Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol09.Issue3.1998:
Environmental issues and our chemical world – the
need for a multidimensional approach in
environmental safety, health and management
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Ce ntre fo r Future -o rie nte d Studie s, Ebo nyi State , Nige ria
Environmental issues are
diverse and result from different factors and situations.
These call for a multidimensional approach to combat
environmental perturbation
with respect to the presenting
noxious factors, such as toxic
chemical elements and
wastes from diverse anthropogenic activities. The continued success of certain environmental programmes in the
developed parts of the world
and the continuing refi nement of our environmental
objectives in a contextually
designed sustainable development, coupled with signifi cant additional knowledge in
environmental planning and
management have all led to
the decision for a global
concerted effort to maintain
and sustain our environment
for the health and safety of
present and future generations. However, these objectives are not strongly undergirded in non-industrialized
parts of the world, and are
not wholly supported by the
chemical industries and other
interests because they lack
the will and dedication to
realise that economics and
environmental management
as well as health and safety
are inextricably linked.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [ 1998] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[ 136 ]
Introduction
Alter a tion s in biodiver sity in ter a ct in com plex w ays w ith th e en vir on m en t, a n d th e
effects a r e often ca u se for con cer n . Alth ou gh
th ese a r e eviden t globa lly, th e eviden ce is
m or e so for econ om ica lly developin g n a tion s.
E n vir on m en ta l issu es in both developed a n d
developin g n a tion s h ave pr opelled dem a n d
for r efor m a n d deba te a bou t th e str u ctu r e of
th a t r efor m . Th er e a r e possible con sequ en ces
of too-h a sty a n d ill-a dvised ch a n ges a s well a s
n e glect. Th er e ca n be n o dou bt th a t a k n ow ledge of en vir on m en ta l im per a tives is
becom in g of in cr ea sin g im por ta n ce to politica l lea der s th r ou gh ou t th e wor ld. Th e ch a n gin g pa tter n s of disea se in ciden ce or em er gen ce, follow in g ch a n ges in livin g sta n da r ds
a n d pu blic h ea lth ser vices, a s well a s a lter a tion s in ou r ecosystem a ffectin g a ctivities
involvin g a ir, soil, a n d w a ter, r evea l th e
im por ta n ce of en vir on m en ta l der a n gem en t
a s ca u ses of decr ea sed su sta in a ble developm en t (Ch u k w u m a , 1994a ). If th e wor ld’s
people a r e to r ecogn ize th ese con dition s a t
th e ea r liest oppor tu n ity a n d a dvise on pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t of ou r en vir on m en t,
th ey m u st be fa m ilia r n ot on ly w ith scien tifi c
a n d en gin eer in g pr a ctices, bu t a lso w ith th e
gen er a l socia l pr in ciples on wh ich th e pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t a r e ba sed. Th ese a r e
so im por ta n t th a t th ey m u st be a ssim ila ted
a n d becom e a n in te gr a l pa r t of ou r lives. A
gen er a l la ck of in ter est a n d/ or ign or a n ce
per va des th e a ttitu de of a va st m a jor ity of
people a s r e ga r ds th e en vir on m en t.
Most pa r ts of th e wor ld, especia lly in developin g cou n tr ies, a r e in sea r ch of solu tion s to
th eir en vir on m en ta l cr isis. Th e solu tion s a r e
obta in a ble given th e r igh t lea der sh ip a n d
citizen aw a r en ess. Th ese people a r e fa ced
w ith ser iou s econ om ic str ess; bu t th e econ om y ca n be r estr u ctu r ed a n d r econ str u cted
so well to a tta in r ecover y. Wh ile th eir politics
a n d econ om y ca n u n der go u n for etold de gen er a tion , th is ca n n ot be a llowed to h a m per ou r
en vir on m en t. It is n ot pr u den t to per m it ou r
en vir on m en t to be defer r ed ta k in g in to con sider a tion pr esen t a n d fu tu r e gen er a tion s. An
u n tow a r d im pa ct on th e en vir on m en t by
ch em ica l elem en ts ca n be per m a n en t w ith
r esu lta n t m or ta lity a n d dissipa tion of both
fa u n a a n d flor a .
Impact of chemical elements on
food quality
At th e pr esen t tim e th a t food pr odu ction a n d
en vir on m en ta l qu a lity a r e of m a jor globa l
con cer n , a m u ch better u n der sta n din g of th e
beh aviou r of ch em ica l elem en ts in th e soilpla n t system m u st be of u tm ost sign ifi ca n ce
(Ch u k w u m a , 1993a ). Soil con ta m in a ted w ith
h eavy m eta ls (Ch u k w u m a , 1994b), for
in sta n ce, ca n pr odu ce cr ops wh ich look n or m a l in a ppea r a n ce, bu t a r e u n sa fe for con su m ption by a n im a ls a n d h u m a n s. Also, ir r iga tion w a ter h a s th e poten tia l to lea ch toxic
elem en ts fr om th e soil, per m ittin g th em to
r ea ch dr a in a ge w a ter, th u s en da n ger in g
a qu a tic w ildlife a s a r esu lt. In a ddition to
th ese gen er a l ecologica l effects, th e n eed
exists to con sider per tu r ba tive effects on
cr ops, a n d in ju r y to a n im a ls – especia lly th e
h a za r ds r ela ted to th e in gestion of soil du r in g
gr a zin g, w ith th e possible r esu lta n t a ccu m u la tion effects in th e food ch a in .
It th er efor e becom es per tin en t to detect,
esta blish a n d gr ow pla n t species wh ich a r e
ca pa ble of r em ovin g toxic elem en ts or com pou n ds (Ch u k w u m a , 1993b), wh ich by con cen tr a tin g th em in th ese pla n t tissu es pr even t
th e toxic ch em ica l elem en ts or com pou n ds
fr om r ea ch in g dr a in a ge pon ds. Th is str a te gy
is k n ow n a s ph ytor em edia tion , a n d is of
im por ta n ce in th e clea n in g of sites con ta m in a ted w ith toxic su bsta n ces, su ch a s der elict
m in es su ffu sed w ith ch em ica l elem en ts;
m u n icipa l w a ste h ea ps wh ich h ave th e poten tia l to be h a za r dou s ow in g to th e pr esen ce of
m eta ls, a n d du m p sites for sew a ge slu dge
wh er e m eta ls h ave th e poten tia l to be per tu r ba tive to pla n t, a n im a l a n d h u m a n h ea lth .
Th ese k in ds of pla n ts a r e pa r ticu la r ly a bu n da n t in th e tr opics or su btr opics, possibly
beca u se m eta l a ccu m u la tion pr ovides a
defen sive m ech a n ism a ga in st pla n t-con su m in g a r th r opods a n d m icr obia l pa th ogen s
(Moffa t, 1995). A fu n da m en ta l en vir on m en ta l
pr oblem is a ssocia ted w ith th e a m ou n ts of
a ccu m u la ted ch em ica l elem en ts in pla n t
pa r ts con su m ed a s food.
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
Th e possible con ta m in a tion of a n im a l a n d
h u m a n food by toxic m a ter ia ls is a pa r ticu la r ly u r gen t pr oblem . For a ssu r a n ce of sa fe
qu a lity of th e food-ch a in pr odu cts, it is
im por ta n t to m a k e pr ovision for th e sta n da r diza tion of th e a llow a ble loa din gs of con ta m in a n ts to a gr icu ltu r a l la n d. Ma n y
r esea r ch er s in developed cou n tr ies h ave
r epor ted th a t th er e is a n e ga tive cor r ela tion
in th e yield of va r iou s cr ops a n d th e pollu tion
of ch em ica l elem en ts su ch a s m eta ls. A specific in sta n ce of pla n t pollu tion is u n iqu e a n d
n eeds to be stu died for a specific en vir on m en t
(Ch u k w u m a , 1993b; 1995a ). It is r ecogn isa bly
im por ta n t th a t r esu lts of stu dies ba sed on
sim u la tion -type system s a r e in a dequ a tely
r ela ted to th ose in n a tu r a l system s. Mor eover,
it is n ecessa r y to con sider th e for m s in wh ich
ch em ica l elem en ts a r e distr ibu ted w ith in
pla n t tissu es, beca u se th e for m s of ch em ica l
elem en ts in pla n ts a ppa r en tly play a decisive
r ole in th e tr a n sfer of ch em ica l elem en ts to
oth er or ga n ism s.
Th e in cr ea sin g sign ifica n ce of tr a ce elem en ts in a n im a l a n d h u m a n h ea lth m a k es it
im por ta n t to m on itor va r iou s geogr a ph ica l
a r ea s system a tica lly for th e esta blish m en t of
essen tia l distr ibu tion pa tter n of tr a ce elem en ts in specifi c in dica tor s. For in sta n ce, th e
biom on itor in g of a n im a l tissu es or ea sily
a ccessible pa r ts a n d th e con cen tr a tion of
for a ges is im por ta n t in th e pr ediction of tr a ce
elem en t deficien cies or toxicities in a n im a ls.
Th e dieta r y h a bits of popu la tion s a r e im por ta n t in tr a ce elem en t in ta k e a n d, th er efor e,
th e stu dies of food su r veilla n ce m u st be con sider ed per tin en t in both developin g a n d
developed n a tion s. Th e u tm ost ben efits for
en vir on m en ta l a n d pu blic h ea lth pr oblem s
a r e obta in a ble a t r ela tively r edu ced costs if
th e pr oph yla ctic ch a r a cter istics of essen tia l
tr a ce elem en ts a r e pr u den tly exa m in ed.
The impact of pesticides and
fertilisers
Du r in g th e 1960s a n d 1970s, im pr oved str a in s
of cr ops, in clu din g ir r iga tion a n d th e expa n sive con su m ption of ch em ica l pesticides a n d
fer tilizer s, con sider a bly in cr ea sed wor ld
gr a in pr odu ction . However, pesticides a n d
fer tilizer s a r e cu r r en tly losin g th eir effectiven ess, a n d pollu tion a n d w a ter sh or ta ges a r e
a lso con tr ibu tin g to lower yields. Wh en in itia lly in tr odu ced, pesticides en a bled fa r m er s
to con tr ol weeds w ith th e elim in a tion of
destr u ctive pests. P a r a doxica lly, weeds a n d
in sects h ave in cr ea sin gly becom e r esista n t to
on e type of pesticide or a n oth er. Th is
occu r r ed beca u se th e pesticides h a d been
poison in g th e w ildlife a n d in sects’ n a tu r a l
pr eda tor s a s well a s h u m a n s. Th is h igh ligh ts
som e m a jor en vir on m en ta l pr oblem s, a n d
wh er e th ey a r e m ost cr itica l. A va st m a jor ity
of la n d pollu tion is du e to a tm osph er ic fa llou t, w a ste du m pin g a n d th e side-effects of
h er bicides, a s well a s pesticides a n d fer tiliser s. Defin itely, a loss of h a bita t or oth er em in en t fa ctor s r esu lt in th e dissipa tion of biodiver sity wh ich we m ay n ot a ble to r epa ir. Law n
a n d ga r den ch em ica ls m ay be con tr ibu tor y to
th e h ea lth im pa ir m en t of both a n im a ls a n d
h u m a n s, especia lly ch ildr en . Ch ildr en livin g
n ea r ga r den s wh ich a r e tr ea ted w ith h er bicides or pesticides h ave a n in cr ea sed r isk of
con tr a ctin g sa r com a . Also, th e u se of in secticides in ch ildr en ’s en vir on m en t in cr ea ses th e
r isk of developin g leu k em ia . Ma n y h ou seh olds m ay u n k n ow in gly cr ea te a n en vir on m en t for th eir ch ildr en th a t is da m a gin g to
th eir h ea lth (Ch u k w u m a , 1997).
Impact of chemical elements on
soil, climate, and water quality
E ven th ou gh tr a ce elem en ts con stitu te m in or
com pon en ts of th e solid soil ph a se, th ey a r e
im por ta n t a ctor s in soil fer tility. Well-esta blish ed in for m a tion a s r e ga r ds th e r ela tion of
tr a ce elem en ts w ith specifi c soil ph a ses a n d
elem en ta l a ffin ity to a specific soil
con stitu en t m a k es pr ovision for a better
u n der sta n din g of th e pr in ciples wh ich in flu en ce tr a ce elem en t beh aviou r in soils. Th e soca lled “n or m a l con cen tr a tion s” of tr a ce elem en ts in soils a r e u sefu l a s ba selin e va lu es
r equ ir ed for th e a ssessm en t of th e m a gn itu de
of soil con ta m in a tion (Ch u k w u m a , 1994c;
1995b; 1996a ). Au gm en ted ch em ica l elem en t
levels h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on th e n a tu r a l
r e gu la tion of th e soil biota . In soils h eavily
con ta m in a ted by ch em ica ls or w a stes, th er e
is a decr ea se in th e popu la tion , gr ow th a n d
fu n ction of biota . Collectin g in digen ou s
pla n ts to r eh a bilita te la n d a fter exten sive
m in in g or oth er developm en ta l a ctivity m ay
be r equ ir ed to dea l w ith ba dly pollu ted soils
for th e pr eser va tion of biodiver sity a n d con ser va tion . Also, th e iden tifica tion of pla n t
species w ith th e a bility to a ccu m u la te
selected ch em ica l elem en ts (Ch u k w u m a ,
1993b; Moffa t, 1995) is of in ter est for th e pu r poses of en vir on m en ta l biom on itor in g, especia lly a s it r ela tes to th e m on itor in g of soil
com position .
