non-native speaker students are unlikely to develop language mastery that approaches that of the native speaker, but they can
become proficient users of the second language. This occurs on a large scale in Indonesia, and teachers serve as models for students
of how non-native speakers can use a second language effectively and functionally in contexts that matter. This places an added
responsibility on teachers. They must demonstrate to students an appropriate use of language; they provide an example of people
who were successful in mastering the language to a high level; and they must be aware of the students' specific cultural and
linguistic perceptions that derive from their first language. In Indonesia, this last point is of particular interest because it is not
uncommon for teachers to come from a different first language background than students, which may mean they have less
understanding of students' cognitive framework. All of these issues are important in the context of teacher training for the
multilingual, multiethnic classrooms that are the norm in Indonesia.
Language Awareness in Teacher Training
Despite the importance of linguistic diversity and how common it is in many societies around theworld, teachers are usually not
given the background to address it in their classrooms and areoften unaware of the problems students may have in mastering a
second language (Yiakoumetti,2011). In the context of Indonesia, this is especially important as virtually every teacher will face
asituation where students come from a variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds that mayimpact significantly on their mastery
of Indonesian. For this reason, training that is aimedspecifically at the Indonesian language context (as opposed to general training in
linguistics)would be of particular value for Indonesian teachers. Ideally, such training would be a part of allteaching courses
because, in Indonesia, Indonesian is taught as a subject intended to developmastery in students but is also the language of instruction
for other subjects.
From a linguistic point of view, future teachers in Indonesia must understand the nature oflanguage and dialect use in the nation and
also the roles and characteristics of standard andnon-standard language. While most Indonesians are aware of the linguistic and
cultural diversityof the country, it is likely that many do not have a practical understanding of how this situationmight affect issues
like classroom management and teaching practices, on the one hand, butstudent learning and achievement on the other. Similarly,
students of teaching must understandthe functions of different linguistic varieties that they may encounter in the community. While
theymay be adept at understanding and even using such varieties themselves, it is likely that manydo not have an awareness of the
communicative function of such forms of language. Finally,future teachers must understand code switching, not just as a linguistic
phenomenon, but as astrategy used by speakers of more than one language, dialect or variety to communicateeffectively. While
knowledge of the dynamics of code switching in the community of the studentsis important, teachers must also be prepared to use
their own ability to code switch to assiststudents. While interaction in Indonesian schools is generally required to occur in
Indonesian, itmay be acceptable, and even desirable, for teachers to occasionally switch between formalusage of Indonesian and less
formal, non-standard varieties that may be better understood bystudents. In this way, teachers' capacity to code switch can be used to
transition students tomore standard, academically appropriate varieties of Indonesian. In addition, it may be possible andappropriate
for teachers to use a local language at certain times, although this may have thepotential to disadvantage some students, especially in
locations where more than one locallanguage is in use, and hence must be approached with caution.
The linguistic difficulties students may face in having to use Indonesian in school, especially without much reinforcement in the
community, should not be underestimated. Every language leaves its own impression on a person's cognitive processes, which
means that the framework and structure that come naturally to a speaker of a given language are unique to that language. Even
languages that are linguistically close may be very different in terms of the natural usage of speakers. This translates into differences
in use that are amply demonstrated by the national languages of Indonesia and Malaysia, which are closely related and in fact share a
common ancestor in the Malay that was a lingua franca in the region in the past. While most people are probably aware of the
problems inherent in learning new vocabulary, grammar and syntax, the impact of interference from a speaker's first language is
often overlooked. For this reason, it is not uncommon for language learners to translate words or phrases from their first language
into a second language, even when they have been taught explicitly or by example that the resulting utterance is not natural,
colloquial, or even grammatical in the target language. The same phenomenon applies across dialects and varieties of a single
language as well. In Indonesia, this is manifested in the many varieties of Indonesian in use across the country and contributes to the
regional identity of language use. In the context of school classrooms, the issue is observable in the differential mastery of students
which may vary within one class, within one school, and between schools of between regions.
