[Chris Crawford] The Art Of Computer Game Design (BookFi org) pdf

  The Art of Computer Game Design by Chris Cra wford P r e f a c e t o t h e E le c t r o n ic Ve r s io n

This text was originally composed by computer game designer

Chris Crawford in 1982. When searching for literature on the

nature of gaming and its relationship to narrative in 1997, Prof.

Sue Peabody learned of The Art of Computer Game Design,

which was then long out of print. Prof. Peabody requested Mr.

Crawford's permission to publish an electronic version of the

text on the World Wide Web so that it would be available to her

students and to others interested in game design. Washington

State University Vancouver generously made resources avail-

able to hire graphic artist Donna Loper to produce this elec-

tronic version. WSUV currently houses and maintains the site.

  

Correspondance regarding that site should be addressed to

Prof. Sue Peabody, Department of History, Washington State

University Vancouver, peabody@ vancouver.wsu.edu.

If you are interested in more recent writings by Chris

Crawford, see the "Reflections" interview at the end of The Art

of Computer Game Design. Also, visit Chris Crawford's web-

page, Erasmatazz.

  

This document was convert by Mario Croteau, from the Web

site of the Department of History of Washington State University at Vancouver.

Chris Crawford (the author) and Sue Peabody (of department of

History of Washington State University at Vancouver) gave me

a great support in my project: making that important document available to everyone. The Art of Computer Game Design by Chris Cra wford

Ta b le o f C o n t e n t s

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  A C K N O W L E D G M E N T

  am deeply indebted to Madeleine M. Gro ss fo r her painstaking and tho ro ugh criticisms o f this bo o k. In many cases she invested greater effo rts into her criticisms than I had put into my o riginal tho ughts. She stro ve to restrain my wild hyperbo le and place my arguments o n a

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  firmer fo undatio n o f rigo ro us lo gic. The lo gical co nsistency and reliability in this bo o k I o we to her; the speculative flights o f fancy must be laid at my do o rstep.

  P R E FA C E

  The central premise o f this bo o k is that co mputer games co nstitute a new and as yet po o rly devel- o ped art fo rm that ho lds great pro mise fo r bo th designers and players. This premise may seem laughable o r flippant. Ho w co uld anybo dy classify the likes o f SPACE

  INVADERS and PAC MAN as art? Ho w can TEMPEST o r MISSILE CO MMAND co mpare with Beetho ven’s Fifth Sympho ny, Michelangelo ’s Pieta, o r Hemingway’s A Farewell To Arms? Co mputer games are to o trivial, to o frivo lo us to be called art. They are idle recreatio n at best. So says the skeptic.