It is th e per tu r ba tion of biogeoch em ica l
cycles by th e ch em ica l elem en ts r elea sed
ow in g to a n th r opogen ic a ctivities, a n d th e
a lter a tion s r esu ltin g fr om th e ch a n ges of both
fa u n a a n d flor a , wh ich a r e th e pr in cipa l pr oblem s of pollu tion . Th is a lso ta k es in to con sider a tion th e fa ctor s in flu en cin g clim a te
[ 137 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
ch a n ge. An exten sive n u m ber of ch em ica ls
a r e som etim es k n ow in gly or a cciden ta lly
r elea sed in to th e en vir on m en t. Th eir poten tia ls a s pollu ta n ts depen d on th e pr odu ction
r a te of r elea se, th eir en vir on m en ta l de gr a da bility, con cen tr a tion s in th e ecosystem , a n d
or ga n otoxicity. At N ik el a n d Mon ch e gor sk on
th e Kola Pen in su la , n or th of th e Ar ctic Cir cle,
th er e a r e two of th e wor ld’s biggest a n d m ost
a n tiqu a ted n ick el sm elter s wh ich spew m or e
h eavy m eta ls a n d su lph u r dioxide in to th e a ir
a n n u a lly th a n a n y su ch fa ctor ies in Ru ssia .
Th e der elict E n yigba lea d a n d zin c m in e in
N iger ia con ta in s h igh a m ou n ts of ch em ica l
sa lts a n d va r ia ble a m ou n ts of ch em ica l elem en ts wh ich seep in to a dja cen t r u n n in g
w a ter a n d m a k e it u n su ita ble for h ea lth y
con su m ption . Wa ter in th is a r ea con ta in s a n
a bu n da n ce of ch em ica l elem en ts so th a t bor e
h oles a n d wells h ave been fou n d u n pa la ta ble
for dr in k in g or oth er dom estic u se (Ch u k w u m a , 1993a ; 1993b). Th e en vir on m en ta l
im pa cts of th e pollu tion of a n a tu r a l r esou r ce
su ch a s w a ter by a ba n don ed a n d a ctive m in es
a r e in extr ica bly lin k ed to th e econ om ic
im pa cts. Th e r edu ction in w a ter qu a lity
a ffects its ben eficia l u ses w ith a h igh pr ice to
pay (Pen tr ea th , 1994).
Impact of mining and other
industrial activities
In du str ia l a ctivities h ave th e poten tia l to
a u gm en t th e volu m e a n d diver sity of toxic
su bsta n ces a n d or ga n ic m a tter wh ich , lik e
sew a ge, a ct pr in cipa lly in th e fer tilisa tion of
w a ter s to th e exten t wh er e excess gr ow th
r esu lts in deoxygen a tion . Also in clu ded in
th is ca te gor y a r e br ewer y a n d distiller y
w a stes a s well a s th e efflu en ts of sla u gh ter h ou ses a n d lea th er wor k s in clu din g th e
w a stes of m eta l-pr ocessin g, cer a m ics a n d
ch em ica l pla n ts a s well a s m in in g oper a tion s,
wh ich h ave dir ect toxic effects. Min in g m ay
be a com pon en t of econ om ic gr ow th a n d
developm en t, bu t its oper a tion is per tu r ba tive to th e en vir on m en t.
In th e m in in g a r ea s of cer ta in developin g
cou n tr ies, for exa m ple, it is n ot so m u ch th e
paym en t of r oya lty or th e sociopolitics of
depr iva tion th a t is th e wor r y of th e loca l
in h a bita n ts, r a th er it is th a t th e sta n da r ds of
oper a tion s set for th e m in in g com pa n ies a r e
n ot en vir on m en ta lly fr ien dly to clea n u p or
a m elior a te th e im pa cts of oper a tion s a s con du cted in th eir cou n tr ies of or igin a n d oth er
developed m in in g n a tion s. Th e in cr ea se a n d
em er gen ce of in fectiou s disea ses in both th e
h ospita ls a n d com m u n ities of th e m in in g
developin g cou n tr ies a r e m or e du e to la ck of
spa ce, in fr a str u ctu r a l fa cilities, m a n power,
[ 138 ]
a n d fu n ds r a th er th a n ju st a n in cr ea se in
popu la tion gr ow th r a te. In a ddition , solid
w a ste disposa l a n d toxic w a ste disposa l a ssocia ted w ith th e pr odu ction of ch em ica ls, steel,
a sbestos a n d textile m a ter ia ls im pa ct n e ga tively on th e en vir on m en t in m in in g a n d
in du str ia l a r ea s. In th ese in du str ia l a n d m in in g a r ea s, th e en vir on m en t is h igh ly pollu ted
fr om a u tom obile em ission s, pollu tion fr om
fa ctor ies, a n d pover ty, wh ich con tr ibu te to a
sh or ten ed life spa n .
A gr ea t expa n se of la n dsca pe a n d for ests
a r e destr oyed beca u se of excessive m in in g,
r esu ltin g in soil er osion , deser tifica tion
a n d defor esta tion . Soil er osion con tin u es to
da m a ge ou r la n dsca pe, wh ile th e solu tion of
tr ee pla n tin g is w ith in th e com peten ce of th e
com m u n ity lea der s a n d citizen s. Deser tifica tion h a s r ava ged su sceptible pa r ts of th e
globe, bu t gover n m en t r h etor ic pr eclu des a n
im m edia te solu tion to th is pr oblem . Defor esta tion a lon gside in ten sive loggin g r en der s
er osion a n d deser tifica tion possible; bu t con tr ol or pr even tion or th e w ill to r e gr ow tr ees
to pr even t th e deter ior a tion of th e la n dm a ss
by r efor esta tion is a ppa r en tly too difficu lt for
a ffected n a tion s to ca r r y ou t a fter m in in g
oper a tion s. Th e costs of fu el a n d electr icity
con tin u e to be u n m a n a gea ble to th e poor in
th ese a r ea s a s th e sea r ch for su sta in a ble
h a r n essin g of h ydr oelectr ic power con tin u es.
Th e issu e is to fi n d a delica te ba la n ce in or der
to pr om ote developm en t wh ile lim itin g a s
m u ch a s possible th e u n avoida ble im pa ir m en t of cer ta in a spects of th e en vir on m en t.
Th e dom estic a n d globa l tr a ce elem en t
con ta m in a tion of a ir, w a ter, foodstu ffs, a n d
soils gives ca u se for con cer n . E xten sive
a dva n ces h ave been m a de in a r ticu la tin g th e
scien tifi c dim en sion s of h a n dlin g toxic ch em ica ls in th e en vir on m en t. Scien tific k n ow ledge is in existen ce for th e con tr ol of a n y
specific em ission , clea n -u p of a n y specific
du m p, a n d for th e pr otection of th e popu la tion a ga in st a n y specific sou r ce of exposu r e.
Th ese a ction s a r e, h owever, costly in ter m s of
m on ey, tim e a n d m a n power, so th a t th eir
sim u lta n eou s a ch ievem en t r en der s th eir
im plem en ta tion im possible. Th e m a jor
u n cer ta in ties a r e n ot in th e scien tifi c qu estion s bu t in th e policy qu estion s, su ch a s
pr ior ity settin g, sa tisfa ction w ith th e level of
“clea n ” a n d, th e de gr ee of spen din g r equ ir ed
to r estr ict th e en tr y of ch em ica ls in to w a ter
(Lave a n d Upton , 1987). Th er efor e, both th e
en vir on m en ta l a n d econ om ic costs h ave to be
ta k en in to con sider a tion in th e dim en sion of
w a ter pollu tion , tr a ce elem en ts a n d m in in g
oper a tion s. Sever a l pa r ts of th e globe a r e
fa cin g w a ter sca r city du e to cer ta in k in ds of
a gr icu ltu r a l pr a ctices a n d u n su sta in a ble
pr odu ction system s. We n eed a fu tu r e w ith
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
in -depth a dju stm en ts in en vir on m en ta l a n d
m a cr oecon om ic policies both loca lly a n d
globa lly to effectively m a n a ge th ese situ a tion s. A su sta in a ble fu tu r e system n ecessita tes a m or e com pr eh en sive w a ter m a n a gem en t beca u se w a ter a n d w a ter -depen den t
ecosystem s a r e in va lu a ble n a tu r a l r esou r ces
wh ich sa tisfy diver se u ses. Also, th e ecologica l, en vir on m en ta l, socia l a n d h ea lth im pa cts
of th e in la n d w a ter s a n d estu a r ies in m in in g
a n d in du str ia l a r ea s w ith ever -in cr ea sin g
pollu tion cou ld ca u se ser iou s con cer n . Ou r
en vir on m en ta l r esou r ces, su ch a s w a ter, la n d,
a ir a n d biodiver sity m u st be defen ded fr om
a ssa u lts of th e m in er a l in du str y.
The chemical industry and its
epidemiological impact
Th e ch em ica l in du str y n eeds to set th e optim u m cr iter ia for m a n a gem en t a n d per for m a n ce in th e sector s of h ea lth , sa fety a n d th e
en vir on m en t. In stea d of sa fe gu a r din g a ll
in du str ia l a n d a gr icu ltu r a l wor k er s fr om
bein g exposed to da n ger ou s levels of toxic
ch em ica ls, th e ch em ica l in du str y on ly system a tica lly pr eclu des th ose it deem s th e m ost
vu ln er a ble wor k er s, especia lly fer tile wom en ,
fr om th e wor k pla ce a n d sever a l jobs. Th e
ch em ica l in du str y a n d som e of its pr opon en ts
postu la te th a t: a ll life depen ds on ch em ica ls;
n ot a ll ch em ica ls m a de by m a n a r e da n ger ou s; n u m er ou s n a tu r a l ch em ica ls a r e exceedin gly toxic; a n d n a tu r a lly occu r r in g ca r cin ogen s in food con su m ed by m a n h ave gr ea ter
toxicity th a n in du str ia l ca r cin ogen s (Zim m er m a n , 1995).
It h a s, h owever, been dem on str a ted th a t
ch em ists exposed to eleva ted levels of ch em ica ls in th e wor k pla ce exper ien ce va r iou s
de gr ees of ca n cer of th e pa n cr ea s, lym ph a tic
a n d va scu la r system s, a s well a s spon ta n eou s
a bor tion s, bir th defects, low a n d im pa ir ed
sper m pr odu ction . Also, pa ter n a l exposu r e to
va r iou s ch em ica ls h a s been a ssocia ted w ith
ch ildh ood defects or ca n cer. P a ter n a l exposu r e to ca r bon m on oxide a n d polycyclic a r om a tic h ydr oca r bon s h a s been lin k ed w ith
ca r dia c defects in ch ildr en ; lea d (P b) exposu r e lin k ed w ith ch ildh ood ca n cer of th e
k idn ey, oth er w ise ca lled Wilm ’s tu m ou r ; a n d
exposu r e to petr och em ica ls a ssocia ted w ith
ch ildh ood br a in ca n cer. In a ddition , declin e
in sper m pr odu ction h a s been dem on str a ted
in th e gen er a l popu la tion . Th is m ay in dica te
th a t a m bien t levels of toxic ch em ica ls a r e
cu r r en tly eleva ted en ou gh to im pa ir th e
h ea lth of th e popu la tion . Th e ch em ica l in du str y m ay com pla in a bou t th e in cr ea sed econ om ic cost of th e r em edia tion of both th e
wor k pla ce a n d its ch em ica l by-pr odu cts, bu t
th a t wou ld be in com pa r a ble to th e h igh econ om ic cost th a t fa m ily a n d society wou ld
con tin u a lly en visa ge in ca r in g for ph ysica lly
a n d m en ta lly ch a llen ged ch ildr en a n d a du lts
exposed to n efa r iou s ch em ica l a gen ts disch a r ged a t th e wor k pla ce a n d in to th e en vir on m en t.
Th e en vir on m en ta l scien ces h ave r evea led
th e th r ea t of ever -in cr ea sin g pollu tion , especia lly n on -biode gr a da ble ch em ica l pollu tion ,
a n d th is h a s ca u sed ser iou s con cer n th a t it
m ay be con tr ibu tor y to cer ta in pr in cipa l
ch r on ic disea ses, th u s dem a n din g con tin u ou s
su r veilla n ce a n d m on itor in g a ctivities. Th e
u ltim a te goa l of epidem iology is th e pr ovision of in for m a tion th a t lea ds to th e pr even tion of en vir on m en ta l de gr a da tion . Ra tion a l
pr even tion dem a n ds a k n ow ledge of th e ca u se
of en vir on m en ta l a lter a tion . It is im por ta n t to
a ck n ow ledge th a t th e iden tifi ca tion of th e
ca u se of a given en vir on m en ta l pr oblem m ay
n ot, in a n d of itself, be en ou gh to ca u se sign ifica n t pr even tive m ea su r es (Ch u k w u m a ,
1994d).
The extant problems of solid
wastes
In m a n y developin g cou n tr ies, r u bbish collection is ill-pla n n ed. In h igh a n d m iddle in com e
a r ea s m or e th a n in poor a r ea s, th er e is
in cr ea sed collection r a te ow in g to a gr ea ter
va lu e of th e a ctu a l w a ste. Collection is often
n on -existen t in poor a r ea s. Th e la ck of a n
a dequ a te m a n a gem en t system cr ea tes a la r ge
r isk for th e spr ea d of in fection , pa r a sitic a n d
epidem ic disea ses, th r ou gh people in volved
in th e collection of th e w a ste, ch ildr en playin g in th e str eets a n d scaven ger s m a k in g
th eir livin g on th e du m psites. N o system
cu r r en tly exists for h ospita l w a ste disposa l.
All th ese in va r ia bly cu lm in a te in w a ter a n d
la n d de gr a da tion .
E con om ic pr odu ction a n d sever a l oth er
a n th r opogen ic a ctivities gen er a te w a ste.
