creating the new constitution a guide for nepali citizens

Creating the New
Constitution:
A Guide for Nepali
Citizens

Creating the New
Constitution:
A Guide for Nepali
Citizens
Editors
Yash Ghai
Jill Cottrell

Contributors
Bipin Adhikari
Lok Raj Baral
Surendra Bhandari
Jill Cottrell
Yash Ghai
Krishna Hachhethu
Krishna Khanal

Dhruba Kumar
Sapana Malla
Kumar Regmi
Geeta Pathak Sangroula
Yubaraj Sangroula
Pitamber Sharma
Tek Tamrakar
Mihir Thakur

International IDEA publications are independent of specific national or political interests. Views expressed in this publication do not
necessarily represent the views of Internatinoal IDEA, its Board or its Council members.
@ International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2008
Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of this publication should be made to:
International IDEA
SE - 103 34 Stockholm
Sweden

International IDEA encourages dissemination of its work and will promptly respond to request for permission to reproduce or translate
its publications.
Cover Photo: Deependra Bajracharya

Graphic Design: Subarna Humagai

ISBN : 978-91-85724-51-2

Preface

The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International
IDEA) is an intergovernmental organization that supports sustainable democratic
change worldwide, including support to the constitution-making process. Since 2006,
and on the basis of requests by national parties including political parties and more
recently the Constituent Assembly, International IDEA has been providing support to
the constitution-making process in Nepal. This support has focused mainly on the provisioning of resource materials and the convening of dialogues among national political
actors on topics of key importance to the constitutional process.
International IDEA will continue supporting the constitution-making process by opening avenues through which a broad cross-section of Nepali society can come together
to discuss a host of constitutional issues. International IDEA will provide access to
international expertise through its own comparative publications and through its networks of international experts.
Following Jana Andolan II, much debate has arisen on the Nepali constitution. Hence,
Creating the New Constitution: A Guide for Nepali Citizens comes on the heels of much rich
discussion and research into contemporary issues that Nepali constitutional experts
have had to grapple with.

The publications provides a brief history of past constitutions in Nepal. It includes
a more detailed examination of the substance of the 1990 Constitution, analyzing its
strengths and weaknesses, as a means to provide a better understanding of the current
issues and debates. It also identifies proposals and controversies surrounding political
reform and provides cross-reference to the experiences of other countries relevant to
the current process in Nepal.
The publication does not offer particular solutions; rather it provides an analysis of
different options that emerge when making a new constitution. It aims to encourage
full participation in the process of constitution making by introducing readers to constitutionalism, the roles of constitutions, and to key constitutional concepts, relating the
latter to the current issues of political reform.

Vidar Helgesen
Secretary General
August 2008

I

II

Acknowledgements

This book is the outcome of a collaborative effort among a group of scholars of
distinction. Draft chapters, or sections, were prepared by Bipin Adhikari (Nepal's
constitutional history), Lok Raj Baral (protecting the constitution), Surendra
Bhandari (the executive and systems of government), Krishna Hachhethu (political
parties), Krishna Khanal (electoral systems), Dhruba Kumar (security), Sapana Malla
(women), Kumar Regmi (courts and independent institutions), Geeta Pathak Sangroula
(economic, social, and cultural rights), Yubaraj Sangroula (diversity), Pitamber Sharma
(criteria for delineating federal units), Tek Tamrakar (Dalit issues), and Mihir Thakur
(legislature). These were edited, and to some extent rearranged, and supplemented by
the editors, Yash Ghai and Jill Cottrell. Yash Ghai also provided the initial drafts of the
introductory chapter, the chapter on fundamental principles, on federalism, and much
of the materials on human rights and the safeguarding of the constitution. International
IDEA is very grateful to all the contributors and to the editors for their thorough
work.
We are also grateful to Leena Rikkilä and Ajit Baral, the Programme Manager and
Publications Officer of International IDEA's Nepal Office. Leena Rikkilä brought
together the experts to work on the book and provided her input in the production of
the book while Ajit Baral saw the book through to the press. Finally, we would like to
thank Tiku Gauchan for copyediting the book.