  But we canno t relegate co mputer games to the cesspit o f po p culture so lely o n the evidence o f the current cro p o f games. The industry is to o yo ung and the situatio n is to o dynamic fo r us to dis- miss co mputer games so easily. We must co nsider the po tential, no t the actuality. We must address the fundamental aspects o f co mputer games to achieve a co nclusio n that will withstand the ravages o f time and change. There are many definitio ns o f art, few o f which make much sense to the uninitiated. I will pres- ent my o wn pedestrian definitio n: art is so mething designed to evo ke emo tio n thro ugh fantasy. The artist presents his audience with a set o f senso ry experiences that stimulates co mmo nly shared fantasies, and so generates emo tio ns. Art is made po ssible o nly by the richness o f the fan- tasy wo rld we share. Art is nevertheless difficult, because there are so many practical pro blems asso ciated with stimulating fantasies deep inside ano ther perso n’s mind. A majo r pro blem is get- ting the attentio n o r participatio n o f the audience. Mo st art allo ws very little participatio n. Yo u sit quietly and listen to music that o ther peo ple created and perfo rm, o r yo u stro ll thro ugh a muse- um and stare at pictures o r statues o ther peo ple made. Yo u sit passively and read a no vel, o r a po em, o r a sho rt sto ry. With all o f these art fo rms, the ro le o f the audience is passive. The artist do es all the active wo rk, makes the biggest emo tio nal investment. The audience is expected to abso rb quietly the fruits o f the artist’s exertio ns. Active participatio n is severely curtailed. Witho ut participatio n, attentio n dwindles and impact crumbles away. This is in no wise a criticism o f art o r artists. The techno lo gies o f art preclude participatio n. If we had every klutz jump into the o rchestra pit, o r prance o n the o pera stage, o r slo p paint with so much in their wo rk and mo st peo ple will hear so little because they canno t participate in the art. Enter the co mputer. Co nceived lo ng ago , bo rn in war, reared as the servant o f business, this no w ado lescent techno lo gy has explo ded o ut o f the co mputer ro o m and invaded sho pping centers, pizza parlo rs, and ho mes. Po pular characterizatio ns o f the co mputer alternate between the o ld image o f the co mputer as o mniscient, co ld blo o ded, giant calculato r, and the new image o f the co mputer as purveyo r o f video thrills and 25 cent fixes. O riginally develo ped as a number crunch- er, the co mputer assumed a new perso nality when it was given graphics and so und capabilities. These capabilities gave the co mputer a po werful asset: it co uld no w co mmunicate with the human, no t just in the co ld and distant language o f digits, but in the emo tio nally immediate and co mpelling language o f images and so unds. With this capability came a new, previo usly undreamed o f po ssibility: the po ssibility o f using the co mputer as a medium fo r emo tio nal co m- municatio n art. The co mputer game has emerged as the prime vehicle fo r this medium. The co m- puter game is an art fo rm because it presents its audience with fantasy experiences that stimulate emo tio n. Unfo rtunately, the current generatio n o f micro co mputers canno t pro duce a senso ry experience as rich as that pro duced by, say, a sympho ny o rchestra o r a mo vie. This weakness is mo re than o ff- set by a fundamental advantage lacking in mo st o ther art fo rms: a game is intrinsically participa- to ry in nature. The artist has here a to o l that is mo re subtly indirect than traditio nal art. With o ther art fo rms, the artist directly creates the experience that the audience will enco unter. Since this experience is carefully planned and executed, the audience must so meho w be prevented fro m disturbing it; hence, no n participatio n. With a game, the artist creates no t the experience itself but the co nditio ns and rules under which the audience will create its o wn individualized experience. The demand o n the artist is greater, fo r s/ he must plan the experience indirectly, taking into acco unt the pro bable and po ssible actio ns and reactio ns o f the audience. The return is far greater, fo r participatio n increases attentio n and heightens the intensity o f the experience. When we pas- sively o bserve so meo ne else’s artistic presentatio n, we derive so me emo tio nal benefit, but when we actively participate in a game, we invest a po rtio n o f o ur o wn ego into the fantasy wo rld o f the game. This mo re sizable investment o f participatio n yields a co mmensurately greater return o f emo tio nal satisfactio n. Indeed, the ro le o f participatio n is so impo rtant that many peo ple derive greater satisfactio n fro m participating in an amateur artistic effo rt than fro m o bserving a pro fes- sio nal effo rt. Hence, games, being intrinsically participato ry, present the artist with a fantastic o ppo rtunity fo r reaching peo ple. Until no w, games in general and co mputer games in particular have no t been very impressive as art fo rms. The co mputer games especially are do wnright puerile. This is because the techno lo gy o f co mputer games has been in the hands o f techno lo gists, no t artists. These guys ( and they are almo st all male) can write beautiful o perating systems, languages, linking lo aders, and o ther tech- no lo gical wo nders, but artistic flair has hereto fo re been treated as subo rdinate to technical pro wess.

ketplace. These machines are new; the public is unfamiliar with them and the manufacturers are hesitant to press the public to o hard to o fast. We therefo re o pt to build inhibited little games pathetically whispering so me trivial emo tio n. Truly intense emo tio ns o r situatio ns such as patho s, ecstasy, majesty, rapture, catharsis, o r tragedy intimidate use. We hide behind the defense that we are in the entertainment business, no t the art business, but that defense o nly betrays a pro fo und misunderstanding o f art. Art can be starchily elitist, but go o d art can also be a fo o t sto mping blast. Elitism arises fro m the intellectual co ntent o f art; impact springs fro m its emo - tio nal ho nesty.

  Fo rtunately, times are changing. Already, we see a backlash develo ping against co mputer games. It expresses itself in many ways: in o rdinances against the placement o f arcade games in so me areas, in statements by educato rs deno uncing the games, and in mo re vigilant regulatio n o f chil- dren’s game activities by parents. This backlash is viewed by smaller minded members o f the industry with anxiety. Mo re visio nary thinkers watch the backlash with eager interest rather than defensiveness. The American peo ple are telling us so mething here, so mething very impo rtant. It is impo rant eno ugh to them that they are willing to co mpro mise their traditio nal reluctance to interfere with o ther peo ple’s business. While the arguments presented in public debates no rmal- ly fo cus o n fo rmal issues such as delinquency fro m scho o l, creatio n o f large gro ups o f ro wdy teenagers, and so fo rth, the co ncerns expressed privately reflect a distaste fo r the games, a vague suspicio n that the games are a waste o f time. Yo u can’t fo o l all o f the peo ple all o f the time; they are beginning to realize that the wo rld o f co mputer games is as yet a vast wasteland.