In addition to linguistic factors that may support their teaching in the multilingual, multiethnicclassrooms of Indonesia, there are
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social aspects of language use that are necessary for futureteachers to understand. One of these is the social, cognitive, and linguistic
impact of students'first language. This is especially important if the teacher comes from a different linguisticbackground from some
of the students. While most Indonesians understand implicitly that manypeople speak a language other than Indonesian at home, it is
likely that many have neverconsidered the impact this has on children's ways of thinking and their perceptions relative
tocommunication. Coupled with an understanding of the linguistic nature of the local languages inthe community, this kind of
awareness can facilitate teachers' interaction with students andmake their teaching more effective in terms of outcome. A second
social aspect of language usethat may be relevant to future teachers is an understanding of the relative status of differentlanguages or
dialects in the community in which they will work. We understand that theperceptions of the public about the prestige or status of
different languages differ, and, inmultilingual communities, there is usually a view among members of the public about
whichlanguages/dialects are prestigious and which are not. Because language users internalizetheseviews from extremely young
ages, they are often set by the time children reach school and havethe potential to affect certain users' perceptions and willingness to
use both the first and secondlanguage. Similarly, interaction between students from different language backgrounds may beaffected
by social perceptions associated with language. In addition, teachers must be aware oftheir own language use as a speaker of a
regional variety of Indonesian. Since there is no?neutral? form of a language, teachers must understand how their language use may
beunderstood by students, both in terms of content as well as in terms of social informationconveyed. This may be of particular
important for those future teachers who end up working in apart of Indonesia where language use is different than in the region of
origin.
It is often taken for granted in Indonesia that school students will master Indonesian, and it is the case that a majority of them do to
some extent. This is not to say that every student will become a fluent speaker of Indonesian or will be able to use the language in a
functional manner relative to his or her own social context. When the lack of mastery is noted, it is often in the context of criticism
of educational policy or funding for schools (see, for example, Alwasilah, 2013). What this means in practical terms for the children
involved is often overlooked however. An inability to communicate in or fully understand the national language means that they are
likely to be locked out of employment in the formal sector and may also have great difficulty interacting with people outside their
region of origin. This can have a potentially lifelong impact on earning power, social status, and mobility. Psychosocial impacts
often result from such communication difficulties and are often seen in Indonesian in urban contexts among domestic migrants
(Fanany, 2013). A second issue worthy of consideration is the impact that inability to communicate in Indonesian has on the ability
of students to achieve to a maximum level in other school subjects. In Indonesia, the issue of mastery of Indonesian relates not only
to language subjects and communication in the broader sense but also to learning in general because school takes place in Indonesian
in addition to teaching Indonesian. In other words, even as children are learning to read, write and speak Indonesian, they are also
using the language as the medium to study other non-language subjects. A student whose mastery of Indonesian is poor may well
have comparable difficulties achieving in other non-language subjects where the content might not present a problem if it were
presented in the student's first language. While there is no data available to elucidate the situation, it would not be surprising to find
that inability to use Indonesian underlies many of the problems students experience that ultimately lead them to leave school without
graduating. Economic difficulties are most frequently cited for this situation. However, it is the case that people at the lower end of
the SES scale often experience multiple disadvantages, and language is often one of them (see Fanany and Fanany, 2012).
What this means, in practical terms, is that every Indonesian school teacher is a de facto language teacher and must understand and
be able to apply both linguistic and social knowledge about language use in Indonesia in general as well as in the specific
community in which he or she works. Language diversity is the norm in Indonesia and constitutes the main characteristic of the
multilingual, multiethnic schools and classrooms of the nation. Language is a proxy for culture, and culture shapes thought,
perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. Addressing this complexity in their teaching practices is a major task for Indonesian teachers
and one that cannot be assumed will take care of itself. For this reason, all teachers must be specifically prepared to work in a
multilingual, multiethnic setting and must be given the tool and knowledge to do so effectively.