III

Contents

Preface ...............................................................................................................................I
Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................III
Chapter 1: Form and Purposes of a Constitution ..............................................................................1
Deciding the Nature of the New Nepali Constitution .......................................................................................1
How and Why Constitutions Were Developed around the World ....................................................................2
Nepal and the Constitutions It Has Had ......................................................................................................... 3
The Major Issues That Are Addressed by Modern Democratic Constitutions .................................................5
Sovereignty .............................................................................................................................................5
Separation of the State and Its Institutions from Communities ...............................................................7
Control of and Accountability of State Power ..........................................................................................7
Individualism, Equality, and Human Rights .............................................................................................8
Social Justice, Basic Needs, and the Environment ..................................................................................8
Membership of International and Regional Communities ........................................................................9
Addressing the Challenges That Modern Constitutions Face ..........................................................................9
Personalization of Power..........................................................................................................................9

Corruption .............................................................................................................................................10
Ethnic Diversity .....................................................................................................................................11
Weak Civil Society .................................................................................................................................12
The Way Forward .........................................................................................................................................13
Reflecting the People's Choices in the New Nepali Constitution ...................................................................14
Chapter 2: History of Constitutions and Constitution Making in Nepal ...................................................17
Governance According to Traditional Laws ..................................................................................................17
The Succession of Constitutions ..................................................................................................................18
Processes Used in Making the Constitutions ................................................................................................20
Promulgators of the Constitutions ...............................................................................................................20
System of Government .................................................................................................................................21
The Role of the King ....................................................................................................................................21
The Role of the Judiciary ..............................................................................................................................22
Democracy and Elections .............................................................................................................................22
Human Rights ..............................................................................................................................................23
Hinduism ......................................................................................................................................................24
Inclusiveness ................................................................................................................................................24
Accountability of the Government ................................................................................................................24
The Need for Reflecting on Past Constitutions .............................................................................................25

V

Chapter 3: The 1990 Constitution and Its Collapse ..........................................................................31
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................31
The Underlying Principles of the 1990 Constitution .....................................................................................32
Multiparty Democracy ...............................................................................................................................32
Constitutional Monarchy ...........................................................................................................................36
National Unity ............................................................................................................................................41
The Collapse of the 1990 Constitution ..........................................................................................................43
Lessons from Nepal's Experience with the 1990 Constitution ......................................................................45
Chapter 4: The Making of the New Constitution: The Interim Constitution's Road Map ................................49
The Interim Constitution ...............................................................................................................................49
The Constitution-making Process .................................................................................................................50
Constituent Assembly: Membership and Representation .........................................................................50
Free and Fair Elections to the Constituent Assembly .................................................................................53
Procedures for Dealing with Election Disputes ..........................................................................................53
Fundamental Binding Constitutional Principles that Underlie the Mandate of the Constituent Assembly ..54
High Level Commission on Restructuring .................................................................................................54
Time Lines .................................................................................................................................................55
The Rules and Procedures of the Constituent Assembly ...........................................................................57

Privileges of the Constituent Assembly .....................................................................................................58
System to be Used for Voting on the New Constitution .............................................................................58
Public Consultation and Participation ........................................................................................................59
How and When the New Constitution Will Come into Force ......................................................................60
Amending the Interim Constitution ............................................................................................................60
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................61
Chapter 5: Fundamental Constitutional Principles ..........................................................................65
Formulation and Status of Constitutional Principles ....................................................................................65
Who Decides the Goals? ..............................................................................................................................66
Compliance with Constitutional Principles ...................................................................................................68
Methods of Incorporating Values .................................................................................................................69
Preamble ...................................................................................................................................................69
Fundamental Principles and Objectives of the State ..................................................................................70
Directive Principles of State Policy ............................................................................................................71
Questions .....................................................................................................................................................74
Chapter 6: Human Rights as the Framework for Freedom, Diversity, and Social Justice ..........................................77
Different Kinds of Rights ..............................................................................................................................78

VI

Internationalization of Rights ........................................................................................................................82
Development of a Rights Regime in Nepal ...................................................................................................83
Nepal's International Human Rights Commitments ......................................................................................88
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................88
Chapter 7: Diversity, Rights, and Unity .....................................................................................................................91
The Nation-state and Its Critics ....................................................................................................................91
Diversity of Nepal .........................................................................................................................................93
Social Structure .........................................................................................................................................93
Nature and Extent of Exclusion ..................................................................................................................94
Demands of Different Communities .............................................................................................................96
Dalits ...........................................................................................................................................................9
Janajatis ....................................................................................................................................................97
Madhesis ...................................................................................................................................................98
Accommodating Diversity .........................................................................................................................99
Whither Nepal? ...........................................................................................................................................100
Chapter 8: Women and the Constitution .....................................................................................103
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................103
Problems in the 1990 Constitution and Their Remedies .............................................................................104
Discriminatory Language .........................................................................................................................104
Hindu Nation ...........................................................................................................................................104