  Co mputer games are much like candy, co mic bo o ks, and carto o ns. All fo ur activities pro vide intense o r exaggerated experiences. Whether they use sugar, exclamatio n po ints, o r animated explo sio ns, the go al is the same: to pro vide extreme experiences. Children appreciate these activ- ities because their no velty value is still stro ng. Adults, jaded by years o f experience with such things, prefer diversio ns with greater subtlety and depth. We thus have the pano ply o f culinary achievement, the vast array o f literature, and the universe o f mo vies as the adult co unterparts to candy, co mic bo o ks, and carto o ns. Yet, we have no adult co unterpart to co mputer games. This deficit is pregnant with po ssibilities, fo r it suggests a mo mento us upheaval in co mputer game design. This develo ping revo lutio n has no thing to do with the rapid techno lo gical develo pments o f the last few years. While techno lo gical impro vements will surely co ntinue, we are no lo nger ham- pered primarily by the limitatio ns o f the hardware. O ur primary pro blem is that we have little the- o ry o n which to base o ur effo rts. We do n’t really kno w what a game is, o r why peo ple play games, o r what makes a game great. Real art thro ugh co mputer games is achievable, but it will never be achieved so lo ng as we have no path to understanding. We need to establish o ur principles o f aes- thetics, a framewo rk fo r criticism, and a mo del fo r develo pment. New and better hardware will impro ve o ur games, but it will no t guarantee o ur artistic success any mo re than the develo pment o f o rchestras guaranteed the appearance o f Beetho ven. We are a lo ng way fro m a co mputer game these artists sto o d o n the sho ulders o f earlier artists who plunged into an unexplo red wo rld and mapped o ut its territo ries so that later artists co uld build o n their wo rk and achieve greater things. We co mputer game designers must put o ur sho ulders to gether so that o ur successo rs may stand o n to p o f them. This bo o k is my co ntributio n to that enterprise.

C H A P T E R O N E W h a t is a G a m e ?

  f we desire to understand games and game design, we must first clearly establish o ur funda- mental o rientatio n. We must define what we mean by the wo rd “game.” We must also deter- mine the fundamental characteristics o f all games. After discussing so me o f the o bstacles

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  inherent in this effo rt, I will briefly describe the salient classes o f games; then I will pro po se a set o f attributes that characterize all games. Games are a fundamental part o f human existence. The parlance o f games has insinuated itself into o ur language to refer to activities that are no t truly games. We play alo ng with activities we find distasteful. We play ball with tho se who require o ur co o peratio n. We play games when we are insincere. A willing participant is game fo r the enterprise. This bro ad penetratio n o f gaming co ncepts into the entire spectrum o f human experience presents us with two po tential barriers to understanding games. First, o ur liberal use o f gaming terms pro mo tes an exaggerated perceptio n o f o ur o wn under- standing o f games. We fail to render unto the subject the careful and critical analysis that we ten- der to mo re academic to pics, and we blithely igno re the co mplexities o f game design. Co mplete amateurs who se o nly relevant skill is pro gramming undertake to design games with no further preparatio n than their o wn experience as game players. Tho se who o verrate their o wn under- standing undercut their o wn po tential fo r learning. The seco nd o bstacle is ambiguity. We have applied the principles and co ncepts o f gaming so wide- ly that we have watered do wn their o riginal meanings. There is no lo nger a clear fo cus to the co n- cepts we seek to understand. Game designers have no well defined set o f co mmo n terms with which to co mmunicate with each o ther. Discussio ns o f game design frequently disintegrate into arguments o ver semantics. To cut thro ugh the tangled undergro wth that has gro wn up aro und gaming we shall need the bulldo zer and the scalpel. Let us begin this endeavo r by stepping back fo r a mo ment and taking o ur bearings. Let us take a brief to ur o f the universe o f games, glancing briefly at each o f the majo r regio ns. In the co urse o f this to ur I ho pe to refresh the reader’s memo ry o f games and make so me simple po ints befo re digging into the serio us analysis o f fundamental game characteristics. I perceive five majo r regio ns o f games: bo ard games, card games, athletic games, children’s games, and co mputer games.

BOARD GAMES

  We begin with the bo ard games. These games co nsist o f a playing surface divided into secto rs po p- ulated by a set o f mo vable pieces. In the mo st co mmo n arrangement the pieces are directly asso - ciated with the players, while the playing surface represents an enviro nment beyo nd the players’ direct co ntro l. Players maneuver their pieces acro ss the playing surface in an effo rt to capture mo dity. The player’s primary co ncern in these games is the analysis o f geo metrical relatio nships between the pieces.

CARD GAMES

  A seco nd class o f games is the card games. These games utilize a set o f 52 symbo ls generated fro m two facto rs: rank ( 13 values) and suit ( 4 values) . The games revo lve aro und co mbinatio ns built fro m these two facto rs. Players may gain o r lo se po ssessio n o f symbo ls either by rando m pro cess- es o r by matching so me co mbinatio n allo wed by the rules o f the game. Each legal co mbinatio n is assigned a victo ry value fo r final assessment o f game results. Players must reco gnize bo th exist- ing and po tential co mbinatio ns and estimate pro babilities o f o btaining the cards necessary fo r co mpleting a co mbinatio n. This pro bability must be weighed against the victo ry value o f the co mbinatio n. Since the number o f co mbinatio ns is very large, precise co mputatio n o f the requi- site pro babilities exceeds the mental po wers o f almo st all players, rendering the game a primari- ly intuitive exercise. Thus, the player’s primary co ncern in these games is the analysis o f co mbi- natio ns.