Conclusion
The situation in Indonesia is extremely complex with respect to language use in thecommunity. In addition, all students are expected
to master Indonesian through formaleducation, and near native ability in the language is required to participate in national
culture,further education, formal employment contexts, and a whole range of other areas. The situationis further complicated by the
fact that a majority of Indonesians are speakers first of one of thenation's more than 700 local languages and second of the national
language. For teachers, whoare themselves examples of successful mastery of Indonesian, there are special demands interms of
managing classrooms composed of students from different linguistic/cultural backgroundswho must be taught Indonesian as well as
in Indonesian.
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Even with an understanding of the dynamics of the language situation, this is a challenge forteachers and one which can best be
approached through a combination of training in thelinguistic and social aspects of language use in the community and an awareness
of the specialabilities they already possess that can be used to assist students to achieve the desired levels ofmastery. Having come
from the same kind of multilingual, multiethnic background as theirstudents, Indonesian teachers may be able to make use of their
own experiences and facility incode switching and variant language use in the classroom. Nonetheless, this will not be
possiblewithout a strong grounding in the specific characteristics of the community in which they willwork and also in the linguistic
and ethnic diversity of Indonesia as a nation. One aspect of thismust certainly be a rethinking of certain elements of how Indonesian
mastery have beenperceived while a second will necessarily include training in how to make use of the linguisticdiversity that
already exists among their students to support mastery of the national language.
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Training Teachers for Multilingual and Multiethnic Classrooms in Indonesia
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Training Teachers for Multilingual and Multiethnic Classrooms in Indonesia
Rebecca Fanany
Faculty of Arts and EducationDeakin University Australia
rebecca.fanany@deakin.edu
INTRODUCTION
The linguistic/cultural environment in Indonesia is extremely complex, with some 700 locallanguages in use by various ethnic
groups located in different parts of the country and a nationallanguage that is used as the medium of instruction in all modern
education (and many other)contexts. This national language, bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian), is linguistically related to Malay,
whichfor many centuries was a lingua franca in island Southeast Asia, has been developed a result offormal language planning and
has also evolved through natural contexts of usage. At the presenttime, Indonesian is extremely dynamic and has changed very
rapidly since the expansion of nationaltelevision and through the influence of increased media usage. What is now
consideredstandard Indonesian usage, as measured by language use in the formal media such as on television and innewspapers as
well as by the language Indonesian speakers consider natural in a range of communicationcontexts, has been strongly influenced by
certain regional dialects and local languages, amongothers the Jakarta variety of Indonesian and Javanese, and must be mastered for
a person to participatefully in national culture which takes place in Indonesian.
Today, however, a majority of Indonesians still do not speak Indonesian as their firstlanguage. While there are now a significant
number of young people who have grown up inIndonesian speaking environments, often because their parents have made a
conscious effort touse the language rather than a local language or because they come from different ethnic groupsand speak
different local languages themselves, most children still speak a local language as their firstlanguage and are first formally exposed
to Indonesian when they begin school. While it is likely that theyhave heard Indonesian before this, especially on television, most of
them have never experienced an Indonesian speaking environment. Further, the kind of Indonesian used on entertainment
andchildren's television programming tends to be informal in style and limited in the social contexts itrefers to. In practice, most
children will experience formal, standard Indonesian when they begin tointeract with teachers and classmates in the educational
context.
Not surprisingly, mastery of Indonesian has always been a central focus of national education inIndonesia because ability to use the
national language is an important predictor of success informal education which, in turn, determines the kind of work and eventual
socioeconomic statusa person will be able to achieve. Despite this, it has been observed that many students still fail toachieve the
level of mastery required to use Indonesia in a full range of social functions,including in the context of education itself, and that this
may limit participation in national culture.