Right to Property .....................................................................................................................................105
Violence Against and Exploitation of Women ..........................................................................................105
Privacy ....................................................................................................................................................105
Citizenship ...............................................................................................................................................106
Participation in Public Life .......................................................................................................................107
Directive Principles and Their Implementation ........................................................................................107
The Way Forward .......................................................................................................................................108
Ineffective Approaches to Legislating Laws Pertaining to Women Must Be Cast Aside ...........................108
The Role of the Constitution and Courts in Strengthening the Rule of Law ................................................109
Special Measures .......................................................................................................................................110
Protecting the Laws That Protect Women ..................................................................................................111
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................112
Chapter 9: Liberty, Freedom, and Participation ................................................................115
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................115
Self-determination .....................................................................................................................................116

VII

Self-determination in UN Instruments .......................................................................................................116
Article 25 of ICCPR—Participation Rights ..................................................................................................118

Article 27 of ICCPR—Minority Rights ........................................................................................................120
Minority Rights ...........................................................................................................................................122
Indigenous People's Rights ........................................................................................................................123
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................124
Chapter 10: Human Rights and Social Justice ...................................................................127
The Reality of Nepal ....................................................................................................................................127
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights as Human Rights ............................................................................127
Are ESCR Different from Civil and Political Rights? The Narrow View ........................................................129
A Broader View ........................................................................................................................................130
Rights-based Approach ...........................................................................................................................131
Justiciability ...............................................................................................................................................131
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights in the Nepali Constitutional Framework ..........................................132
Is More Needed? ........................................................................................................................................134
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................134
Chapter 11: Elections and the Electoral System ..................................................................................................137
What Do We Understand by an Electoral System? .....................................................................................137
Types of Electoral Systems ........................................................................................................................139
Plurality/Majoritarian Systems ................................................................................................................139
Proportional Representation Systems .....................................................................................................140
Mixed Systems ........................................................................................................................................142
Elections in Nepal .......................................................................................................................................142
Disproportionality and Exclusion ................................................................................................................143
Demands for Proportional Representation .................................................................................................144
Electoral System for the Constituent Assembly ..........................................................................................145
Devising an Electoral System for the Future—with a Focus on Inclusivity .................................................145
A Modified Plurality System ....................................................................................................................145
Proportional Representation ...................................................................................................................146
List PR System .......................................................................................................................................146
What Should a New Constitution Say? .......................................................................................................149
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................150
Chapter 12: Political Parties ..................................................................................................153
Role of Political Parties ..............................................................................................................................154
An Overview of the History of Nepali Political Parties .................................................................................155

VIII

Party Ideology ............................................................................................................................................157
How Political Parties are Organized in Nepal ..............................................................................................157
Constitutional and Legal Provisions Regarding Parties ..............................................................................158
A Reformed Party System ..........................................................................................................................159
Parties in the New Nepal Must Be Inclusive .............................................................................................159
Parties Must Be Democratic ....................................................................................................................160
Parties Must Respect Human Rights .......................................................................................................160
Parties Should Be Effective ......................................................................................................................161
Parties Need Resources ..........................................................................................................................161
Parties Must Be Financially Well-run and Accountable ...........................................................................162
Parties Must Be Disciplined .....................................................................................................................162
Parties Must Not Use Violence ................................................................................................................162
Parties Must Be Accountable to Their Members .....................................................................................163
The System of Regulation of Parties Must Be Fair ...................................................................................163
Party Campaigns Must Be Fair ................................................................................................................163
Parties Should Serve the National Interest ..............................................................................................163
Some Questions .........................................................................................................................................164
Chapter 13: Systems of Government .........................................................................................167
Designing a System of Government ...........................................................................................................167
Identifying the Tasks of the State ............................................................................................................167
Allocating the Tasks: Division of Responsibilities between Different Levels of Government ....................168
The Division of Responsibility between the State and Civil Society .........................................................168
Allocating Powers among State Organs ..................................................................................................169
Criteria for Assessing System of Government and Institutions ...............................................................171
Choice between Systems of Government ...................................................................................................172
Chapter 14: Federalism, Devolution, Local Government .................................................................175
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................175
The Origin of Federations ...........................................................................................................................176
Designing the Federal Units ........................................................................................................................177
Criteria for Establishing Sub-national Units ................................................................................................178
Discussions in Nepal ..................................................................................................................................179
Structuring Federalism: Issues and Choices That Nepal Faces ...................................................................181
Division of Powers between the Centre and the Units .............................................................................182
Levels of Government .............................................................................................................................182
Number of Units ......................................................................................................................................182