ATHLETIC GAMES

  Ano ther traditio nal game fo rm is the athletic game. These games emphasize physical mo re than mental pro wess. The rules o f the game rigo ro usly specify a precise set o f actio ns that the player is either allo wed to execute o r required to execute. Skillful use o f the bo dy is the player’s primary co ncern in these .games.

  We must be careful to distinguish between athletic games and athletic co mpetitio ns. Fo r example, a race is a co mpetitio n, no t a game. The line o f demarcatio n between games and co mpetitio n illu- minates o ne o f the fundamental elements o f all games. I distinguish the two by the degree o f interactio n between players. Theo retically speaking, the runners in a race do no t interact with each o ther. Each is racing o nly against the clo ck; the presence o f o ther runners sho uld be immaterial. In truth, the runners do interact psycho lo gically, fo r the perfo rmance o f o ne runner can affect the perfo rmance o f the o ther runners. Furthermo re, in so me races a runner ( o r driver o r pilo t o r cap- tain) can physically interpo se himself in between the go al and ano ther racer, thereby gaining an advantage. I co nclude that the simplest co mpetitio ns, tho se in which each perso n strives to per- fo rm so me task o ptimally witho ut direct interactio n with the o ther co mpetito rs, do no t co nsti- tute games but co mpetitio ns. A co mpetitio n that do es allo w interactio n is a game.

  CHILDREN’S GAMES

  Ano ther type o f gaming activity is the children’s game. Hide and Seek, Red Ro ver, Tag, and Kick the Can are co mmo n examples. Such games frequently take the fo rm o f gro up activities empha- sizing simple physical play. Altho ugh these games co ntain simple mental and physical co mpo nents,

  Instead, the player’s primary co ncern in these games is the use o f so cial skills illuminating the fun- damental ro le o f the gro up in human life. A wide variety o f children’s activities are frequently referred to as games. When a child talks to a strip o f bark, maneuvers it, and pro vides so und effects, we are tempted to refer to such behavio r as game playing. Fo r the purpo ses o f this bo o k, I ,exclude such activities fro m the fo ld o f games. These impro visatio nal games are to o ill defined to pro vide us with any useful info rmatio n abo ut games.

COMPUTER GAMES

  The next area o f gaming we shall glance at is the current fad in gaming and the subject o f this bo o k, the co mputer game. These games are played o n five types o f co mputers: expensive dedicat- ed machines fo r the arcades ( “co in o p” machines) , inexpensive dedicated machines ( “hand helds”) , multi pro gram ho me games, machines such as the ATARI 2600 and the ATARI 5200, per- so nal co mputers, and large mainframe co mputers. The co mputer acts as o ppo nent and referee in mo st o f these games; in many o f them it also pro vides animated graphics. The mo st co mmo n fo rm o f co mputer game is the skill and actio n ( “S&A”) game emphasizing hand eye co o rdinatio n. These S&A games are frequently vio lent in nature. There are many o ther areas o f co mputer gam- ing: adventure games, fantasy ro le playing games, and war games. In o ur curso ry o verview, these o ther co mputer games are eclipsed by the sheer vo lume o f the skill and actio n games. This co ncludes o ur quick survey o f the mo st pro minent gro upings in the universe o f games. We shall return to the subject later, to create a taxo no my o f co mputer games, and later still to draw o n specific examples o f games to make po ints abo ut their nature. We must no w address the ques- tio n which mo tivated o ur initial reco nnaissance: what are the fundamental elements co mmo n to these games? I perceive fo ur co mmo n facto rs: representatio n, interactio n, co nflict, and safety.

  REPRESENTATION

  First, a game is a clo sed fo rmal system that subjectively represents a subset o f reality. Let us exam- ine each term o f this statement carefully. By 'clo sed' I mean that the game is co mplete and self sufficient as a structure. The mo del wo rld created by the game is internally co mplete; no reference need be made to agents o utside o f the game. So me badly designed games fail to meet this require- ment. Such games pro duce disputes o ver the rules, fo r they allo w situatio ns to develo p that the rules do no t address. The players must then extend the rules to co ver the situatio n in which they find themselves. This situatio n always pro duces arguments. A pro perly designed game precludes this po ssibility; it is clo sed because the rules co ver all co ntingencies enco untered in the game.

  By fo rmal I mean o nly that the game has explicit rules. There are info rmal games in which the rules are lo o sely stated o r deliberately vague. Such games are far remo ved fro m the mainstream o f game play.

  System

  The term 'system' is o ften misused, but in this case its applicatio n is quite appro priate. A game’s co llectio n o f parts which interact with each o ther, o ften in co mplex ways. It is a system.