Multilingualism in the Context of Education
Much of the research on multilingual classroom and educational environments has concernedsituations where a number of speakers
of another language must be integrated in to aneducational system that uses the majority language of the society in question. A great
deal of thisresearch comes from the English speaking world and, as such, addresses and investigates thespecific context of language
use that dominates those societies. As a result, much of theresearch in this area relates to what has been called ?multiculturalism? in
education which hasgenerally referred to a situation where students from non-majority backgrounds are presentamong native
speakers of English and where concerns have arisen about the imposition anddominance of Anglo-Saxon cultural norms as well as
language use on people whose norms and expectations may differ (May and Sleeter, 2010). In the US specifically, multiculturalism
is most often discussed in the context of race (McCarthy et al, 2005).
The situation in Indonesia is quite different however. The vast majority of Indonesian students does not speak Indonesian as a first
language and, in some parts of the country, also speak one of severallocal languages in use in the same location, meaning they may
not share a language with classmates or teachers.However, nearly all of these students are indigenous to the nation and come from
culturalbackgrounds that arose within Indonesia or that were established there in the distant past. Theaim of the educational system,
therefore, is to give students the ability to use a second language thathappens to be the national language and that will give them
access to a cultural mainstreamalongside the framework provided by their first (ethnic) language (Government of Indonesia,2010).
In this context, students have as much claim to Indonesian as to their local language, and bothlanguages contribute to individual
identity as a member of an ethnic group and as a citizen ofIndonesia.
While most people simply accept that a certain language is used as the language of instruction inschools in the place where they live,
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students' attitudes about language use provide usefulinsight into how young speakers may view the need to master a second
language. In fact, manystudents who do not speak the majority language/dialect believe their native language to beinappropriate for
the formal educational context (Sciriha, 1996). Others may view use of their firstlanguage to constitute uneducated behavior
(Papapavlou, 1998). This interpretation is held bymany Indonesians because of the close association of mastery of Indonesian with
success in formaleducation. It is important to understand that such attitudes on the part of students themselveslikely reflect views of
the wider community and may in fact be reinforced by the teaching of themajority language itself. In the context of Indonesia, there
is some evidence that the widespreademphasis on mastery of Indonesian has contributed to attitudes favoring the language in certain
contextsand also associating it with certain views and perceptions (see Fanany and Effendi, 1999).
When the attitudes of parents are considered, it is generally the case that they prefer that theirchildren's education occur in the
majority language (Hoover, 1978; McGroarty, 1996; Hoover etal, 1997). On the other hand, it has also been found that some parents
want the languages theyuse at home to be recognized in school and their children's language heritage respected(Epstein and Xu,
2003). These somewhat contradictory views are also found in Indonesia, wherelocal languages have an institutionalized role in
society and are protected in the nation'sconstitution. The teaching of local languages comes under the local content provision ofthe
national curriculum and, although a choice of subjects to fill this slot has been allowed(Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,
2012), many schools do teach a local language at the elementary school level.While this practice has generally been well accepted,
special problems arise in locations wherethe student body consists of individuals from a wide range of linguistic/cultural
backgrounds due to migration and urbanization, for example, or because the area has traditionally been inhabitedby several ethnic
groups each with its own language.
Teachers' attitudes are also important because they may affect students' performance in school and also impact on the way students
view their own and other people's language use. There is considerable research that indicates teachers often have a negative
impression of students who do not or cannot use the majority language (Wilberschied and Dassier, 1995; Garrett et al, 1999; Haig
and Oliver, 2003). When teachers have difficulty understanding or interacting with students from different linguistic backgrounds,
they may develop negative feelings which can affect the academic progress of the students in question (Byrnes and Cortez, 1996).
Such perceptions on the part of teachers have been shown to potentially influence the language acquisition of students (Gardner and
MacIntyre, 1993; Cargile et al, 1994). Again, the situation in Indonesia is somewhat different from that in many parts of the world.