IX

Boundaries, Merger of Units, and Creation of New Units ........................................................................183
One or More Constitutions? ....................................................................................................................183
The Second Chamber ..............................................................................................................................184
Institutional Arrangements: The Role of Independent Institutions ...........................................................184
Division of Powers: Contents and Methodology ......................................................................................185
Resource Allocation ................................................................................................................................187
The Cultural Question ..............................................................................................................................187
The Rights of Minorities ..........................................................................................................................187
Dispute Settlement and Inter-governmental Relations ............................................................................188
Entrenchment in the Constitution ............................................................................................................188
Implementing Federal Arrangements .......................................................................................................189
Supplementing Federalism .........................................................................................................................190
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................190
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................191
Chapter 15: The National Executive ..........................................................................................193
The Importance of the Executive ................................................................................................................193
The Question of the Monarchy ...................................................................................................................193
Systems of the Executive ............................................................................................................................194
The Parliamentary System ..........................................................................................................................194
The Presidential System ..........................................................................................................................195
Parliamentary and Presidential Systems Compared ................................................................................195
Mixed Systems ........................................................................................................................................196
Systems of Power Sharing .........................................................................................................................197
Principles for the Executive in Nepal ..........................................................................................................199
How to Reduce Instability of the Executive .................................................................................................200
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................202
Chapter 16: The National Legislature ........................................................................................205
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................205
Issues under the 1990 Constitution ............................................................................................................207
Representation ........................................................................................................................................207
Making and Changing Laws ....................................................................................................................207
Problems with Public Finance .................................................................................................................207
Holding the Government Accountable ........................................................................................................208
One House or Two? The Need for a Second Chamber ...............................................................................208
Tenures and Functions of Chambers .......................................................................................................209

X

Second Chambers in Nepal .....................................................................................................................210
Life of the Legislature .................................................................................................................................210
Role of the Opposition .............................................................................................................................211
Making the Legislature More Effective ........................................................................................................212
The Public and the Legislature ...................................................................................................................215
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................216
Chapter 17: The Judiciary......................................................................................................219
The Role of the Judiciary ............................................................................................................................219
The Concept of an Independent Judiciary ...................................................................................................220
Provisions Regarding the Judiciary in the 1990 and Interim Constitutions ................................................221
Provisions for the Appointment and Removal of Judges in the 1990 Constitution ..................................221
Provisions for the Appointment and Removal of Judges in the Interim Constitution ...............................221
Remuneration ..........................................................................................................................................222
Lack of Immunity ....................................................................................................................................222
The Annual Report ...................................................................................................................................222
Use of Judges for Non-judicial Work .......................................................................................................223
The Use of Temporary Judges .................................................................................................................223
Retirement ...............................................................................................................................................223
New Powers for the Chief Justice ............................................................................................................223
Some Issues about the Judiciary ................................................................................................................224
Response to 'Crisis' ................................................................................................................................224
Corruption ..............................................................................................................................................224
Predominance of Brahmins and Chhetris ................................................................................................224
Maoist ‘Courts’.........................................................................................................................................225
Reorganization of the Judiciary ..................................................................................................................225
What to Do with Corrupt Judges .............................................................................................................225
Oversight of the Judiciary .......................................................................................................................225
Constitutional Court ................................................................................................................................226
Speedier Justice ......................................................................................................................................227
Appointment Process and the Role of the Judicial Service Commission and the Judicial Council ..........227
The Pool of Appointees ...........................................................................................................................228
Prosecutions ...........................................................................................................................................229
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................229
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................230