Most of th ese w a stes a r e r e-in tr odu ced to th e
en vir on m en t a n d ca u se pollu tion . In cr ea sin g
econ om ic gr ow th ca n r esu lt in in cr ea sin g
en vir on m en ta l pollu tion w ith h a r m fu l con sequ en ces for econ om ic pr odu ction a n d h u m a n
h ea lth . In sever a l in sta n ces, th e ca pa city of
th e n a tu r a l en vir on m en t to a bsor b w a stes
m ay be exceeded beca u se of excessive econ om ic pr odu ction . P u blic policy goa l en ta ils
th e m in im isa tion of th e poten tia l h a r m to
h u m a n s a n d/ or th e en vir on m en t, bu t r ecover y of con stitu en ts fr om w a ste in a n envir on m en ta lly sou n d w ay r a th er th a n sen din g
th em im m edia tely for u ltim a te disposa l w ill
con tr ibu te to su sta in a ble developm en t. Th e
disposa l of solid w a stes is a m a jor pr oblem in
[ 139 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
m a n y la r ge cities, a n d m u n icipa l w a stes ca n
in cor por a te h a za r dou s m a ter ia ls.
Most u n w a n ted sew a ge r ea ch es sew a ge
dr a in a ge system s by th eir gen er a tor s, bu t
th ose pollu ta n t m a ter ia ls wh ich con ta in toxic
su bsta n ces a s pa r t of th e efflu en t a r e
fr equ en tly dr a stic on both m icr oor ga n ism s
a n d h igh er or ga n ism s wh ich u su a lly h ave a
sign ifica n t r ole in sew a ge de gr a da tion . A
sign ifica n t r ea lisa tion con cer n in g m u n icipa l
w a stes by th e aver a ge globa l citizen is th a t
sew a ge ser vices a r e a r a r e a n d essen tia l com m odity for m ost of th e popu la tion ; h owever,
a n u n r ea lised fa ct is th a t th er e is a h igh efficien cy a ccor ded to th e m ost a dva n ced sew a ge
system s.
Ow in g to th e n u m er ou s sou r ces of m u n icipa l w a stes, th eir con tr ols a r e u su a lly difficu lt, wh ich su pplem en ts th e a dver se effect of
a ir pollu tion du e to toxic su bsta n ces. Th e
goa ls of a dom estic w a ste m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e in clu de w a ste tr ea tm en t im pr ovem en t, en h a n ced w a ste r ecyclin g, a n d th e
avoida n ce of u n n ecessa r y w a ste pr odu ction .
Wa ste developm en t a n d m a n a gem en t a r e
br oa dly in flu en ced by th e in cr ea sed pr ices for
globa l m a r k et r aw m a ter ia ls a s well a s th e
popu la tion ’s in cr ea sed en vir on m en ta l aw a r en ess, wh ich m ay h ave a su ccessfu l tr a n sfor m a tion in to positive savin g a ction . A n ew ly
developed in du str y for w a ste pr ocessin g a n d
r ecyclin g is en vir on m en ta lly n ecessa r y a n d
pr ofita ble econ om ica lly in m a n y in sta n ces.
On th e oth er h a n d, tech n ocr a tic solu tion s
to tech n ologica l pr oblem s, su ch a s w a ste
pr ocessin g a n d r ecyclin g, som etim es r esu lt in
th e a ccu m u la tion of toxic su bsta n ces wh ich
wou ld n eed specifi c tr ea tm en t a n d, th er efor e,
in cr ea sed costs. Th e pr oblem of th e avoida n ce
of w a ste pr odu ction h a s r ea ch ed em er gen cy
dim en sion s in m a jor cities. Th e w a ste pr oblem does n ot ju st disa ppea r w ith th e closu r e
of r efu se du m ps beca u se of in ter -gen er a tion a l
effects a n d con flicts. Society’s w a stefu l gen er a tion a n d con su m ption m ea n s th a t th e a ccu m u la tion of en vir on m en ta l cost h a s to be
bor n e by pr esen t a n d fu tu r e gen er a tion s. Th e
avoida n ce of u n n ecessa r y w a ste gen er a tion
w ill a id in obvia tin g th e h igh costs. It h a s
been su ggested th a t th e r ecom m en da tion s for
w a ste m a n a gem en t w ill r esu lt in la n dfill levy
a n d in cr ea sed in cin er a tion in con tr a st to codisposa l of h a za r dou s w a ste (Wills, 1995).
The transfer of technology for
hazardous chemical production
Ha za r dou s ch em ica ls or w a stes a r e a n ever in cr ea sin g im m in en t th r ea t to th e globa l
en vir on m en t. In discr im in a te tr a n sfer of
tech n ology for th e pr odu ction of extr em ely
[ 140 ]
h a za r dou s ch em ica ls fr om in du str ia lised to
n on -in du str ia lised cou n tr ies ca n ca u se fr equ en t en vir on m en ta l con ta m in a tion . Th e
situ a tion is extr em ely per tu r bin g in sever a l
developin g cou n tr ies, wh er e a solu tion to
ba sic pr oblem s of w a ter su pplies a n d su ita bly
sou n d sa n ita tion h a s yet to be a ch ieved.
Ow in g to th e a bsen ce of a dequ a te m on itor in g
system s, th e con ta m in a tion of gr ou n d a n d
su r fa ce w a ter s by toxic ch em ica ls is in cr ea sin g in n on -in du str ia lised cou n tr ies. Loca tion
of in du str ies in cr ow ded cities a n d m in es in
n ea r by villa ges wh ich pr odu ce h a za r dou s
ch em ica ls n eeds to be a ba ted in or der to
eva de th e r ecu r r en ce of sever e disa ster n ow
a n d in th e fu tu r e.
In du str ia l developm en t u n der a n y cir cu m sta n ces ca n n ot fu lly su cceed beca u se of th e
m a gn itu de of th e th r ea t to en vir on m en t a n d
society. An in itia l solu tion is th e pr ovision
a n d im plem en ta tion of su ita ble sa fety m ea su r es. An oth er via ble solu tion is n ot to
en cou r a ge in du str ies to tr a n sfer h a r m fu l
tech n ology fr om in du str ia lised n a tion s, pr even tion of u n n ecessa r y m in in g oper a tion s
wh ich w ill a u gm en t th e a n th r opogen ic
sou r ces of ch em ica l elem en ts in th e en vir on m en t, th e r epla cem en t of bor e-h oles in a r ea s
wh ich con ta in toxic con cen tr a tion s of tr a ce
elem en ts w ith pr oper ta p w a ter system s, a n d
str ict r e gu la tor y m ea su r es to a ba te th e h a za r dou s w a ste tr a de.
The extant problems of the
production and disposal of
hazardous wastes
In th e a bsen ce of a u n iver sa l cla r ifica tion
pr ocedu r e, it is n ot ea sy to com pa r e da ta for
toxic a n d h a za r dou s w a stes or ch em ica ls.
Du r in g r ecen t yea r s, con sider a ble in -pu ts
h ave been m a de by differ en t n a tion a l a n d
in ter n a tion a l a gen cies to en u m er a te va r iou s
for m s of h a za r dou s ch em ica ls or w a stes gen er a ted globa lly, a n d th e m a n a gem en t pr ocess
im plem en ted, th ou gh , w ith ou t a gen er a lly
sta n da r dized cla ssifica tion , th e da ta ca n on ly
in dica te th e sor ts a n d qu a n tities of h a za r dou s
w a stes or ch em ica ls gen er a ted a n d h a n dled.
Su r veys n or m a lly in clu de in for m a tion on th e
qu a n tity a n d m a n a gem en t ca pa city of w a stes
or ch em ica ls.
Wor ldw ide, h a lf th e 70,000 ch em ica ls cu r r en tly m a n u fa ctu r ed a r e cla ssified a s toxic.
La ck of da ta m a k es it difficu lt to ca lcu la te th e
wor ldw ide tota l of a n n u a l toxic w a ste pr odu ction . Th er e w ill be in cr ea sed ton s of r a dioa ctive w a ste stor ed in tem por a r y sites by th e
yea r 2000, wh ile cu r r en tly som e a r e bein g
du m ped in th e ocea n s. Ir r espective of th e
yea r s of scien tific r esea r ch , n o on e h a s com e
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
u p w ith a solu tion for sa fe, per m a n en t stor a ge or disposa l, a n d n on e is in th e offin g.
Sta tistics of th e qu a lity, ava ila bility a n d disposa l of th e gen er a tion of w a stes h ave been
extr em ely va r ia ble. In n u m er a ble fa ctor s
lim it dir ect com pa r ison s between w a ste disposa l in va r iou s n a tion s, su ch a s va r ia tion in
m u n icipa l w a ste defin ition , u n clea r distin ction between th e ter m s “w a ste disposa l” a n d
“w a ste gen er a tion ”. F u r th er m or e, ow in g to
th e va r ia ble sou r ces in th e der iva bility of
da ta , dom estic in tr a -tr en d iden tifica tion is
com pr om ised. Th e few ava ila ble da ta fr om
developin g cou n tr ies a r e su ggestive th a t
w a ste disposa l h a s becom e, a n d w ill con tin u e
to be, a n exten sive pr oblem in th e im m edia te
fu tu r e (Ch a r lier a n d Ch a r lier, 1995). Ow in g to
th ese fa ctor s, th e a ssessm en t a n d eva lu a tion
of pu blic policy pr a ctices, a dm in istr a tive
a ction s, le gisla tive a n d ju dicia l decision s to
effect th e globa l tr a n sfer a n d m a n a gem en t of
w a stes h ave n ot been ver y clea r.
La n dfill, in cin er a tion a n d sea du m pin g a r e
in va r ia bly th e w idespr ea d u sed disposa l
option s. In du str ia lised cou n tr ies per iodica lly
ca u se or con tr ibu te to en vir on m en ta l pr oblem s wh ich der a n ge th e n on -in du str ia lised
wor ld. Th e econ om ic a n d socia l costs of com plyin g w ith envir on m en ta l law s in in du str ia lised n a tion s r esu lted in cer ta in m u ltin a tion a l cor por a tion s disposin g of th eir h a za r dou s w a stes in cer ta in developin g cou n tr ies wh ich con flict w ith con su m er, sa fety, or
en vir on m en ta l law s in th e or igin a tin g cou n tr ies. Sever a l r ecipien t n a tion s wer e u n aw a r e
of th e du m pin g, wh er ea s oth er s, in desper a te
a n d ava r iciou s desir e for for eign exch a n ge,
a llowed toxic su bsta n ces in to th ese cou n tr ies
even w ith ou t th e possession of a dequ a te
tr ea tm en t fa cilities.
Th er efor e, in ter n a tion a l h a za r dou s w a ste
tr a n spor ta tion is of two k in ds:
1 tr a n spor ta tion to a r ecogn ized site for
a u th or ized disposa l or tr ea tm en t; a n d
2 ille ga l du m pin g in a n oth er cou n tr y.
N o m a tter th e r ea son for h a za r dou s w a ste
sh ippin g, it con veys a politica lly sen sitive
issu e. Ha za r dou s a n d toxic w a ste disposa l is
cu r r en tly, or w ill becom e, a pr oblem of gr ave
sign ifica n ce in th e n ea r fu tu r e.
Th er efor e, in -depth con cer n s m u st be ba sed
on th e follow in g:
• th e pr oblem s of w a ste disposa l in developin g cou n tr ies;
• th e difficu lties of th e h a za r dou s w a ste
tr a de;
• th e ba la n ce between fr ee tr a de a n d su sta in a bility; a n d
• th e r e gu la tor y issu es a ssocia ted w ith en vir on m en ta l con tr ols in developin g cou n tr ies.
Ch em ica l a n d w a ste pr odu ction is
in cessa n tly gr ow in g wor ldw ide, pa r ticu la r ly
in n on -in du str ia lised n a tion s w ith ou t a dequ a te m ea su r es for disposa l. F u r th er im plem en ta tion of in for m a tion a l a n d edu ca tion a l
pr ogr a m m es, collection sch em es com bin ed
w ith a ppr opr ia tely cu stom -design ed tech n ologies w ill in cr ea se th e a m ou n ts a n d va r iety of r ecycla ble a r ticles. In cr ea sed pu blic
aw a r en ess on w a ste a n d ch em ica l issu es in
th ese a u ster e tim es in developin g cou n tr ies
r equ ir es th e gover n m en t to fu n d r esea r ch
in to a ppr opr ia tely defin ed n ew tech n iqu es of
w a ste r ecla m a tion , r ecyclin g a n d disposa l a s
well a s look in g for possible r e gu la tor y m ea su r es a n d le ga l in str u m en ts on th e h a za r dou s
w a ste tr a de. Th is w ill a r ou se th e in ter est of
in dividu a ls, com m u n ities a n d in du str ia l
con cer n s r esu ltin g in econ om ica lly via ble
developm en t of n ew w a ste disposa l
tech n iqu es a n d ser vices.
Environmental management and
pollution control: a
multidimensional problem
Ir r espective of th e pr oblem , on e of th e pr in cipa l objectives of en vir on m en ta l m a n a gem en t
a n d pollu tion con tr ol is to obvia te str essin g a
va lu ed ecosystem , su ch a s fa r m la n d, for est,
or w ilder n ess beyon d th e lim its of r esilien ce
of th e pa r ticu la r species desir ed to be per petu a ted. An en vir on m en ta l eth ica l pr ocess for
th e fu n da m en ta l aw a r en ess of ou r en vir on m en t is n eeded. E n vir on m en ta l con scien tiou sn ess wou ld a id people of th e wor ld to
sa fe gu a r d th eir en vir on m en t. N a tion a l en vir on m en ta l pr otection a gen cies a n d oth er
gover n m en t bodies ca n a dequ a tely r espon d to
th is issu e if on ly in ter n a l politics a n d dir ect
gover n m en t in ter fer en ce in th e a ctivities of
va r iou s a gen cies do n ot dr a stica lly in h ibit it.