For one thing, most teachers are also non-native speakers of Indonesian, just as their students are, but they have mastered the
language to a high level. This is a prerequisite of their employment and is required to complete the university education that leads to
a teaching credential. For this reason, some teachers may be less tolerant of students who seem to have difficulty with Indonesian,
perhaps viewing the use of the language as simply a part of school that they, and many other people, coped with successfully. A
second issue is that teachers may not come from the same first language background as some or most of the students they have to
teach. This situation might occur when an individual takes a teaching job in a part of the country far from where they come from,
when they teach in an urban school where many of the students' families are recent domestic migrants from elsewhere, or when they
teach in a school in a part of the country where multiple local languages are used in a small geographic area. In each of these
situations, it is assumed that children will gradually master Indonesian in school and the language will become the medium of
communication between different linguistic communities. In many cases, this does in fact occur, but the difficulties of teachers in
supporting the process of acquisition of Indonesian have not been rigorously addressed.
Mastery of Indonesian as a Goal of the Educational System
In many educational contexts around the world, mutltilingual/mutliethnic classrooms consist ofsome number of native speaker
students from the majority linguistic/cultural groups and another,usually smaller, number of non-native speakers. The aim in these
situations is give thenon-native speaker students the capacity to achieve levels of mastery of the majority languagethat are equivalent
to those of native speakers and hence to be able to function fully in allcontexts of communication. The situation in Indonesia is
different however. In a majority ofschools, there are few native speakers of Indonesian, and almost all students, as well asteachers,
speak another language as their first language. This is further complicated by the factthat some local languages in Indonesia are
closer linguistically to Indonesian (for example,Malay), while others belong to a different family of languages and are linguistically
unrelated (manylanguages in Eastern Indonesia). Despite this, it has been assumed in Indonesia that every childcan master
Indonesian to the level required to participate in national culture and the nationalmainstream.
Despite the fact that research on the variable attainment of proficiency in a second language haslargely been conducted in western
language speaking environments where non-native speaker studentsfrom a variety of language backgrounds must be integrated into
the larger society, some of thefindings in this area are relevant to Indonesia and to the context of teacher training. The
literaturecontains considerable discussion about the extent to which non-native speakers can uselanguage in the same way as native
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speakers. While this has not been a meaningfulconsideration in Indonesia for much of its history, since so much of the population is
composedof non-native speakers, it is increasingly important as children's exposure to Indonesian nowtends to begin at younger
ages, through exposure to television and other contexts of use, and because there are parents who use Indonesian exclusively or
almost exclusively with theirchildren. For this reason, it worth considering that the language facility of bilingual speakers israrely
identical to that of native speakers (Coppetiers, 1987; Bongaerts et al, 1997). (Whetherthis is desirable or required is another issue.)
This is not to say that the non-native speaker has alanguage deficit but rather highlights the fact that differences in mastery may be
apparent and mayalso have the potential to impact on the individual's ability to communicate appropriately.
One aspect of appropriate communication relates to the perceptions of other speakers. While itmay be the case that a variety of
language is considered acceptable and functional by linguists,this does not necessarily mean it will be perceived that way by
members of the public with whomthe speaker must interact. In the case of school students who must master a second language,they
will have to fit into and interact as adults in a society that has certain expectations forlanguage use and certain preferred varieties of
the majority language (Cook, 2002).
Observations in Indonesia suggest that the preferred variety of Indonesian is an extremely dynamic form of the language that is
heavily influenced by certain local language elements as well as borrowings from English that draws much of its form from usage in
the capital, Jakarta. This variety of language is used in the media, by influential speakers, by professionals and by those with a high
level of education. This is not to say that this variety of Indonesian is in common use in Indonesian-language interaction in every
part of Indonesia. In fact, many localities have a distinctive variety of Indonesian that is used in those places when Indonesian is
required. This may be quite different from the ?national? variety that tends to be high prestige and that is often imitated by speakers
from other parts of the country. Interestingly, anecdotal evidence suggests that it is within this dialect of Indonesian that there tend to
be an increasing number of native speakers.
There has been little discussion of what constitutes an adequate level of language mastery bynon-native speakers of any language,
although some work has been done from the point of view ofcomprehensibility (see Jenkins, 2000; Perdue, 2002). The most
appropriate goal in terms oflanguage mastery may, in fact, be relative, depending on what the individual in question needs
thelanguage for (Cook, 2002). However, in the context of school level students in Indonesia, it isaccepted that fluency in Indonesian
is required, even if it is not possible to define exactly what this means.