XI

Chapter 18: National Security and Democracy .............................................................................233
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................233
Emergency, Democracy, and the Contest for Sovereignty ..........................................................................234
The Main Factors that Allowed the King to Usurp Power ............................................................................236
Article 35 Violated and the Implications ..................................................................................................236
Flaws in Article 118 .................................................................................................................................236
Article 119 and Article 120 Abused .........................................................................................................237
Lack of Defence Policies ..........................................................................................................................238
Lack of Legislative Oversight over the Army ............................................................................................238
Recent Developments ..............................................................................................................................239
The King's Control over the Army Relinquished ......................................................................................239
Changes in the IC Regarding the NDC, etc ..............................................................................................239
Army Top Brass being Made to Answer to the Legislature .....................................................................239
Changes to the Provision for Declaring an Emergency ............................................................................239
Suggestions for the Future .........................................................................................................................240
Human Security .......................................................................................................................................240
International Standards ...........................................................................................................................240
The Army .................................................................................................................................................241
The Police ................................................................................................................................................242
Intelligence Services ................................................................................................................................244
States of Emergency ...............................................................................................................................245
Courts and the Security Forces ................................................................................................................245
Other Aspects of Security ........................................................................................................................245
Security Forces and Federalism ...............................................................................................................246
Post-conflict Issues ................................................................................................................................246
Questions ...................................................................................................................................................246
Chapter 19: Maintaining the Role of the Constitution .....................................................................249
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................249
Assessing the Success of a Constitution ....................................................................................................249
Designing and Implementing a Constitution ...............................................................................................251
Components of a Constitution ....................................................................................................................252
Nature and Role of Contemporary Constitutions ........................................................................................254
Threats to the Constitution .........................................................................................................................255
How to Safeguard the Constitution? ...........................................................................................................257
Internal Devices for Implementating and Safeguarding the Constitution ...................................................258

XII

Supremacy of the Constitution ................................................................................................................258
Protecting the Constitution against a Coup .............................................................................................258
Protecting the Constitution against Hasty or Retrogressive Amendments ...............................................259
Limiting Emergency Powers ....................................................................................................................260
Judicial Review and Enforceability ...........................................................................................................260
Non-judicial Redress ...............................................................................................................................261
Neutralizing Sensitive Responsibilities and Tasks ...................................................................................262
Establishing Conditions for Rule of Law ..................................................................................................262
Constitution Implementation Commission ..............................................................................................263
Protecting the Constitution from Outside ...................................................................................................263
People as Guardians ................................................................................................................................263
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................264

XIII

Acronyms and Abbreviations

APF

Armed Police Force

BVNC

Back to the Village National Campaign

CEDAW

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

CERD

Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

CPN

Communist Party of Nepal

CPN (Maoist)

Communist Party of Nepal, Maoist

CPN (UML)

Communist Party of Nepal, United Marxist Leninist

CRC

Convention on the Rights of the Child

EC

Election Commission

FPTP

First Past the Post

HOR

House of Representatives

IC

Interim Constitution

ICCPR

International Covenant on Civic and Political Rights

ICESCR

International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

IGP

Inspector General of Police

ILO

International Labour Organization

LS

List System

MMP

Mixed Member Proportional

NA

National Assembly

NC

Nepali Congress

NDC

National Defence Council

PIL

Public Interest Litigation

PR

Proportional Representation

RPP

Rastriya Prajatantra Party

SPA

Seven-Party Alliance

STV

Single Transferable Vote

TADO

Terrorist and Disruptive Activities Ordinance

UN

United Nations

UDHR

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

UNMIN

United Nations Mission in Nepal

XIV

CHAPTER
1
CHAPTER 1

Form and Purposes of a Constitution

Deciding the Nature of the New Nepali Constitution
It may be useful to think of a constitution as an agreement among a group of people
who have decided to live together and form a political community. Today, the people
of Nepal, having decided to remain together, have to create a new constitution that will
lay down the rules of governance. When creating the new constitution, the people will
have to work out the answers to questions such as the following:
Who will be the leaders of the community? Will they be chosen by the people?
Will the offspring of previous leaders become the next leaders? Will the leaders
be leaders for life or for only some defined and shorter period?
What are the purposes of having leaders? What powers should the people give to
the leaders to carry out those purposes? Should the people give up all their power
to the leaders or should they keep some for themselves, for example, powers that
concern the individual or the family? Will there be different kinds of leaders,
with different functions?
If only limited powers are given to the leaders, how will the community ensure
that the leaders stay within those powers?
If people are not happy with the leaders, can the leaders be removed? If so,
how?
If a person or a group breaks the agreement that the people have made, what
should be done to them?
Who will settle disputes among the people or between the people and the
government? The leaders? Some independent body?

1

What arrangements, if any, will the community make to look after the weak and
the disabled? Are the weak and the disabled the responsibility of the family or of
the whole community?
How will the expenses incurred by the lea