As fa r a s we gen er a lly a ck n ow ledge a t pr esen t, pla n et ea r th is th e on ly pla ce wh er e life
for m s exist. It is im por ta n t to a ctiva te a n d
em power people to en cou r a ge th em to bu ild
a n d m a in ta in th e ca pa city n ecessa r y for su sta in a ble developm en t.
It wou ld th en be possible to pr esen t a lter n a tive u ses of th e en vir on m en t, a n d to pr edict
a n d esta blish th e ba la n ce th a t is r epr esen ta tive of th e optim a l u se of n a tu r a l r esou r ces.
Th is str a te gic a ppr oa ch dem a n ds eva lu a tion
a n d a ssessm en t th a t is ba sed on a su r vey of
en vir on m en ta l con dition s in clu din g th e
poten tia l pr odu ctivity of th e en vir on m en t for
w ildlife, a gr icu ltu r e a n d for estr y, n a tu r a l
bea u ty a n d a m en ity, u r ba n a n d in du str ia l
system s, a n d r aw m a ter ia ls. On th e wh ole,
th is w ill m a k e pr ovision for a ba sis for
th e developm en t of str a te gic a ppr oa ch es in
[ 141 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
[ 142 ]
biom on itor in g of both fa u n a a n d flor a to th e
m a n a gem en t of biologica l diver sity, h ea lth ,
food-ch a in lin k a ge, a ir, soil, a n d w a ter in
both developin g a n d developed n a tion s
(Ch u k w u m a , 1996b).
Th e pr om otion of su sta in a ble developm en t
th r ou gh th e in te gr a tion of en vir on m en ta l
con sider a tion s in to developm en t pla n n in g
a n d m a n a gem en t is a k ey ch a llen ge fa cin g
th e in ter n a tion a l com m u n ity. Th is br in gs to
th e for efr on t th e cen tr a l r ole th e people
dir ectly in volved m u st play in th e decision m a k in g pr ocess. E du ca tion of both pr ofession a ls a n d th e gen er a l pu blic, in dividu a l
m otiva tion a n d m ea n s of en vir on m en ta l pollu tion con tr ol by society a t la r ge a s well a s
gover n m en ta l effor ts m ay be per tin en t. E ven
w ith str in gen t pr even tive m ea su r es, th er e
m ay be vested fin a n cia l in ter ests, oth er cu ltu r a l a n d socioecon om ic fa ctor s lia ble to
fr u str a te en vir on m en ta l pollu tion con tr ol
effor ts, especia lly in th e ch em ica l in du str y
a n d m in in g sector.
Mu ltidisciplin a r y r esea r ch m u st seek to
stim u la te th e scien tific com m u n ity a n d th e
pu blic to ta ke a ction to a ddr ess th e in ter con n ected issu es of globa l envir on m en ta l degr a da tion , popu la tion con tr ol, food issu es, a gr icu ltu r a l sa fety a n d h ea lth , developm en t, occu pa tion a l a n d envir on m en ta l h ea lth , eva lu a tion
of th e con sequ en ces of gover n m en ta l policies
a n d r egu la tion s of in du str ia l pr a ctice, a s well
a s con su m ption w ith a br oa d u n der sta n din g of
globa l envir on m en ta l issu es. Resea r ch in ter ests m u st a lso be involved in com plex m ixtu r es of envir on m en ta l con ta m in a n ts, r isk
distr ibu tion a n d its policy im plica tion s, su sceptible popu la tion s, a n d oth er policy-r eleva n t
a spects of exposu r e a n d r isk a ssessm en t in
dea lin g w ith envir on m en ta l issu es a n d pr even tive str ategies for livin g in a ch em ica l
wor ld. Th is, th er efor e, str etch es in to th e socia l
a n d scien tific dim en sion s of envir on m en ta l
ea r th scien ces a n d geologica l a ctivity.
All th ese n eed to focu s on th e developm en t
of r eview pr ocesses for th e a ssessm en t a n d
eva lu a tion of th e im pa ct of pu blic policy pr a ctices, le gisla tion , a dm in istr a tive pr ocedu r es
a n d a ction s, a s well a s ju dicia l decision s for
th e pr ovision of str a te gic a ppr oa ch es for
fu tu r e dom estic a n d globa l policies a n d th eir
con sequ en ces (Ch u k w u m a , 1996b). Mor eover,
in ter est w ill be la id on developin g com m u n ity effor ts on pr en or m a tive a n d pr e-le gisla tive a spects for th e fa cilita tion of policy a n d
a ction in r ela tion to th e en vir on m en t a n d
su sta in a ble developm en t.
Ir r espective of th e dir e r equ ir em en t
for in cr ea sin g va r ieties of en vir on m en ta l
specia lists in design in g pr otocols a n d to
co-oper a te togeth er a s a tea m in in ter n a tion a l
a n d dom estic en vir on m en ta l pr otection , it
m u st be r ecogn ized th a t a tea m a ppr oa ch
m ay n ot be cu r r en tly pr a ctica ble. In sever a l
section s of both developin g a n d developed
cou n tr ies th er e a r e n ot su fficien t or wellgr oom ed en vir on m en ta l specia lists, m oder n
tech n ology, differ en t m in d-sets a cr oss disciplin es, etc. to per for m optim u m en vir on m en ta l clea n -u p a dequ a tely, for in sta n ce. Despite
th is difficu lty, th e m u ltidisciplin a r y a ppr oa ch
n eeds a da pta tion a s w idely a s possible,
a lbeit, con textu a lly to th e pr eva ilin g en vir on m en ta l pr oblem . Th e su ccess of a n y en vir on m en ta l pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t m u st to
a gr ea t exten t depen d on h u m a n r ela tion s.
Discussion and conclusion
E n vir on m en ta l issu es for m a la r ge gr ou p of
pr oblem s of va r yin g in ciden ce, site, exten t,
ca u ses a n d su ita bility of en vir on m en ta l a n d
n a tu r a l r esou r ce u se a n d r ecla m a tion or
r em edia tion , a m on gst oth er s. Th is va r ia bility
of fea tu r es, ch a r a cter izin g en vir on m en ta l
de gr a da tion tr a dition a lly design a ted by a
com m on ter m , a n d th e va r ia bility of m eth ods
u sed for th eir pr even tion a n d con tr ol n ecessita tes a collective a ppr oa ch to a ll pr oblem s
a ssocia ted w ith th e pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t of ou r en vir on m en t. Th ese fa ctor s
sh ou ld en cou r a ge a m u ltim oda l tea m
a ppr oa ch to th e m oder n a ppr oa ch for th e
con tr ol a n d pr even tion of en vir on m en ta l
pollu tion . It is a ppa r en t th a t in th e fu tu r e, a
m u ltim oda l a ppr oa ch w ill m a k e sign ifica n t
im pa ct on ou r en vir on m en t.
Specia l in ter est m u st be ba sed on th e
dyn a m ics of stu dyin g a cr oss disciplin a r y
bou n da r ies a s r ela ted to envir on m en t a n d
developm en t. Con tr ibu tion m u st n ot be con fin ed to envir on m en ta l scien ce, per se, bu t to
see disea se a s m u ch a s a m a tter of pover ty,
ign or a n ce a n d in ju stice a s well a s politica l
econ om y of envir on m en ta l degr a da tion a n d
socia l welfa r e. Th e deva sta tin g im pa cts of
econ om ic developm en t a s it is in gen er a l con ceived a n d pr om oted w ith th e in tr odu ction of
toxic ch em ica l elem en ts in to th e envir on m en t, a n d th e r ela tion sh ips of debt, str u ctu r a l
a dju stm en t pr ogr a m m es a n d popu lation displa cem en ts m u st be a ck n ow ledged to defin e
pr oblem s r ela ted to envir on m en ta l issu es.
Th e wor ld is a r a pidly ch a n gin g pla ce, a n d
th er e is a n eed to r espon d to th e n ew ch a llen ges a n d oppor tu n ities. Th is is m or e eviden t in r ecogn isin g th e pa ce of popu la tion
gr ow th in poor r e gion s w ith th e n eed to
in cr ea se food pr odu ction in fr ien dly en vir on m en ts a n d a lso in en vir on m en ts per fu sed
w ith h igh levels of ch em ica ls. Th u s, close
a tten tion m u st be a ccor ded to th e ecologica l,
politica l, econ om ic a n d sociologica l r ea lities
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
wh ich im pa ct on th e pr odu ctivity of food
pr odu cer s wor ldw ide. Con cer n ed citizen s of
th e wor ld m u st a ddr ess w idespr ea d con cer n s
a bou t biodiver sity, soil de gr a da tion , a n d th e
qu a lity of pr ojects on en vir on m en ta l, a gr icu ltu r a l a n d n a tu r a l r esou r ces cr itica l to th e
h ea lth , sa fety, su ccess a n d fu tu r e h u m a n
wellbein g in a ch em ica l wor ld, a s we en ter th e
twen ty-fir st cen tu r y.
References
Ch a r lier, R.H. a n d Ch a r lier, C.C.P. (1995), “Su sta in a ble m u ltiple-u se a n d m a n a gem en t of th e
coa sta l zon e”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t
a n d Hea lth , Vol. 6 N o. 1, pp. 14-24.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1993a ), “Com pa r ison of th e
a ccu m u la tion of ca dm iu m , lea d, a n d zin c in
edible a n d w ild pla n t species in th e der elict
E n yigba -Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e, N iger ia ”, T ox icologica l a n d En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 38, pp. 167-73.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1993b), “Ca dm iu m , lea d, a n d
zin c fr om ter r estr ia l pla n ts in th e E n yigba Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e: sea r ch for a
m on itor in g pla n t species in tr a ce elem en t
distr ibu tion ”, B u lletin of En viron m en ta l
Con ta m in a tion a n d T ox icolog y, Vol. 51 N o. 5,
pp. 665-71.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994a ), “E n vir on m en t a n d
developm en t: a ppr oa ch es to str a te gies for th e
im pr ovem en t of h u m a n wellbein g in Aba k a lik i a r ea , N iger ia ”, En viron m en ta l Con ser va tion , Vol. 21 N o. 4, pp. 359-61.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994b), “Con ta m in a tion of soils
a n d r ice by h eavy m eta ls in th e E n yigba Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e, N iger ia ”, T ox icolog y a n d En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 41,
pp. 125-30.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994c), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for lea d (P b) a n d ca dm iu m (Cd) in r ice,
ya m , ca ssava , a n d gu in ea gr a ss fr om cu ltiva ted soils in N iger ia ”, T ox icologica l a n d
En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 45, pp. 45-56.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994d), “E n vir on m en t a n d
developm en t: a socia l eva lu a tion su r vey in
N iger ia in 1992”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of
En viron m en ta l Ed u ca tion a n d In for m a tion ,
Vol. 13 N o. 2, pp. 183-208.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1995a ), “A com pa r a tive stu dy of
ca dm iu m , lea d, zin c, pH, a n d bu lk den sity
fr om th e E n yigba lea d a n d zin c m in e in two
differ en t sea son s”, Ecotox icolog y a n d En viron m en ta l S a fety, Vol. 31 N o. 3, pp. 246-9.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1995b), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for copper, m a n ga n ese, n ick el, a n d zin c
in r ice, ya m , ca ssava , a n d gu in ea gr a ss fr om
cu ltiva ted soils in N iger ia ”, A gr icu ltu re,
Ecosystem s & En viron m en t, Vol. 53 N o. 1,
pp. 47-61.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1996a ), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for tr a ce elem en ts, pH, or ga n ic m a tter
con ten t, a n d bu lk den sity in a gr icu ltu r a l soils
in N iger ia ”, Wa ter, A ir, a n d S oil Pollu tion ,
Vol. 86 N os 1-4, pp. 13-34.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1996b), “Per spectives for a
su sta in a ble society”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t a n d Hea lth , Vol. 7 N o. 5, pp. 6-20.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1997), “E n vir on m en ta l lea d
exposu r e in Afr ica ”, A m b io, Vol. 26 N o. 6,
pp. 399-403.
Lave, L.B. a n d Upton , A.C. (1987), “Re gu la tin g
toxic ch em ica ls in th e en vir on m en t”, in Lave,
L.B. a n d Upton , A.C. (E ds), T ox ic Ch em ica ls,
Hea lth a n d th e En viron m en t, Th e J oh n s Hopk in s Un iver sity P r ess, Ba ltim or e, MA, p. 280.
Moffa t, A.S. (1995), “P la n ts pr ovin g th eir
wor th in toxic m eta l clea n u p”, S cien ce,
Vol. 269 N o. 5222, pp. 302-3.
Pen tr ea th , R.J . (1994), “Disch a r ge of w a ter s fr om
a ctive a n d a ba n don ed m in es”, in Hester, R.E .
a n d Ha r r ison , R.M. (E ds), M in in g a n d Its
En viron m en ta l Im pa ct. Issu es in En viron m en ta l S cien ce a n d T ech n olog y, Roya l Society of
Ch em istr y, Ca m br idge, pp. 121-31.
Wills, J . (1995), “Ma n a gin g ou r w a stes”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t a n d Hea lth , Vol. 6 N o. 1,
pp. 25-8.
Zim m er m a n , M. (1995), S cien ce, N on scien ce, a n d
N on sen se: A pproa ch in g En viron m en ta l L iter a cy, Th e J oh n s Hopk in s P
need for a multidimensional approach in
environmental safety, health and management
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Ce ntre fo r Future -o rie nte d Studie s, Ebo nyi State , Nige ria
Environmental issues are
diverse and result from different factors and situations.