  Subjectively Represents

  Representatio n is a co in with two faces: an o bjective face and a subjective face. The two faces are no t mutually exclusive, fo r the subjective reality springs fro m and feeds o n o bjective reality. In a game, these two faces are intertwined, with emphasis o n the subjective face. Fo r example, when a player blasts hundreds o f alien invaders, no bo dy believes that his recreatio n directly mirro rs the o bjective wo rld. Ho wever, the game may be a very real metapho r fo r the player’s perceptio n o f his wo rld. I do no t wish to sully my arguments with po p psycho lo gical analyses o f players giving vent to deep seated aggressio ns at the arcades. Clearly, tho ugh, so mething mo re than a simple blast- ing o f alien mo nsters is go ing o n in the mind o f the player. We need no t co ncern o urselves with its exact nature; fo r the mo ment it is entirely adequate to realize that the player do es perceive the game to represent so mething fro m his private fantasy wo rld. Thus, a game represents so mething fro m subjective reality, no t o bjective. Games are o bjectively unreal in that they do no t physically re create the situatio ns they represent, yet they are subjectively real to the player. The agent that transfo rms an o bjectively unreal situatio n into a subjectively real o ne is human fantasy. Fantasy thus plays a vital ro le in any game situatio n. A game creates a fantasy representatio n, no t a scien- tific mo del.

  Games versus Simulations

  The distinctio n between o bjective representatio n and subjective representatio n is made clear by a co nsideratio n o f the differences between simulatio ns and games. A simulatio n is a serio us attempt to accurately represent a real pheno meno n in ano ther, mo re malleable fo rm. A game is an artistically simplified representatio n o f a pheno meno n. The simulatio ns designer simplifies reluctantly and o nly as a co ncessio n to material and intellectual limitatio ns. The game designer simplifies deliberately in o rder to fo cus the player’s attentio n o n tho se facto rs the designer judges to be impo rtant. The fundamental difference between the two lies in their purpo ses. A simula- tio n is created fo r co mputatio nal o r evaluative purpo ses; a game is created fo r educatio nal o r entertainment purpo ses.( There is a middle gro und where training simulatio ns blend into edu- catio nal games.) Accuracy is the sine qua no n o f simulatio ns; clarity the sine qua no n o f games.

  A game is no t merely a small simulatio n lacking the degree o f detail that a simulatio n po ssesses; a game deliberately suppresses detail to accentuate the bro ader message that the designer wishes to present. Where a simulatio n is detailed a game is stylized. Co nsider, fo r example, the differences between a flight simulato r pro gram fo r a perso nal co m- puter and the co in o p game RED BARO N”. Bo th pro grams co ncern flying an airplane; bo th o per- ate o n micro co mputer systems. The flight simulato r demo nstrates many o f the technical aspects o f flying: stalls, ro lls, and spins, fo r example RED BARO N has no ne o f these. Indeed, the aircraft that the player files in RED BARO N is quite unrealistic. It canno t be stalled, ro lled, spun, o r dived into the gro und. When the stick is released it auto matically rights itself. It is inco rrect to co nclude fro m these o bservatio ns that RED BARO N is inferio r to the flight simulato r. RED BARO N is no t a game abo ut realistic flying; it is a game abo ut flying and sho o ting and avo iding being sho t. The inclusio n o f technical details o f flying wo uld distract mo st players fro m the o ther aspects o f the game. The designers o f RED BARO N quite co rrectly stripped o ut technical details o f flight to fo cus the player’s attentio n o n the co mbat aspects o f the game. The absence o f these technical details fro m RED BARO N is no t a liability but an asset, fo r it pro vides fo cus to the game. Their absence fro m a flight simulato r wo uld be a liability.

  Subset of Reality The last term I use is “subset o f reality.” O ne aspect o f this term ( “subset”) is easily justified.

  Clearly, no game co uld include all o f reality witho ut being reality itself; thus, a game must be at mo st a subset o f reality. The cho ice o f matter in the subset is the means o f pro viding fo cus to the game. A game that represents to o large a subset o f reality defies the player’s co mprehensio n and beco mes almo st indistinguishable fro m life itself, ro bbing the game o f o ne o f its mo st appealing facto rs, its fo cus.

  Summary of Representation

  A game creates a subjective and deliberately simplified representatio n o f emo tio nal reality. A game is no t an o bjectively accurate representatio n o f reality; o bjective accuracy is o nly necessary to the extent required to suppo rt the player’s fantasy. The player’s fantasy is the key agent in mak- ing the game psycho lo gically real.

  INTERACTION

  So me media fo r representing reality are static. A painting o r sculpture depicts a snapsho t o f real- ity fro zen in time. So me media are dynamic; they sho w change with time. Mo vies, music, and dance are dynamic in this way. They are able to represent the changing aspect o f reality mo re rich- ly. But the mo st fascinating thing abo ut reality is no t that it is, o r even that it changes, but ho w it changes, the intricate webwo rk o f cause and effect by which all things are tied to gether. The o nly to let them generate causes and o bserve effects. Thus, the highest and mo st co mplete fo rm o f rep- resentatio n is interactive representatio n. Games pro vide this interactive element, and it is a cru- cial facto r in their appeal.