Indonesian mastery can be seen as a continuum, ranging from near native ability at one end tomostly passive ability at the other.
There are speakers beyond this continuum at both endshowever. Interestingly, especially among older speakers, those with the
greatest facility inIndonesian created the usage that became the basis for today's native ability. For those at the otherend of the
continuum, it may be extremely difficult to use Indonesian in a communicativemanner, especially in ways that can be understood by
speakers from other linguistic groups, asthe use of the language across Indonesia tends to be highly colored by local conventions
andinfluence from local languages, regardless of the origin of the speaker.
For school students, the level of mastery of Indonesian has important consequences. A highlevel of facility in the language is
required to successfully complete any level of formal education,with demands rising with the level of schooling. University study
requires near native ability in thelanguage, as does any kind of employment in the formal sector. Again, however, the problem arises
of defining near native ability. What this means for a person who mightspend his or her whole career in the region of which he or
she is a native may be very differentthan for a person who intends to seek employment in Jakarta or a part of the nation he or
shedoes not come from. In other words, near native fluency in Indonesian is relative, depending onthe specific social context of
interest. For this reason, it may be more meaningful toconsider near native ability in Indonesian, which is generally agreed to be
demanded as one outcome of the educational process, in the context of function, where teachers are charged withdeveloping fluency
in students that will allow them to interact as adults in a variety of naturalcommunicative contexts relevant to them. It probably must
be accepted, in the case of Indonesia, that these contexts will vary depending on the student's aims and ability.Nonetheless, the
demands on teachers in Indonesia are very great with respect to language.
First, students' lives take place in a multilingual society. For many, their exposure to Indonesianmay come largely through the media
(where usage is not interactive) and in school. When they are not in school, they may have few or no opportunities to hear
Indonesian in use in naturallanguage contexts. In many cases, however, language teaching is based on the external goal ofallowing
non-native speakers to interact with native speakers (Wilkins, 1976; Cook, 2002). Evenin light of the specific characteristics of
language use in Indonesia discussed above, the fact thatteachers may be the main language model for students cannot be overlooked.
Second,knowledge of a new language, especially when the language must be used by non-nativespeakers in real situations that
matter, changes the way in which those involve think andconceptualize information. In the case of Indonesia, giving students the
ability and understandingto conceptualize information in accordance with the cognitive framework of Indonesian hasalways been an
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important aspect of the educational system (see Fanany and Effendi, 1999).
This ability comes with time and exposure, but for teachers especially in the early grades of school, managing learning among
students with very different cognitive strategies and worldviews that cone from local languages may be a major challenge. Third,
non-native speaker students are unlikely to develop language mastery that approaches that of the native speaker, but they can
become proficient users of the second language. This occurs on a large scale in Indonesia, and teachers serve as models for students
of how non-native speakers can use a second language effectively and functionally in contexts that matter. This places an added
responsibility on teachers. They must demonstrate to students an appropriate use of language; they provide an example of people
who were successful in mastering the language to a high level; and they must be aware of the students' specific cultural and
linguistic perceptions that derive from their first language. In Indonesia, this last point is of particular interest because it is not
uncommon for teachers to come from a different first language background than students, which may mean they have less
understanding of students' cognitive framework. All of these issues are important in the context of teacher training for the
multilingual, multiethnic classrooms that are the norm in Indonesia.
Language Awareness in Teacher Training
Despite the importance of linguistic diversity and how common it is in many societies around theworld, teachers are usually not
given the background to address it in their classrooms and areoften unaware of the problems students may have in mastering a
second language (Yiakoumetti,2011). In the context of Indonesia, this is especially important as virtually every teacher will face
asituation where students come from a variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds that mayimpact significantly on their mastery
of Indonesian. For this reason, training that is aimedspecifically at the Indonesian language context (as opposed to general training in
linguistics)would be of particular value for Indonesian teachers. Ideally, such training would be a part of allteaching courses
because, in Indonesia, Indonesian is taught as a subject intended to developmastery in students but is also the language of instruction
for other subjects.