These call for a multidimensional approach to combat
environmental perturbation
with respect to the presenting
noxious factors, such as toxic
chemical elements and
wastes from diverse anthropogenic activities. The continued success of certain environmental programmes in the
developed parts of the world
and the continuing refi nement of our environmental
objectives in a contextually
designed sustainable development, coupled with signifi cant additional knowledge in
environmental planning and
management have all led to
the decision for a global
concerted effort to maintain
and sustain our environment
for the health and safety of
present and future generations. However, these objectives are not strongly undergirded in non-industrialized
parts of the world, and are
not wholly supported by the
chemical industries and other
interests because they lack
the will and dedication to
realise that economics and
environmental management
as well as health and safety
are inextricably linked.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [ 1998] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[ 136 ]
Introduction
Alter a tion s in biodiver sity in ter a ct in com plex w ays w ith th e en vir on m en t, a n d th e
effects a r e often ca u se for con cer n . Alth ou gh
th ese a r e eviden t globa lly, th e eviden ce is
m or e so for econ om ica lly developin g n a tion s.
E n vir on m en ta l issu es in both developed a n d
developin g n a tion s h ave pr opelled dem a n d
for r efor m a n d deba te a bou t th e str u ctu r e of
th a t r efor m . Th er e a r e possible con sequ en ces
of too-h a sty a n d ill-a dvised ch a n ges a s well a s
n e glect. Th er e ca n be n o dou bt th a t a k n ow ledge of en vir on m en ta l im per a tives is
becom in g of in cr ea sin g im por ta n ce to politica l lea der s th r ou gh ou t th e wor ld. Th e ch a n gin g pa tter n s of disea se in ciden ce or em er gen ce, follow in g ch a n ges in livin g sta n da r ds
a n d pu blic h ea lth ser vices, a s well a s a lter a tion s in ou r ecosystem a ffectin g a ctivities
involvin g a ir, soil, a n d w a ter, r evea l th e
im por ta n ce of en vir on m en ta l der a n gem en t
a s ca u ses of decr ea sed su sta in a ble developm en t (Ch u k w u m a , 1994a ). If th e wor ld’s
people a r e to r ecogn ize th ese con dition s a t
th e ea r liest oppor tu n ity a n d a dvise on pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t of ou r en vir on m en t,
th ey m u st be fa m ilia r n ot on ly w ith scien tifi c
a n d en gin eer in g pr a ctices, bu t a lso w ith th e
gen er a l socia l pr in ciples on wh ich th e pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t a r e ba sed. Th ese a r e
so im por ta n t th a t th ey m u st be a ssim ila ted
a n d becom e a n in te gr a l pa r t of ou r lives. A
gen er a l la ck of in ter est a n d/ or ign or a n ce
per va des th e a ttitu de of a va st m a jor ity of
people a s r e ga r ds th e en vir on m en t.
Most pa r ts of th e wor ld, especia lly in developin g cou n tr ies, a r e in sea r ch of solu tion s to
th eir en vir on m en ta l cr isis. Th e solu tion s a r e
obta in a ble given th e r igh t lea der sh ip a n d
citizen aw a r en ess. Th ese people a r e fa ced
w ith ser iou s econ om ic str ess; bu t th e econ om y ca n be r estr u ctu r ed a n d r econ str u cted
so well to a tta in r ecover y. Wh ile th eir politics
a n d econ om y ca n u n der go u n for etold de gen er a tion , th is ca n n ot be a llowed to h a m per ou r
en vir on m en t. It is n ot pr u den t to per m it ou r
en vir on m en t to be defer r ed ta k in g in to con sider a tion pr esen t a n d fu tu r e gen er a tion s. An
u n tow a r d im pa ct on th e en vir on m en t by
ch em ica l elem en ts ca n be per m a n en t w ith
r esu lta n t m or ta lity a n d dissipa tion of both
fa u n a a n d flor a .
Impact of chemical elements on
food quality
At th e pr esen t tim e th a t food pr odu ction a n d
en vir on m en ta l qu a lity a r e of m a jor globa l
con cer n , a m u ch better u n der sta n din g of th e
beh aviou r of ch em ica l elem en ts in th e soilpla n t system m u st be of u tm ost sign ifi ca n ce
(Ch u k w u m a , 1993a ). Soil con ta m in a ted w ith
h eavy m eta ls (Ch u k w u m a , 1994b), for
in sta n ce, ca n pr odu ce cr ops wh ich look n or m a l in a ppea r a n ce, bu t a r e u n sa fe for con su m ption by a n im a ls a n d h u m a n s. Also, ir r iga tion w a ter h a s th e poten tia l to lea ch toxic
elem en ts fr om th e soil, per m ittin g th em to
r ea ch dr a in a ge w a ter, th u s en da n ger in g
a qu a tic w ildlife a s a r esu lt. In a ddition to
th ese gen er a l ecologica l effects, th e n eed
exists to con sider per tu r ba tive effects on
cr ops, a n d in ju r y to a n im a ls – especia lly th e
h a za r ds r ela ted to th e in gestion of soil du r in g
gr a zin g, w ith th e possible r esu lta n t a ccu m u la tion effects in th e food ch a in .
It th er efor e becom es per tin en t to detect,
esta blish a n d gr ow pla n t species wh ich a r e
ca pa ble of r em ovin g toxic elem en ts or com pou n ds (Ch u k w u m a , 1993b), wh ich by con cen tr a tin g th em in th ese pla n t tissu es pr even t
th e toxic ch em ica l elem en ts or com pou n ds
fr om r ea ch in g dr a in a ge pon ds. Th is str a te gy
is k n ow n a s ph ytor em edia tion , a n d is of
im por ta n ce in th e clea n in g of sites con ta m in a ted w ith toxic su bsta n ces, su ch a s der elict
m in es su ffu sed w ith ch em ica l elem en ts;
m u n icipa l w a ste h ea ps wh ich h ave th e poten tia l to be h a za r dou s ow in g to th e pr esen ce of
m eta ls, a n d du m p sites for sew a ge slu dge
wh er e m eta ls h ave th e poten tia l to be per tu r ba tive to pla n t, a n im a l a n d h u m a n h ea lth .
Th ese k in ds of pla n ts a r e pa r ticu la r ly a bu n da n t in th e tr opics or su btr opics, possibly
beca u se m eta l a ccu m u la tion pr ovides a
defen sive m ech a n ism a ga in st pla n t-con su m in g a r th r opods a n d m icr obia l pa th ogen s
(Moffa t, 1995). A fu n da m en ta l en vir on m en ta l
pr oblem is a ssocia ted w ith th e a m ou n ts of
a ccu m u la ted ch em ica l elem en ts in pla n t
pa r ts con su m ed a s food.
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
Th e possible con ta m in a tion of a n im a l a n d
h u m a n food by toxic m a ter ia ls is a pa r ticu la r ly u r gen t pr oblem . For a ssu r a n ce of sa fe
qu a lity of th e food-ch a in pr odu cts, it is
im por ta n t to m a k e pr ovision for th e sta n da r diza tion of th e a llow a ble loa din gs of con ta m in a n ts to a gr icu ltu r a l la n d. Ma n y
r esea r ch er s in developed cou n tr ies h ave
r epor ted th a t th er e is a n e ga tive cor r ela tion
in th e yield of va r iou s cr ops a n d th e pollu tion
of ch em ica l elem en ts su ch a s m eta ls. A specific in sta n ce of pla n t pollu tion is u n iqu e a n d
n eeds to be stu died for a specific en vir on m en t
(Ch u k w u m a , 1993b; 1995a ). It is r ecogn isa bly
im por ta n t th a t r esu lts of stu dies ba sed on
sim u la tion -type system s a r e in a dequ a tely
r ela ted to th ose in n a tu r a l system s. Mor eover,
it is n ecessa r y to con sider th e for m s in wh ich
ch em ica l elem en ts a r e distr ibu ted w ith in
pla n t tissu es, beca u se th e for m s of ch em ica l
elem en ts in pla n ts a ppa r en tly play a decisive
r ole in th e tr a n sfer of ch em ica l elem en ts to
oth er or ga n ism s.
Th e in cr ea sin g sign ifica n ce of tr a ce elem en ts in a n im a l a n d h u m a n h ea lth m a k es it
im por ta n t to m on itor va r iou s geogr a ph ica l
a r ea s system a tica lly for th e esta blish m en t of
essen tia l distr ibu tion pa tter n of tr a ce elem en ts in specifi c in dica tor s. For in sta n ce, th e
biom on itor in g of a n im a l tissu es or ea sily
a ccessible pa r ts a n d th e con cen tr a tion of
for a ges is im por ta n t in th e pr ediction of tr a ce
elem en t deficien cies or toxicities in a n im a ls.
Th e dieta r y h a bits of popu la tion s a r e im por ta n t in tr a ce elem en t in ta k e a n d, th er efor e,
th e stu dies of food su r veilla n ce m u st be con sider ed per tin en t in both developin g a n d
developed n a tion s. Th e u tm ost ben efits for
en vir on m en ta l a n d pu blic h ea lth pr oblem s
a r e obta in a ble a t r ela tively r edu ced costs if
th e pr oph yla ctic ch a r a cter istics of essen tia l
tr a ce elem en ts a r e pr u den tly exa m in ed.
The impact of pesticides and
fertilisers
Du r in g th e 1960s a n d 1970s, im pr oved str a in s
of cr ops, in clu din g ir r iga tion a n d th e expa n sive con su m ption of ch em ica l pesticides a n d
fer tilizer s, con sider a bly in cr ea sed wor ld
gr a in pr odu ction . However, pesticides a n d
fer tilizer s a r e cu r r en tly losin g th eir effectiven ess, a n d pollu tion a n d w a ter sh or ta ges a r e
a lso con tr ibu tin g to lower yields. Wh en in itia lly in tr odu ced, pesticides en a bled fa r m er s
to con tr ol weeds w ith th e elim in a tion of
destr u ctive pests. P a r a doxica lly, weeds a n d
in sects h ave in cr ea sin gly becom e r esista n t to
on e type of pesticide or a n oth er. Th is
occu r r ed beca u se th e pesticides h a d been
poison in g th e w ildlife a n d in sects’ n a tu r a l
pr eda tor s a s well a s h u m a n s. Th is h igh ligh ts
som e m a jor en vir on m en ta l pr oblem s, a n d
wh er e th ey a r e m ost cr itica l. A va st m a jor ity
of la n d pollu tion is du e to a tm osph er ic fa llou t, w a ste du m pin g a n d th e side-effects of
h er bicides, a s well a s pesticides a n d fer tiliser s. Defin itely, a loss of h a bita t or oth er em in en t fa ctor s r esu lt in th e dissipa tion of biodiver sity wh ich we m ay n ot a ble to r epa ir. Law n
a n d ga r den ch em ica ls m ay be con tr ibu tor y to
th e h ea lth im pa ir m en t of both a n im a ls a n d
h u m a n s, especia lly ch ildr en . Ch ildr en livin g
n ea r ga r den s wh ich a r e tr ea ted w ith h er bicides or pesticides h ave a n in cr ea sed r isk of
con tr a ctin g sa r com a . Also, th e u se of in secticides in ch ildr en ’s en vir on m en t in cr ea ses th e
r isk of developin g leu k em ia . Ma n y h ou seh olds m ay u n k n ow in gly cr ea te a n en vir on m en t for th eir ch ildr en th a t is da m a gin g to
th eir h ea lth (Ch u k w u m a , 1997).
Impact of chemical elements on
soil, climate, and water quality
E ven th ou gh tr a ce elem en ts con stitu te m in or
com pon en ts of th e solid soil ph a se, th ey a r e
im por ta n t a ctor s in soil fer tility. Well-esta blish ed in for m a tion a s r e ga r ds th e r ela tion of
tr a ce elem en ts w ith specifi c soil ph a ses a n d
elem en ta l a ffin ity to a specific soil
con stitu en t m a k es pr ovision for a better
u n der sta n din g of th e pr in ciples wh ich in flu en ce tr a ce elem en t beh aviou r in soils. Th e soca lled “n or m a l con cen tr a tion s” of tr a ce elem en ts in soils a r e u sefu l a s ba selin e va lu es
r equ ir ed for th e a ssessm en t of th e m a gn itu de
of soil con ta m in a tion (Ch u k w u m a , 1994c;
1995b; 1996a ). Au gm en ted ch em ica l elem en t
levels h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on th e n a tu r a l
r e gu la tion of th e soil biota . In soils h eavily
con ta m in a ted by ch em ica ls or w a stes, th er e
is a decr ea se in th e popu la tion , gr ow th a n d
fu n ction of biota . Collectin g in digen ou s
pla n ts to r eh a bilita te la n d a fter exten sive
m in in g or oth er developm en ta l a ctivity m ay
be r equ ir ed to dea l w ith ba dly pollu ted soils
for th e pr eser va tion of biodiver sity a n d con ser va tion . Also, th e iden tifica tion of pla n t
species w ith th e a bility to a ccu m u la te
selected ch em ica l elem en ts (Ch u k w u m a ,
1993b; Moffa t, 1995) is of in ter est for th e pu r poses of en vir on m en ta l biom on itor in g, especia lly a s it r ela tes to th e m on itor in g of soil
com position .