  Games versus Puzzles

  O ne way to understand the nature o f the interactive element o f games is to co ntrast games with puzzles and o ther no n interactive challenges. Co mpare playing a cube puzzle with playing a game o f tic tac to e. Co mpare the spo rt o f high jumping with the game o f basketball. In each co mpari- so n the two activities pro vide similar challenges to the player. The key difference that makes o ne activity a game and the o ther activity no t a game is the interactive element. A cube puzzle do es no t actively respo nd to the human’s mo ves; a high jump po le do es no t react to the jumper’s effo rts. In bo th tic tac to e and basketball the o ppo sing players ackno wledge and respo nd to the player’s actio ns.

  The difference between games and puzzles has little to do with the mechanics o f the situatio n; we can easily turn many puzzles and athletic challenges into games and vice versa. Fo r example, chess, a game, has spawned a who le class o f puzzles, the end game pro blems. Games can include puzzles as subsets, and many do . Mo st o f the time the puzzles are a mino r co mpo nent o f the o ver- all game, fo r a game that puts mo st o f its challenge value o n included puzzles will rapidly lo se its challenge o nce the puzzles have been so lved.

  Games versus Stories

  Ano ther way to illustrate the ro le o f interactio n is to co mpare games with sto ries. A sto ry is a co l- lectio n o f facts in time sequenced o rder that suggest a cause and effect relatio nship. Frequently, the facts presented are deliberately fictitio us, because the facts o f a sto ry are intrinsically unim- po rtant. Indeed, the entire co ncept o f fictio n ( “an untruth that is no t a lie”) o nly makes sense when o ne realizes that the facts presented in the fictio n are themselves unimpo rtant. The cause and effect relatio nships suggested by the sequence o f facts are the impo rtant part o f the sto ry. Fo r example, we care no t whether Luke Skywalker and the Death Star really existed. We saw that Luke Skywalker was go o d and pure, and that the Death Star was evil, and that Luke Skywalker destro yed the Death Star. The cause and effect relatio nship suggested by the sto ry was that go o d o verco mes evil. Thus, a sto ry is a vehicle fo r representing reality, no t thro ugh its facts per se, but thro ugh the cause and effect relatio nships suggested by the sequence o f facts.

  Games also attempt to represent reality. The difference between the two is that a sto ry presents the facts in an immutable sequence, while a game presents a branching tree o f sequences and allo ws the player to create his o wn sto ry by making cho ices at each branch po int. The audience o f a sto ry to explo re alternatives, co ntrapo sitives, and inversio ns. The game player is free to explo re the causal relatio nship fro m many different angles. Indeed, the player expects to play the game many times, trying different strategies each time. A sto ry is meant to be experienced o nce; its representatio nal value decreases with subsequent retellings because it presents no new info rmatio n. A game’s representatio nal value increases with each playing until the player has explo red a representative subset o f all o f the branches in the game net. This do es no t mean that games are better than sto ries. Altho ugh sto ries trace o nly a single sequence o f causal develo pment, they do so with greater intricacy and detail than games. Detail is crucial to the creative success o f a sto ry, fo r it pro vides the texture, the feel o f reality that makes a sto ry co mpelling. The sto ry writer unleashes a mighty swirling to rrent o f facts that sweeps the audience to its predestined co nclusio n. The game designer creates a co mplex netwo rk o f paths cunningly crafted to sho w the player all po ssible facets o f a single truth. In this respect, a sto ry is like a statuette where a game is like a jewel. The statuette’s value arises fro m the fineness o f detail and intricacy o f co nstructio n. A jewel, by co ntrast, has no detail; its faces must be abso lutely smo o th. The jewel’s value arises fro m its ability to refract light into many different angles. A stat- uette is meant to be statio nary; a jewel is meant to be mo ved. So to o , is a sto ry static where a game is dynamic. Sto ries enjo y a particular advantage o ver the current generatio n o f co mputer games: the element o f surprise. A go o d sto ry bo asts an array o f interesting plo t twists. The sto ryteller leads us into a set o f expectatio ns and then cleverly inserts a new facto r that creates a disjunctio n, a new and dra- matically different situatio n. This pro cess can be repeated many times during the co urse o f the sto ry. Amo ng co mputer games, o nly adventures pro vide this element o f surprise. Unfo rtunately, the surprise can o nly be created by limiting the player’s freedo m o f actio n so as to guarantee that the player will enco unter the surprise under the pro per circumstances. After a while, all adventures begin to smell like primro se paths. The really exciting po ssibility o ffered by co mputer games is the pro spect o f fo rmulating a plo t twist in respo nse to the player’s actio ns, instead o f merely drag- ging him do wn a pre-o rdained primro se path. Ho wever, the ability to fo rmulate surprise requires an ability to analyze the player’s actio ns, deduce his expectatio ns, and generate a believable plo t twist that co nfutes his expectatio ns witho ut frustrating him. Artificial intelligence that advanced has yet to be created.

  Games versus Toys

  Games lie between sto ries and to ys o n a scale o f manipulability. Sto ries do no t permit the audi- ence any o ppo rtunity to co ntro l the sequence o f facts presented. Games allo w the player to manipulate so me o f the facts o f the fantasy, but the rules go verning the fantasy remain fixed. To ys ryteller has direct creative co ntro l o ver his audience’s experience; the game designer has indirect co ntro l; the to ymaker has almo st no ne.