From a linguistic point of view, future teachers in Indonesia must understand the nature oflanguage and dialect use in the nation and
also the roles and characteristics of standard andnon-standard language. While most Indonesians are aware of the linguistic and
cultural diversityof the country, it is likely that many do not have a practical understanding of how this situationmight affect issues
like classroom management and teaching practices, on the one hand, butstudent learning and achievement on the other. Similarly,
students of teaching must understandthe functions of different linguistic varieties that they may encounter in the community. While
theymay be adept at understanding and even using such varieties themselves, it is likely that manydo not have an awareness of the
communicative function of such forms of language. Finally,future teachers must understand code switching, not just as a linguistic
phenomenon, but as astrategy used by speakers of more than one language, dialect or variety to communicateeffectively. While
knowledge of the dynamics of code switching in the community of the studentsis important, teachers must also be prepared to use
their own ability to code switch to assiststudents. While interaction in Indonesian schools is generally required to occur in
Indonesian, itmay be acceptable, and even desirable, for teachers to occasionally switch between formalusage of Indonesian and less
formal, non-standard varieties that may be better understood bystudents. In this way, teachers' capacity to code switch can be used to
transition students tomore standard, academically appropriate varieties of Indonesian. In addition, it may be possible andappropriate
for teachers to use a local language at certain times, although this may have thepotential to disadvantage some students, especially in
locations where more than one locallanguage is in use, and hence must be approached with caution.
The linguistic difficulties students may face in having to use Indonesian in school, especially without much reinforcement in the
community, should not be underestimated. Every language leaves its own impression on a person's cognitive processes, which
means that the framework and structure that come naturally to a speaker of a given language are unique to that language. Even
languages that are linguistically close may be very different in terms of the natural usage of speakers. This translates into differences
in use that are amply demonstrated by the national languages of Indonesia and Malaysia, which are closely related and in fact share a
common ancestor in the Malay that was a lingua franca in the region in the past. While most people are probably aware of the
problems inherent in learning new vocabulary, grammar and syntax, the impact of interference from a speaker's first language is
often overlooked. For this reason, it is not uncommon for language learners to translate words or phrases from their first language
into a second language, even when they have been taught explicitly or by example that the resulting utterance is not natural,
colloquial, or even grammatical in the target language. The same phenomenon applies across dialects and varieties of a single
language as well. In Indonesia, this is manifested in the many varieties of Indonesian in use across the country and contributes to the
regional identity of language use. In the context of school classrooms, the issue is observable in the differential mastery of students
which may vary within one class, within one school, and between schools of between regions.
In addition to linguistic factors that may support their teaching in the multilingual, multiethnicclassrooms of Indonesia, there are
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social aspects of language use that are necessary for futureteachers to understand. One of these is the social, cognitive, and linguistic
impact of students'first language. This is especially important if the teacher comes from a different linguisticbackground from some
of the students. While most Indonesians understand implicitly that manypeople speak a language other than Indonesian at home, it is
likely that many have neverconsidered the impact this has on children's ways of thinking and their perceptions relative
tocommunication. Coupled with an understanding of the linguistic nature of the local languages inthe community, this kind of
awareness can facilitate teachers' interaction with students andmake their teaching more effective in terms of outcome. A second
social aspect of language usethat may be relevant to future teachers is an understanding of the relative status of differentlanguages or
dialects in the community in which they will work. We understand that theperceptions of the public about the prestige or status of
different languages differ, and, inmultilingual communities, there is usually a view among members of the public about
whichlanguages/dialects are prestigious and which are not. Because language users internalizetheseviews from extremely young
ages, they are often set by the time children reach school and havethe potential to affect certain users' perceptions and willingness to
use both the first and secondlanguage. Similarly, interaction between students from different language backgrounds may beaffected
by social perceptions associated with language. In addition, teachers must be aware oftheir own language use as a speaker of a
regional variety of Indonesian. Since there is no?neutral? form of a language, teachers must understand how their language use may
beunderstood by students, both in terms of content as well as in terms of social informationconveyed. This may be of particular
important for those future teachers who end up working in apart of Indonesia where language use is different than in the region of
origin.