It is th e per tu r ba tion of biogeoch em ica l
cycles by th e ch em ica l elem en ts r elea sed
ow in g to a n th r opogen ic a ctivities, a n d th e
a lter a tion s r esu ltin g fr om th e ch a n ges of both
fa u n a a n d flor a , wh ich a r e th e pr in cipa l pr oblem s of pollu tion . Th is a lso ta k es in to con sider a tion th e fa ctor s in flu en cin g clim a te
[ 137 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
ch a n ge. An exten sive n u m ber of ch em ica ls
a r e som etim es k n ow in gly or a cciden ta lly
r elea sed in to th e en vir on m en t. Th eir poten tia ls a s pollu ta n ts depen d on th e pr odu ction
r a te of r elea se, th eir en vir on m en ta l de gr a da bility, con cen tr a tion s in th e ecosystem , a n d
or ga n otoxicity. At N ik el a n d Mon ch e gor sk on
th e Kola Pen in su la , n or th of th e Ar ctic Cir cle,
th er e a r e two of th e wor ld’s biggest a n d m ost
a n tiqu a ted n ick el sm elter s wh ich spew m or e
h eavy m eta ls a n d su lph u r dioxide in to th e a ir
a n n u a lly th a n a n y su ch fa ctor ies in Ru ssia .
Th e der elict E n yigba lea d a n d zin c m in e in
N iger ia con ta in s h igh a m ou n ts of ch em ica l
sa lts a n d va r ia ble a m ou n ts of ch em ica l elem en ts wh ich seep in to a dja cen t r u n n in g
w a ter a n d m a k e it u n su ita ble for h ea lth y
con su m ption . Wa ter in th is a r ea con ta in s a n
a bu n da n ce of ch em ica l elem en ts so th a t bor e
h oles a n d wells h ave been fou n d u n pa la ta ble
for dr in k in g or oth er dom estic u se (Ch u k w u m a , 1993a ; 1993b). Th e en vir on m en ta l
im pa cts of th e pollu tion of a n a tu r a l r esou r ce
su ch a s w a ter by a ba n don ed a n d a ctive m in es
a r e in extr ica bly lin k ed to th e econ om ic
im pa cts. Th e r edu ction in w a ter qu a lity
a ffects its ben eficia l u ses w ith a h igh pr ice to
pay (Pen tr ea th , 1994).
Impact of mining and other
industrial activities
In du str ia l a ctivities h ave th e poten tia l to
a u gm en t th e volu m e a n d diver sity of toxic
su bsta n ces a n d or ga n ic m a tter wh ich , lik e
sew a ge, a ct pr in cipa lly in th e fer tilisa tion of
w a ter s to th e exten t wh er e excess gr ow th
r esu lts in deoxygen a tion . Also in clu ded in
th is ca te gor y a r e br ewer y a n d distiller y
w a stes a s well a s th e efflu en ts of sla u gh ter h ou ses a n d lea th er wor k s in clu din g th e
w a stes of m eta l-pr ocessin g, cer a m ics a n d
ch em ica l pla n ts a s well a s m in in g oper a tion s,
wh ich h ave dir ect toxic effects. Min in g m ay
be a com pon en t of econ om ic gr ow th a n d
developm en t, bu t its oper a tion is per tu r ba tive to th e en vir on m en t.
In th e m in in g a r ea s of cer ta in developin g
cou n tr ies, for exa m ple, it is n ot so m u ch th e
paym en t of r oya lty or th e sociopolitics of
depr iva tion th a t is th e wor r y of th e loca l
in h a bita n ts, r a th er it is th a t th e sta n da r ds of
oper a tion s set for th e m in in g com pa n ies a r e
n ot en vir on m en ta lly fr ien dly to clea n u p or
a m elior a te th e im pa cts of oper a tion s a s con du cted in th eir cou n tr ies of or igin a n d oth er
developed m in in g n a tion s. Th e in cr ea se a n d
em er gen ce of in fectiou s disea ses in both th e
h ospita ls a n d com m u n ities of th e m in in g
developin g cou n tr ies a r e m or e du e to la ck of
spa ce, in fr a str u ctu r a l fa cilities, m a n power,
[ 138 ]
a n d fu n ds r a th er th a n ju st a n in cr ea se in
popu la tion gr ow th r a te. In a ddition , solid
w a ste disposa l a n d toxic w a ste disposa l a ssocia ted w ith th e pr odu ction of ch em ica ls, steel,
a sbestos a n d textile m a ter ia ls im pa ct n e ga tively on th e en vir on m en t in m in in g a n d
in du str ia l a r ea s. In th ese in du str ia l a n d m in in g a r ea s, th e en vir on m en t is h igh ly pollu ted
fr om a u tom obile em ission s, pollu tion fr om
fa ctor ies, a n d pover ty, wh ich con tr ibu te to a
sh or ten ed life spa n .
A gr ea t expa n se of la n dsca pe a n d for ests
a r e destr oyed beca u se of excessive m in in g,
r esu ltin g in soil er osion , deser tifica tion
a n d defor esta tion . Soil er osion con tin u es to
da m a ge ou r la n dsca pe, wh ile th e solu tion of
tr ee pla n tin g is w ith in th e com peten ce of th e
com m u n ity lea der s a n d citizen s. Deser tifica tion h a s r ava ged su sceptible pa r ts of th e
globe, bu t gover n m en t r h etor ic pr eclu des a n
im m edia te solu tion to th is pr oblem . Defor esta tion a lon gside in ten sive loggin g r en der s
er osion a n d deser tifica tion possible; bu t con tr ol or pr even tion or th e w ill to r e gr ow tr ees
to pr even t th e deter ior a tion of th e la n dm a ss
by r efor esta tion is a ppa r en tly too difficu lt for
a ffected n a tion s to ca r r y ou t a fter m in in g
oper a tion s. Th e costs of fu el a n d electr icity
con tin u e to be u n m a n a gea ble to th e poor in
th ese a r ea s a s th e sea r ch for su sta in a ble
h a r n essin g of h ydr oelectr ic power con tin u es.
Th e issu e is to fi n d a delica te ba la n ce in or der
to pr om ote developm en t wh ile lim itin g a s
m u ch a s possible th e u n avoida ble im pa ir m en t of cer ta in a spects of th e en vir on m en t.
Th e dom estic a n d globa l tr a ce elem en t
con ta m in a tion of a ir, w a ter, foodstu ffs, a n d
soils gives ca u se for con cer n . E xten sive
a dva n ces h ave been m a de in a r ticu la tin g th e
scien tifi c dim en sion s of h a n dlin g toxic ch em ica ls in th e en vir on m en t. Scien tific k n ow ledge is in existen ce for th e con tr ol of a n y
specific em ission , clea n -u p of a n y specific
du m p, a n d for th e pr otection of th e popu la tion a ga in st a n y specific sou r ce of exposu r e.
Th ese a ction s a r e, h owever, costly in ter m s of
m on ey, tim e a n d m a n power, so th a t th eir
sim u lta n eou s a ch ievem en t r en der s th eir
im plem en ta tion im possible. Th e m a jor
u n cer ta in ties a r e n ot in th e scien tifi c qu estion s bu t in th e policy qu estion s, su ch a s
pr ior ity settin g, sa tisfa ction w ith th e level of
“clea n ” a n d, th e de gr ee of spen din g r equ ir ed
to r estr ict th e en tr y of ch em ica ls in to w a ter
(Lave a n d Upton , 1987). Th er efor e, both th e
en vir on m en ta l a n d econ om ic costs h ave to be
ta k en in to con sider a tion in th e dim en sion of
w a ter pollu tion , tr a ce elem en ts a n d m in in g
oper a tion s. Sever a l pa r ts of th e globe a r e
fa cin g w a ter sca r city du e to cer ta in k in ds of
a gr icu ltu r a l pr a ctices a n d u n su sta in a ble
pr odu ction system s. We n eed a fu tu r e w ith
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
in -depth a dju stm en ts in en vir on m en ta l a n d
m a cr oecon om ic policies both loca lly a n d
globa lly to effectively m a n a ge th ese situ a tion s. A su sta in a ble fu tu r e system n ecessita tes a m or e com pr eh en sive w a ter m a n a gem en t beca u se w a ter a n d w a ter -depen den t
ecosystem s a r e in va lu a ble n a tu r a l r esou r ces
wh ich sa tisfy diver se u ses. Also, th e ecologica l, en vir on m en ta l, socia l a n d h ea lth im pa cts
of th e in la n d w a ter s a n d estu a r ies in m in in g
a n d in du str ia l a r ea s w ith ever -in cr ea sin g
pollu tion cou ld ca u se ser iou s con cer n . Ou r
en vir on m en ta l r esou r ces, su ch a s w a ter, la n d,
a ir a n d biodiver sity m u st be defen ded fr om
a ssa u lts of th e m in er a l in du str y.
The chemical industry and its
epidemiological impact
Th e ch em ica l in du str y n eeds to set th e optim u m cr iter ia for m a n a gem en t a n d per for m a n ce in th e sector s of h ea lth , sa fety a n d th e
en vir on m en t. In stea d of sa fe gu a r din g a ll
in du str ia l a n d a gr icu ltu r a l wor k er s fr om
bein g exposed to da n ger ou s levels of toxic
ch em ica ls, th e ch em ica l in du str y on ly system a tica lly pr eclu des th ose it deem s th e m ost
vu ln er a ble wor k er s, especia lly fer tile wom en ,
fr om th e wor k pla ce a n d sever a l jobs. Th e
ch em ica l in du str y a n d som e of its pr opon en ts
postu la te th a t: a ll life depen ds on ch em ica ls;
n ot a ll ch em ica ls m a de by m a n a r e da n ger ou s; n u m er ou s n a tu r a l ch em ica ls a r e exceedin gly toxic; a n d n a tu r a lly occu r r in g ca r cin ogen s in food con su m ed by m a n h ave gr ea ter
toxicity th a n in du str ia l ca r cin ogen s (Zim m er m a n , 1995).
It h a s, h owever, been dem on str a ted th a t
ch em ists exposed to eleva ted levels of ch em ica ls in th e wor k pla ce exper ien ce va r iou s
de gr ees of ca n cer of th e pa n cr ea s, lym ph a tic
a n d va scu la r system s, a s well a s spon ta n eou s
a bor tion s, bir th defects, low a n d im pa ir ed
sper m pr odu ction . Also, pa ter n a l exposu r e to
va r iou s ch em ica ls h a s been a ssocia ted w ith
ch ildh ood defects or ca n cer. P a ter n a l exposu r e to ca r bon m on oxide a n d polycyclic a r om a tic h ydr oca r bon s h a s been lin k ed w ith
ca r dia c defects in ch ildr en ; lea d (P b) exposu r e lin k ed w ith ch ildh ood ca n cer of th e
k idn ey, oth er w ise ca lled Wilm ’s tu m ou r ; a n d
exposu r e to petr och em ica ls a ssocia ted w ith
ch ildh ood br a in ca n cer. In a ddition , declin e
in sper m pr odu ction h a s been dem on str a ted
in th e gen er a l popu la tion . Th is m ay in dica te
th a t a m bien t levels of toxic ch em ica ls a r e
cu r r en tly eleva ted en ou gh to im pa ir th e
h ea lth of th e popu la tion . Th e ch em ica l in du str y m ay com pla in a bou t th e in cr ea sed econ om ic cost of th e r em edia tion of both th e
wor k pla ce a n d its ch em ica l by-pr odu cts, bu t
th a t wou ld be in com pa r a ble to th e h igh econ om ic cost th a t fa m ily a n d society wou ld
con tin u a lly en visa ge in ca r in g for ph ysica lly
a n d m en ta lly ch a llen ged ch ildr en a n d a du lts
exposed to n efa r iou s ch em ica l a gen ts disch a r ged a t th e wor k pla ce a n d in to th e en vir on m en t.
Th e en vir on m en ta l scien ces h ave r evea led
th e th r ea t of ever -in cr ea sin g pollu tion , especia lly n on -biode gr a da ble ch em ica l pollu tion ,
a n d th is h a s ca u sed ser iou s con cer n th a t it
m ay be con tr ibu tor y to cer ta in pr in cipa l
ch r on ic disea ses, th u s dem a n din g con tin u ou s
su r veilla n ce a n d m on itor in g a ctivities. Th e
u ltim a te goa l of epidem iology is th e pr ovision of in for m a tion th a t lea ds to th e pr even tion of en vir on m en ta l de gr a da tion . Ra tion a l
pr even tion dem a n ds a k n ow ledge of th e ca u se
of en vir on m en ta l a lter a tion . It is im por ta n t to
a ck n ow ledge th a t th e iden tifi ca tion of th e
ca u se of a given en vir on m en ta l pr oblem m ay
n ot, in a n d of itself, be en ou gh to ca u se sign ifica n t pr even tive m ea su r es (Ch u k w u m a ,
1994d).
The extant problems of solid
wastes
In m a n y developin g cou n tr ies, r u bbish collection is ill-pla n n ed. In h igh a n d m iddle in com e
a r ea s m or e th a n in poor a r ea s, th er e is
in cr ea sed collection r a te ow in g to a gr ea ter
va lu e of th e a ctu a l w a ste. Collection is often
n on -existen t in poor a r ea s. Th e la ck of a n
a dequ a te m a n a gem en t system cr ea tes a la r ge
r isk for th e spr ea d of in fection , pa r a sitic a n d
epidem ic disea ses, th r ou gh people in volved
in th e collection of th e w a ste, ch ildr en playin g in th e str eets a n d scaven ger s m a k in g
th eir livin g on th e du m psites. N o system
cu r r en tly exists for h ospita l w a ste disposa l.
All th ese in va r ia bly cu lm in a te in w a ter a n d
la n d de gr a da tion .
E con om ic pr odu ction a n d sever a l oth er
a n th r opogen ic a ctivities gen er a te w a ste.