  Significance of Interaction

  Interactio n is impo rtant fo r several reaso ns. First, it injects a so cial o r interperso nal element into the event. It transfo rms the challenge o f the game fro m a technical o ne to an interperso nal o ne. So lving a cube puzzle is a strictly technical o peratio n; playing chess is an interperso nal o peratio n. In the fo rmer, o ne plays against the lo gic o f the situatio n; in the latter, o ne uses the lo gic o f the situatio n to play against the o ppo nent.

  Seco nd, interactio n transfo rms the nature o f the challenge fro m a passive challenge to an active challenge. A puzzle will always present the player with exactly the same challenge. But a game o ppo nent reacts to player’s actio ns, and presents different challenges in each game. This difference has majo r emo tio nal significance. The perso n so lving the puzzle must so meho w divine, guess, deduce, master, o r disco ver the key trick built into the puzzle by the designer. Emo tio nally, the puzzle player is wo rking against the puzzle o r its designer to unmask its secret. O nce the secret is kno wn, the puzzle is no lo nger interesting. The game-player, by co ntrast, faces different challenges each time she plays the game. Where a puzzle is dead a game is alive; the player must create her so lutio n to the game in a manner best suited to her o wn perso nality and that o f her o ppo nent. The key distinctio n between a game and a puzzle is the difference between creating yo ur o wn so lutio n and disco vering the designer’s so lutio n. A game ackno wledges the player’s existence and reacts to the player’s perso nality; a puzzle lies do wn like a dead fish. Co mputer games seldo m pro vide a human o ppo nent, and so they lack the so cial element that o ther games o ffer. They can, ho wever, present an illuso ry perso nality against which the player must wo rk. This is o ne o f the mo st exciting and least develo ped po tentials o f the co mputer as a game techno lo gy. And regardless o f the co mputer’s success o r failure in synthesizing a so cial ele- ment, the co mputer can readily make the game a highly interactive experience fo r the player. It can react to the player’s mo ves with speed and tho ro ughness.

  N ature of Interaction

  Interactiveness is no t a binary quantity; it is a co ntinuo us quantity with a range o f values. Puzzles have little o r no interactiveness, while games have mo re interactiveness. This suggests that inter- activeness is an index o f “gaminess”. So me games, such as blackjack, tag, o r PO NG pro vide very little interactio n between the players. Altho ugh the players may wish to interact, the games pro - vide very limited mo des o f interactio n ( binary decisio n to stand o r hit, running, and twisting pad- dle) . The games do no t allo w players to invest much o f themselves into the play, o r to react in a rich way to their o ppo nents. O ther games, such as bridge, fo o tball, and LEGIO NNAIRE ( trade- mark o f Avalo n Hill Game Co .) allo w a far richer interactio n between players. Players can grap- dull, while the seco nd gro up o f games is generally regarded as mo re interesting. What is impo r- tant abo ut the mo des o f interactio n is no t their mechanical quality but their emo tio nal signifi- cance. PO NG is insipid because I can’t express much o f my perso nality thro ugh the medium o f a bo uncing ball. Bridge is better because it includes within its interactio n elements o f teamwo rk, deceptio n, and co o peratio n. I can better imprint my perso nality traits o nto a game o f bridge. Thus, degree o f interactio n pro vides a useful index o f “gaminess”.

  CONFLICT

  A third element appearing in all games is co nflict. Co nflict arises naturally fro m the interactio n in a game. The player is actively pursuing so me go al. O bstacles prevent him fro m easily achieving this go al. If the o bstacles are passive o r static, the challenge is a puzzle o r athletic challenge. If they are active o r dynamic, if they purpo sefully respo nd to the player, the challenge is a game. Ho wever, active, respo nsive, purpo seful o bstacles require an intelligent agent. If that intelligent agent actively blo cks the player’s attempts to reach his go als, co nflict between the player and the agent is inevitable. Thus, co nflict is fundamental to all games.

  Games without conflict?

  So me peo ple shrink’ fro m this aspect o f games. A number o f attempts have been made to design “nice” games cleansed o f co nflict. Such games emphasize co o perative effo rts rather than co nflict. They have no t been successful co mmercially; this suggests that few peo ple enjo y them. Mo re impo rtantly, these games are failures because they are no t games in the first place. Co nflict can o nly be avo ided by eliminating the active respo nse to the player’s actio ns. Witho ut active respo nse, there can be no interactio n. Thus, expunging co nflict fro m a game inevitably destro ys the game.

  While it is impo ssible to eliminate co nflict fro m a game witho ut destro ying the game, it is po ssi- ble to include co o perative elements by shifting the co nflict. Members o f a team can co o perate with each o ther in the team’s co nflict with ano ther agent. This o ther agent co uld be ano ther team, an individual human, o r a co mputer simulated player. In all cases, the o ppo nent must be per- ceivable as endo wed with a perso na. Witho ut at least the illusio n o f purpo seful reactio n to the player’s actio ns, the game co llapses.