It is often taken for granted in Indonesia that school students will master Indonesian, and it is the case that a majority of them do to
some extent. This is not to say that every student will become a fluent speaker of Indonesian or will be able to use the language in a
functional manner relative to his or her own social context. When the lack of mastery is noted, it is often in the context of criticism
of educational policy or funding for schools (see, for example, Alwasilah, 2013). What this means in practical terms for the children
involved is often overlooked however. An inability to communicate in or fully understand the national language means that they are
likely to be locked out of employment in the formal sector and may also have great difficulty interacting with people outside their
region of origin. This can have a potentially lifelong impact on earning power, social status, and mobility. Psychosocial impacts
often result from such communication difficulties and are often seen in Indonesian in urban contexts among domestic migrants
(Fanany, 2013). A second issue worthy of consideration is the impact that inability to communicate in Indonesian has on the ability
of students to achieve to a maximum level in other school subjects. In Indonesia, the issue of mastery of Indonesian relates not only
to language subjects and communication in the broader sense but also to learning in general because school takes place in Indonesian
in addition to teaching Indonesian. In other words, even as children are learning to read, write and speak Indonesian, they are also
using the language as the medium to study other non-language subjects. A student whose mastery of Indonesian is poor may well
have comparable difficulties achieving in other non-language subjects where the content might not present a problem if it were
presented in the student's first language. While there is no data available to elucidate the situation, it would not be surprising to find
that inability to use Indonesian underlies many of the problems students experience that ultimately lead them to leave school without
graduating. Economic difficulties are most frequently cited for this situation. However, it is the case that people at the lower end of
the SES scale often experience multiple disadvantages, and language is often one of them (see Fanany and Fanany, 2012).
What this means, in practical terms, is that every Indonesian school teacher is a de facto language teacher and must understand and
be able to apply both linguistic and social knowledge about language use in Indonesia in general as well as in the specific
community in which he or she works. Language diversity is the norm in Indonesia and constitutes the main characteristic of the
multilingual, multiethnic schools and classrooms of the nation. Language is a proxy for culture, and culture shapes thought,
perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. Addressing this complexity in their teaching practices is a major task for Indonesian teachers
and one that cannot be assumed will take care of itself. For this reason, all teachers must be specifically prepared to work in a
multilingual, multiethnic setting and must be given the tool and knowledge to do so effectively.
Conclusion
The situation in Indonesia is extremely complex with respect to language use in thecommunity. In addition, all students are expected
to master Indonesian through formaleducation, and near native ability in the language is required to participate in national
culture,further education, formal employment contexts, and a whole range of other areas. The situationis further complicated by the
fact that a majority of Indonesians are speakers first of one of thenation's more than 700 local languages and second of the national
language. For teachers, whoare themselves examples of successful mastery of Indonesian, there are special demands interms of
managing classrooms composed of students from different linguistic/cultural backgroundswho must be taught Indonesian as well as
in Indonesian.
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Even with an understanding of the dynamics of the language situation, this is a challenge forteachers and one which can best be
approached through a combination of training in thelinguistic and social aspects of language use in the community and an awareness
of the specialabilities they already possess that can be used to assist students to achieve the desired levels ofmastery. Having come
from the same kind of multilingual, multiethnic background as theirstudents, Indonesian teachers may be able to make use of their
own experiences and facility incode switching and variant language use in the classroom. Nonetheless, this will not be
possiblewithout a strong grounding in the specific characteristics of the community in which they willwork and also in the linguistic
and ethnic diversity of Indonesia as a nation. One aspect of thismust certainly be a rethinking of certain elements of how Indonesian
mastery have beenperceived while a second will necessarily include training in how to make use of the linguisticdiversity that
already exists among their students to support mastery of the national language.
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