Most of th ese w a stes a r e r e-in tr odu ced to th e
en vir on m en t a n d ca u se pollu tion . In cr ea sin g
econ om ic gr ow th ca n r esu lt in in cr ea sin g
en vir on m en ta l pollu tion w ith h a r m fu l con sequ en ces for econ om ic pr odu ction a n d h u m a n
h ea lth . In sever a l in sta n ces, th e ca pa city of
th e n a tu r a l en vir on m en t to a bsor b w a stes
m ay be exceeded beca u se of excessive econ om ic pr odu ction . P u blic policy goa l en ta ils
th e m in im isa tion of th e poten tia l h a r m to
h u m a n s a n d/ or th e en vir on m en t, bu t r ecover y of con stitu en ts fr om w a ste in a n envir on m en ta lly sou n d w ay r a th er th a n sen din g
th em im m edia tely for u ltim a te disposa l w ill
con tr ibu te to su sta in a ble developm en t. Th e
disposa l of solid w a stes is a m a jor pr oblem in
[ 139 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
m a n y la r ge cities, a n d m u n icipa l w a stes ca n
in cor por a te h a za r dou s m a ter ia ls.
Most u n w a n ted sew a ge r ea ch es sew a ge
dr a in a ge system s by th eir gen er a tor s, bu t
th ose pollu ta n t m a ter ia ls wh ich con ta in toxic
su bsta n ces a s pa r t of th e efflu en t a r e
fr equ en tly dr a stic on both m icr oor ga n ism s
a n d h igh er or ga n ism s wh ich u su a lly h ave a
sign ifica n t r ole in sew a ge de gr a da tion . A
sign ifica n t r ea lisa tion con cer n in g m u n icipa l
w a stes by th e aver a ge globa l citizen is th a t
sew a ge ser vices a r e a r a r e a n d essen tia l com m odity for m ost of th e popu la tion ; h owever,
a n u n r ea lised fa ct is th a t th er e is a h igh efficien cy a ccor ded to th e m ost a dva n ced sew a ge
system s.
Ow in g to th e n u m er ou s sou r ces of m u n icipa l w a stes, th eir con tr ols a r e u su a lly difficu lt, wh ich su pplem en ts th e a dver se effect of
a ir pollu tion du e to toxic su bsta n ces. Th e
goa ls of a dom estic w a ste m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e in clu de w a ste tr ea tm en t im pr ovem en t, en h a n ced w a ste r ecyclin g, a n d th e
avoida n ce of u n n ecessa r y w a ste pr odu ction .
Wa ste developm en t a n d m a n a gem en t a r e
br oa dly in flu en ced by th e in cr ea sed pr ices for
globa l m a r k et r aw m a ter ia ls a s well a s th e
popu la tion ’s in cr ea sed en vir on m en ta l aw a r en ess, wh ich m ay h ave a su ccessfu l tr a n sfor m a tion in to positive savin g a ction . A n ew ly
developed in du str y for w a ste pr ocessin g a n d
r ecyclin g is en vir on m en ta lly n ecessa r y a n d
pr ofita ble econ om ica lly in m a n y in sta n ces.
On th e oth er h a n d, tech n ocr a tic solu tion s
to tech n ologica l pr oblem s, su ch a s w a ste
pr ocessin g a n d r ecyclin g, som etim es r esu lt in
th e a ccu m u la tion of toxic su bsta n ces wh ich
wou ld n eed specifi c tr ea tm en t a n d, th er efor e,
in cr ea sed costs. Th e pr oblem of th e avoida n ce
of w a ste pr odu ction h a s r ea ch ed em er gen cy
dim en sion s in m a jor cities. Th e w a ste pr oblem does n ot ju st disa ppea r w ith th e closu r e
of r efu se du m ps beca u se of in ter -gen er a tion a l
effects a n d con flicts. Society’s w a stefu l gen er a tion a n d con su m ption m ea n s th a t th e a ccu m u la tion of en vir on m en ta l cost h a s to be
bor n e by pr esen t a n d fu tu r e gen er a tion s. Th e
avoida n ce of u n n ecessa r y w a ste gen er a tion
w ill a id in obvia tin g th e h igh costs. It h a s
been su ggested th a t th e r ecom m en da tion s for
w a ste m a n a gem en t w ill r esu lt in la n dfill levy
a n d in cr ea sed in cin er a tion in con tr a st to codisposa l of h a za r dou s w a ste (Wills, 1995).
The transfer of technology for
hazardous chemical production
Ha za r dou s ch em ica ls or w a stes a r e a n ever in cr ea sin g im m in en t th r ea t to th e globa l
en vir on m en t. In discr im in a te tr a n sfer of
tech n ology for th e pr odu ction of extr em ely
[ 140 ]
h a za r dou s ch em ica ls fr om in du str ia lised to
n on -in du str ia lised cou n tr ies ca n ca u se fr equ en t en vir on m en ta l con ta m in a tion . Th e
situ a tion is extr em ely per tu r bin g in sever a l
developin g cou n tr ies, wh er e a solu tion to
ba sic pr oblem s of w a ter su pplies a n d su ita bly
sou n d sa n ita tion h a s yet to be a ch ieved.
Ow in g to th e a bsen ce of a dequ a te m on itor in g
system s, th e con ta m in a tion of gr ou n d a n d
su r fa ce w a ter s by toxic ch em ica ls is in cr ea sin g in n on -in du str ia lised cou n tr ies. Loca tion
of in du str ies in cr ow ded cities a n d m in es in
n ea r by villa ges wh ich pr odu ce h a za r dou s
ch em ica ls n eeds to be a ba ted in or der to
eva de th e r ecu r r en ce of sever e disa ster n ow
a n d in th e fu tu r e.
In du str ia l developm en t u n der a n y cir cu m sta n ces ca n n ot fu lly su cceed beca u se of th e
m a gn itu de of th e th r ea t to en vir on m en t a n d
society. An in itia l solu tion is th e pr ovision
a n d im plem en ta tion of su ita ble sa fety m ea su r es. An oth er via ble solu tion is n ot to
en cou r a ge in du str ies to tr a n sfer h a r m fu l
tech n ology fr om in du str ia lised n a tion s, pr even tion of u n n ecessa r y m in in g oper a tion s
wh ich w ill a u gm en t th e a n th r opogen ic
sou r ces of ch em ica l elem en ts in th e en vir on m en t, th e r epla cem en t of bor e-h oles in a r ea s
wh ich con ta in toxic con cen tr a tion s of tr a ce
elem en ts w ith pr oper ta p w a ter system s, a n d
str ict r e gu la tor y m ea su r es to a ba te th e h a za r dou s w a ste tr a de.
The extant problems of the
production and disposal of
hazardous wastes
In th e a bsen ce of a u n iver sa l cla r ifica tion
pr ocedu r e, it is n ot ea sy to com pa r e da ta for
toxic a n d h a za r dou s w a stes or ch em ica ls.
Du r in g r ecen t yea r s, con sider a ble in -pu ts
h ave been m a de by differ en t n a tion a l a n d
in ter n a tion a l a gen cies to en u m er a te va r iou s
for m s of h a za r dou s ch em ica ls or w a stes gen er a ted globa lly, a n d th e m a n a gem en t pr ocess
im plem en ted, th ou gh , w ith ou t a gen er a lly
sta n da r dized cla ssifica tion , th e da ta ca n on ly
in dica te th e sor ts a n d qu a n tities of h a za r dou s
w a stes or ch em ica ls gen er a ted a n d h a n dled.
Su r veys n or m a lly in clu de in for m a tion on th e
qu a n tity a n d m a n a gem en t ca pa city of w a stes
or ch em ica ls.
Wor ldw ide, h a lf th e 70,000 ch em ica ls cu r r en tly m a n u fa ctu r ed a r e cla ssified a s toxic.
La ck of da ta m a k es it difficu lt to ca lcu la te th e
wor ldw ide tota l of a n n u a l toxic w a ste pr odu ction . Th er e w ill be in cr ea sed ton s of r a dioa ctive w a ste stor ed in tem por a r y sites by th e
yea r 2000, wh ile cu r r en tly som e a r e bein g
du m ped in th e ocea n s. Ir r espective of th e
yea r s of scien tific r esea r ch , n o on e h a s com e
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
u p w ith a solu tion for sa fe, per m a n en t stor a ge or disposa l, a n d n on e is in th e offin g.
Sta tistics of th e qu a lity, ava ila bility a n d disposa l of th e gen er a tion of w a stes h ave been
extr em ely va r ia ble. In n u m er a ble fa ctor s
lim it dir ect com pa r ison s between w a ste disposa l in va r iou s n a tion s, su ch a s va r ia tion in
m u n icipa l w a ste defin ition , u n clea r distin ction between th e ter m s “w a ste disposa l” a n d
“w a ste gen er a tion ”. F u r th er m or e, ow in g to
th e va r ia ble sou r ces in th e der iva bility of
da ta , dom estic in tr a -tr en d iden tifica tion is
com pr om ised. Th e few ava ila ble da ta fr om
developin g cou n tr ies a r e su ggestive th a t
w a ste disposa l h a s becom e, a n d w ill con tin u e
to be, a n exten sive pr oblem in th e im m edia te
fu tu r e (Ch a r lier a n d Ch a r lier, 1995). Ow in g to
th ese fa ctor s, th e a ssessm en t a n d eva lu a tion
of pu blic policy pr a ctices, a dm in istr a tive
a ction s, le gisla tive a n d ju dicia l decision s to
effect th e globa l tr a n sfer a n d m a n a gem en t of
w a stes h ave n ot been ver y clea r.
La n dfill, in cin er a tion a n d sea du m pin g a r e
in va r ia bly th e w idespr ea d u sed disposa l
option s. In du str ia lised cou n tr ies per iodica lly
ca u se or con tr ibu te to en vir on m en ta l pr oblem s wh ich der a n ge th e n on -in du str ia lised
wor ld. Th e econ om ic a n d socia l costs of com plyin g w ith envir on m en ta l law s in in du str ia lised n a tion s r esu lted in cer ta in m u ltin a tion a l cor por a tion s disposin g of th eir h a za r dou s w a stes in cer ta in developin g cou n tr ies wh ich con flict w ith con su m er, sa fety, or
en vir on m en ta l law s in th e or igin a tin g cou n tr ies. Sever a l r ecipien t n a tion s wer e u n aw a r e
of th e du m pin g, wh er ea s oth er s, in desper a te
a n d ava r iciou s desir e for for eign exch a n ge,
a llowed toxic su bsta n ces in to th ese cou n tr ies
even w ith ou t th e possession of a dequ a te
tr ea tm en t fa cilities.
Th er efor e, in ter n a tion a l h a za r dou s w a ste
tr a n spor ta tion is of two k in ds:
1 tr a n spor ta tion to a r ecogn ized site for
a u th or ized disposa l or tr ea tm en t; a n d
2 ille ga l du m pin g in a n oth er cou n tr y.
N o m a tter th e r ea son for h a za r dou s w a ste
sh ippin g, it con veys a politica lly sen sitive
issu e. Ha za r dou s a n d toxic w a ste disposa l is
cu r r en tly, or w ill becom e, a pr oblem of gr ave
sign ifica n ce in th e n ea r fu tu r e.
Th er efor e, in -depth con cer n s m u st be ba sed
on th e follow in g:
• th e pr oblem s of w a ste disposa l in developin g cou n tr ies;
• th e difficu lties of th e h a za r dou s w a ste
tr a de;
• th e ba la n ce between fr ee tr a de a n d su sta in a bility; a n d
• th e r e gu la tor y issu es a ssocia ted w ith en vir on m en ta l con tr ols in developin g cou n tr ies.
Ch em ica l a n d w a ste pr odu ction is
in cessa n tly gr ow in g wor ldw ide, pa r ticu la r ly
in n on -in du str ia lised n a tion s w ith ou t a dequ a te m ea su r es for disposa l. F u r th er im plem en ta tion of in for m a tion a l a n d edu ca tion a l
pr ogr a m m es, collection sch em es com bin ed
w ith a ppr opr ia tely cu stom -design ed tech n ologies w ill in cr ea se th e a m ou n ts a n d va r iety of r ecycla ble a r ticles. In cr ea sed pu blic
aw a r en ess on w a ste a n d ch em ica l issu es in
th ese a u ster e tim es in developin g cou n tr ies
r equ ir es th e gover n m en t to fu n d r esea r ch
in to a ppr opr ia tely defin ed n ew tech n iqu es of
w a ste r ecla m a tion , r ecyclin g a n d disposa l a s
well a s look in g for possible r e gu la tor y m ea su r es a n d le ga l in str u m en ts on th e h a za r dou s
w a ste tr a de. Th is w ill a r ou se th e in ter est of
in dividu a ls, com m u n ities a n d in du str ia l
con cer n s r esu ltin g in econ om ica lly via ble
developm en t of n ew w a ste disposa l
tech n iqu es a n d ser vices.
Environmental management and
pollution control: a
multidimensional problem
Ir r espective of th e pr oblem , on e of th e pr in cipa l objectives of en vir on m en ta l m a n a gem en t
a n d pollu tion con tr ol is to obvia te str essin g a
va lu ed ecosystem , su ch a s fa r m la n d, for est,
or w ilder n ess beyon d th e lim its of r esilien ce
of th e pa r ticu la r species desir ed to be per petu a ted. An en vir on m en ta l eth ica l pr ocess for
th e fu n da m en ta l aw a r en ess of ou r en vir on m en t is n eeded. E n vir on m en ta l con scien tiou sn ess wou ld a id people of th e wor ld to
sa fe gu a r d th eir en vir on m en t. N a tion a l en vir on m en ta l pr otection a gen cies a n d oth er
gover n m en t bodies ca n a dequ a tely r espon d to
th is issu e if on ly in ter n a l politics a n d dir ect
gover n m en t in ter fer en ce in th e a ctivities of
va r iou s a gen cies do n ot dr a stica lly in h ibit it.