  This “blo o d and guts” view o f co nflict in games is reinfo rced by the so cial co ntext in which they are o ften played. O ur real wo rld co nflicts are always indirect, diffused o ver time, and tightly reg- ulated. Mo reo ver, they all to o frequently lack reso lutio n, fo r seldo m do es o ne achieve an o utright victo ry in the co nflicts o f daily life. Lo cal successes, yes, but the struggle co ntinues witho ut clear reso lutio n. Because games are subjective representatio ns o f the real wo rld, they fo cus o ur atten- tio n o n a particular aspect o f the wo rld by accentuating that aspect. Co nflict in games thus tends is no t essential o r fundamental to games. It is co mmo n in games because it is the mo st o bvio us and natural expressio n fo r co nflict.

  Summary of Conflict

  Co nflict is an intrinsic element o f all games. It can be direct o r indirect, vio lent o r no nvio lent, but it is always present in every game.

  SAFETY

  Co nflict implies danger; danger means risk o f harm; harm is undesirable. Therefo re, a game is an artifice fo r pro viding the psycho lo gical experiences o f co nflict and danger while excluding their physical realizatio ns. In sho rt, a game is a safe way to experience reality. Mo re accurately, the results o f a game are always less harsh than the situatio ns the game mo dels. A player can blast the mo nsters all day lo ng and risk o nly her quarter. She can amass huge financial empires and lo se them in an ho ur witho ut risking her piggy bank. She can lead great armies into desperate battles o n which hang the fate o f natio ns, all witho ut shedding a dro p o f blo o d. In a wo rld o f relentless cause and effect, o f tragic linkages and inevitable co nsequences, the disasso ciatio n o f actio ns fro m co nsequences is a co mpelling feature o f games. This is no t to imply that games are devo id o f co nsequences. The penalties fo r lo sing a game can so metimes be a significant deterrent to game play. Lo sing to ano ther perso n always entails so me lo ss o f dignity. This may be an attractio n o f co mputer games there is less shame in lo sing to a co mputer. The lo ser can keep co ming back fo r mo re defeats witho ut lo sing face. Mo reo ver, true victo ry the to tal destructio n o f the co mputer’s fo rces, is ackno wledged to be impo ssible in mo st such games; this further lessens the shame o f defeat.

  A seco nd penalty fo r lo sing is the less o f any reward that might have been gained by winning. In almo st all games the reward penalty structure is po sitive. That is, the lo ser is no t punished fo r lo s- ing, the winner is rewarded fo r winning. The lo ser’s o nly lo ss is any investment that he made to enter the game, such as a bet o r entry fee. This investment is usually very small, and may rightly be regarded as a recreatio nal fee fo r the services asso ciated with the administratio n o f the game rather than a penalty fo r all po tential lo sers.

  Gambling presents us with so me difficult pro blems related to the issue o f the safety o f games. Gamblers risk mo ney o r go o ds o n the o utco me o f a rando m o r near rando m pro cess. Lo sers fo r- feit their bets and winners reap a large reward. Hence, gambling presents a real financial risk to the player. Ho wever, two extenuating circumstances intervene: first, the recreatio nal gambler risks very little mo ney; seco nd, so me gamblers deny to themselves the laws o f chance. They indulge in the fantasy o f co ntro l. The pro per into natio n in the shake o f the dice, the co rrect twist o n the han- dle o f the slo t machine these things make the difference, o r so they tell themselves. Thus, recre- atio nal gambling, while so mewhat deviant fro m the mainline o f game playing, pro bably deserves expended mo re fo r anticipated financial gain than fo r recreatio n, lies o n the far side o f the gray zo ne. A special fo rm o f gambling, deserving special co nsideratio n here, is po ker. Po ker is a game o f bluffing; the key to success in the game lies in co nvincing yo ur o ppo nent that yo u have better o r wo rse cards than yo u really have. Because mo ney is at stake, the player experiences stresses that strain his ability to deceive his o ppo nents. Thus, the risk o f gambling, a mere o utco me o f o ther games, is an intrinsic part o f the structure o f po ker. This unique aspect o f po ker merits special co n- sideratio n. I wo uld no t hesitate to classify po ker as a game.

  Summary of Safety

  Games pro vide safe ways to experience reality. Special cases abo und, but the central principle remains: games are safe. In this chapter I have presented a set o f characteristics that defines what I mean by the wo rd “game”. Fo r the mo st part, I have emphasized the characteristics intrinsic to the games themselves rather than the mo tivatio ns o f the players. Such separatio n o f game fro m player is artificial and misleading, fo r neither exists witho ut the o ther. In the next chapter, I turn to lo o k at the players o f games and their mo tivatio ns. C h a p t e r Tw o W h y D o P e o p le P la y G a m e s ?

  ame-playing requires two co mpo nents: a game and a player. The game designer wo rks to pro duce a game, and so her immediate preo ccupatio n is with the game itself. Yet, her final go al is to educate, entertain, o r edify the game-player; hence, the human player is

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