As fa r a s we gen er a lly a ck n ow ledge a t pr esen t, pla n et ea r th is th e on ly pla ce wh er e life
for m s exist. It is im por ta n t to a ctiva te a n d
em power people to en cou r a ge th em to bu ild
a n d m a in ta in th e ca pa city n ecessa r y for su sta in a ble developm en t.
It wou ld th en be possible to pr esen t a lter n a tive u ses of th e en vir on m en t, a n d to pr edict
a n d esta blish th e ba la n ce th a t is r epr esen ta tive of th e optim a l u se of n a tu r a l r esou r ces.
Th is str a te gic a ppr oa ch dem a n ds eva lu a tion
a n d a ssessm en t th a t is ba sed on a su r vey of
en vir on m en ta l con dition s in clu din g th e
poten tia l pr odu ctivity of th e en vir on m en t for
w ildlife, a gr icu ltu r e a n d for estr y, n a tu r a l
bea u ty a n d a m en ity, u r ba n a n d in du str ia l
system s, a n d r aw m a ter ia ls. On th e wh ole,
th is w ill m a k e pr ovision for a ba sis for
th e developm en t of str a te gic a ppr oa ch es in
[ 141 ]
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
[ 142 ]
biom on itor in g of both fa u n a a n d flor a to th e
m a n a gem en t of biologica l diver sity, h ea lth ,
food-ch a in lin k a ge, a ir, soil, a n d w a ter in
both developin g a n d developed n a tion s
(Ch u k w u m a , 1996b).
Th e pr om otion of su sta in a ble developm en t
th r ou gh th e in te gr a tion of en vir on m en ta l
con sider a tion s in to developm en t pla n n in g
a n d m a n a gem en t is a k ey ch a llen ge fa cin g
th e in ter n a tion a l com m u n ity. Th is br in gs to
th e for efr on t th e cen tr a l r ole th e people
dir ectly in volved m u st play in th e decision m a k in g pr ocess. E du ca tion of both pr ofession a ls a n d th e gen er a l pu blic, in dividu a l
m otiva tion a n d m ea n s of en vir on m en ta l pollu tion con tr ol by society a t la r ge a s well a s
gover n m en ta l effor ts m ay be per tin en t. E ven
w ith str in gen t pr even tive m ea su r es, th er e
m ay be vested fin a n cia l in ter ests, oth er cu ltu r a l a n d socioecon om ic fa ctor s lia ble to
fr u str a te en vir on m en ta l pollu tion con tr ol
effor ts, especia lly in th e ch em ica l in du str y
a n d m in in g sector.
Mu ltidisciplin a r y r esea r ch m u st seek to
stim u la te th e scien tific com m u n ity a n d th e
pu blic to ta ke a ction to a ddr ess th e in ter con n ected issu es of globa l envir on m en ta l degr a da tion , popu la tion con tr ol, food issu es, a gr icu ltu r a l sa fety a n d h ea lth , developm en t, occu pa tion a l a n d envir on m en ta l h ea lth , eva lu a tion
of th e con sequ en ces of gover n m en ta l policies
a n d r egu la tion s of in du str ia l pr a ctice, a s well
a s con su m ption w ith a br oa d u n der sta n din g of
globa l envir on m en ta l issu es. Resea r ch in ter ests m u st a lso be involved in com plex m ixtu r es of envir on m en ta l con ta m in a n ts, r isk
distr ibu tion a n d its policy im plica tion s, su sceptible popu la tion s, a n d oth er policy-r eleva n t
a spects of exposu r e a n d r isk a ssessm en t in
dea lin g w ith envir on m en ta l issu es a n d pr even tive str ategies for livin g in a ch em ica l
wor ld. Th is, th er efor e, str etch es in to th e socia l
a n d scien tific dim en sion s of envir on m en ta l
ea r th scien ces a n d geologica l a ctivity.
All th ese n eed to focu s on th e developm en t
of r eview pr ocesses for th e a ssessm en t a n d
eva lu a tion of th e im pa ct of pu blic policy pr a ctices, le gisla tion , a dm in istr a tive pr ocedu r es
a n d a ction s, a s well a s ju dicia l decision s for
th e pr ovision of str a te gic a ppr oa ch es for
fu tu r e dom estic a n d globa l policies a n d th eir
con sequ en ces (Ch u k w u m a , 1996b). Mor eover,
in ter est w ill be la id on developin g com m u n ity effor ts on pr en or m a tive a n d pr e-le gisla tive a spects for th e fa cilita tion of policy a n d
a ction in r ela tion to th e en vir on m en t a n d
su sta in a ble developm en t.
Ir r espective of th e dir e r equ ir em en t
for in cr ea sin g va r ieties of en vir on m en ta l
specia lists in design in g pr otocols a n d to
co-oper a te togeth er a s a tea m in in ter n a tion a l
a n d dom estic en vir on m en ta l pr otection , it
m u st be r ecogn ized th a t a tea m a ppr oa ch
m ay n ot be cu r r en tly pr a ctica ble. In sever a l
section s of both developin g a n d developed
cou n tr ies th er e a r e n ot su fficien t or wellgr oom ed en vir on m en ta l specia lists, m oder n
tech n ology, differ en t m in d-sets a cr oss disciplin es, etc. to per for m optim u m en vir on m en ta l clea n -u p a dequ a tely, for in sta n ce. Despite
th is difficu lty, th e m u ltidisciplin a r y a ppr oa ch
n eeds a da pta tion a s w idely a s possible,
a lbeit, con textu a lly to th e pr eva ilin g en vir on m en ta l pr oblem . Th e su ccess of a n y en vir on m en ta l pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t m u st to
a gr ea t exten t depen d on h u m a n r ela tion s.
Discussion and conclusion
E n vir on m en ta l issu es for m a la r ge gr ou p of
pr oblem s of va r yin g in ciden ce, site, exten t,
ca u ses a n d su ita bility of en vir on m en ta l a n d
n a tu r a l r esou r ce u se a n d r ecla m a tion or
r em edia tion , a m on gst oth er s. Th is va r ia bility
of fea tu r es, ch a r a cter izin g en vir on m en ta l
de gr a da tion tr a dition a lly design a ted by a
com m on ter m , a n d th e va r ia bility of m eth ods
u sed for th eir pr even tion a n d con tr ol n ecessita tes a collective a ppr oa ch to a ll pr oblem s
a ssocia ted w ith th e pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t of ou r en vir on m en t. Th ese fa ctor s
sh ou ld en cou r a ge a m u ltim oda l tea m
a ppr oa ch to th e m oder n a ppr oa ch for th e
con tr ol a n d pr even tion of en vir on m en ta l
pollu tion . It is a ppa r en t th a t in th e fu tu r e, a
m u ltim oda l a ppr oa ch w ill m a k e sign ifica n t
im pa ct on ou r en vir on m en t.
Specia l in ter est m u st be ba sed on th e
dyn a m ics of stu dyin g a cr oss disciplin a r y
bou n da r ies a s r ela ted to envir on m en t a n d
developm en t. Con tr ibu tion m u st n ot be con fin ed to envir on m en ta l scien ce, per se, bu t to
see disea se a s m u ch a s a m a tter of pover ty,
ign or a n ce a n d in ju stice a s well a s politica l
econ om y of envir on m en ta l degr a da tion a n d
socia l welfa r e. Th e deva sta tin g im pa cts of
econ om ic developm en t a s it is in gen er a l con ceived a n d pr om oted w ith th e in tr odu ction of
toxic ch em ica l elem en ts in to th e envir on m en t, a n d th e r ela tion sh ips of debt, str u ctu r a l
a dju stm en t pr ogr a m m es a n d popu lation displa cem en ts m u st be a ck n ow ledged to defin e
pr oblem s r ela ted to envir on m en ta l issu es.
Th e wor ld is a r a pidly ch a n gin g pla ce, a n d
th er e is a n eed to r espon d to th e n ew ch a llen ges a n d oppor tu n ities. Th is is m or e eviden t in r ecogn isin g th e pa ce of popu la tion
gr ow th in poor r e gion s w ith th e n eed to
in cr ea se food pr odu ction in fr ien dly en vir on m en ts a n d a lso in en vir on m en ts per fu sed
w ith h igh levels of ch em ica ls. Th u s, close
a tten tion m u st be a ccor ded to th e ecologica l,
politica l, econ om ic a n d sociologica l r ea lities
Chrysanthus Chukwuma Sr
Enviro nme ntal issue s and o ur
c he mic al wo rld – the ne e d fo r
a multidime nsio nal appro ac h
in e nviro nme ntal safe ty,
he alth and manage me nt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
9 / 3 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 3 6 –1 4 3
wh ich im pa ct on th e pr odu ctivity of food
pr odu cer s wor ldw ide. Con cer n ed citizen s of
th e wor ld m u st a ddr ess w idespr ea d con cer n s
a bou t biodiver sity, soil de gr a da tion , a n d th e
qu a lity of pr ojects on en vir on m en ta l, a gr icu ltu r a l a n d n a tu r a l r esou r ces cr itica l to th e
h ea lth , sa fety, su ccess a n d fu tu r e h u m a n
wellbein g in a ch em ica l wor ld, a s we en ter th e
twen ty-fir st cen tu r y.
References
Ch a r lier, R.H. a n d Ch a r lier, C.C.P. (1995), “Su sta in a ble m u ltiple-u se a n d m a n a gem en t of th e
coa sta l zon e”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t
a n d Hea lth , Vol. 6 N o. 1, pp. 14-24.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1993a ), “Com pa r ison of th e
a ccu m u la tion of ca dm iu m , lea d, a n d zin c in
edible a n d w ild pla n t species in th e der elict
E n yigba -Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e, N iger ia ”, T ox icologica l a n d En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 38, pp. 167-73.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1993b), “Ca dm iu m , lea d, a n d
zin c fr om ter r estr ia l pla n ts in th e E n yigba Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e: sea r ch for a
m on itor in g pla n t species in tr a ce elem en t
distr ibu tion ”, B u lletin of En viron m en ta l
Con ta m in a tion a n d T ox icolog y, Vol. 51 N o. 5,
pp. 665-71.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994a ), “E n vir on m en t a n d
developm en t: a ppr oa ch es to str a te gies for th e
im pr ovem en t of h u m a n wellbein g in Aba k a lik i a r ea , N iger ia ”, En viron m en ta l Con ser va tion , Vol. 21 N o. 4, pp. 359-61.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994b), “Con ta m in a tion of soils
a n d r ice by h eavy m eta ls in th e E n yigba Aba k a lik i lea d a n d zin c m in e, N iger ia ”, T ox icolog y a n d En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 41,
pp. 125-30.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994c), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for lea d (P b) a n d ca dm iu m (Cd) in r ice,
ya m , ca ssava , a n d gu in ea gr a ss fr om cu ltiva ted soils in N iger ia ”, T ox icologica l a n d
En viron m en ta l Ch em istr y, Vol. 45, pp. 45-56.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1994d), “E n vir on m en t a n d
developm en t: a socia l eva lu a tion su r vey in
N iger ia in 1992”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of
En viron m en ta l Ed u ca tion a n d In for m a tion ,
Vol. 13 N o. 2, pp. 183-208.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1995a ), “A com pa r a tive stu dy of
ca dm iu m , lea d, zin c, pH, a n d bu lk den sity
fr om th e E n yigba lea d a n d zin c m in e in two
differ en t sea son s”, Ecotox icolog y a n d En viron m en ta l S a fety, Vol. 31 N o. 3, pp. 246-9.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1995b), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for copper, m a n ga n ese, n ick el, a n d zin c
in r ice, ya m , ca ssava , a n d gu in ea gr a ss fr om
cu ltiva ted soils in N iger ia ”, A gr icu ltu re,
Ecosystem s & En viron m en t, Vol. 53 N o. 1,
pp. 47-61.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1996a ), “E va lu a tin g ba selin e
da ta for tr a ce elem en ts, pH, or ga n ic m a tter
con ten t, a n d bu lk den sity in a gr icu ltu r a l soils
in N iger ia ”, Wa ter, A ir, a n d S oil Pollu tion ,
Vol. 86 N os 1-4, pp. 13-34.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1996b), “Per spectives for a
su sta in a ble society”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t a n d Hea lth , Vol. 7 N o. 5, pp. 6-20.
Ch u k w u m a , C. Sr (1997), “E n vir on m en ta l lea d
exposu r e in Afr ica ”, A m b io, Vol. 26 N o. 6,
pp. 399-403.
Lave, L.B. a n d Upton , A.C. (1987), “Re gu la tin g
toxic ch em ica ls in th e en vir on m en t”, in Lave,
L.B. a n d Upton , A.C. (E ds), T ox ic Ch em ica ls,
Hea lth a n d th e En viron m en t, Th e J oh n s Hopk in s Un iver sity P r ess, Ba ltim or e, MA, p. 280.
Moffa t, A.S. (1995), “P la n ts pr ovin g th eir
wor th in toxic m eta l clea n u p”, S cien ce,
Vol. 269 N o. 5222, pp. 302-3.
Pen tr ea th , R.J . (1994), “Disch a r ge of w a ter s fr om
a ctive a n d a ba n don ed m in es”, in Hester, R.E .
a n d Ha r r ison , R.M. (E ds), M in in g a n d Its
En viron m en ta l Im pa ct. Issu es in En viron m en ta l S cien ce a n d T ech n olog y, Roya l Society of
Ch em istr y, Ca m br idge, pp. 121-31.
Wills, J . (1995), “Ma n a gin g ou r w a stes”, En viron m en ta l M a n a gem en t a n d Hea lth , Vol. 6 N o. 1,
pp. 25-8.
Zim m er m a n , M. (1995), S cien ce, N on scien ce, a n d
N on sen se: A pproa ch in g En viron m en ta l L iter a cy, Th e J oh n s Hopk in s P