Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue5.1996:
Implementing teamworking in a higher education
setting: a case study
Richard J. Varey
Dire c to r, BNFL Co rpo rate Co mmunic atio ns Unit, The Manage me nt Sc ho o l,
Unive rsity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK
Terry Nolan
Sc ho o l o f Te xtile Studie s, Bo lto n Institute , Bo lto n, UK
Describes how, in response to
the major changes in the
operating environment for a
higher education institution,
an approach to teamworking
was piloted and facilitated by
one of the authors. Describes
the approach taken and
highlights some of the issues
raised in the programme, with
explanations. Discusses
lessons learned from the
initiative.
Introduction
Ou r pa per is der ived fr om a n MBA disser ta tion pr oject wh ich focu sed on th e im plem en ta tion of tea m wor k in g w ith in th e Sch ool of
Textile Stu dies a t Bolton In stitu te. Th e idea
stem m ed fr om th e a u th or s’ exper ien ces in th e
h igh er edu ca tion en vir on m en t wh ich h a s
ch a n ged r a pidly sin ce th e la te 1980s, br in gin g
w ith it con sider a tion s wh ich pr eviou sly wer e
believed by m a n y to a ffect on ly com m er cia l
or ga n iza tion s. Th ese in clu de:
• depa r tm en ts a s “cost” a n d “pr ofi t” cen tr es;
• view in g stu den ts, spon sor s, pa r en ts, in du str y, a n d oth er gr ou ps a s cu stom er s;
• dem a n d for cou r ses va r yin g w ith econ om ic
a n d socia l con dition s;
• r esou r ces a lloca ted in r ela tion to dem a n d
a s opposed to depa r tm en ta l
“r equ ir em en ts”.
Th ese n otion s r efl ect a n in cr ea sin gly com petitive en vir on m en t, wh er ein a n u m ber of fea tu r es ca n be iden tifi ed:
• th er e a r e m or e com petitor s th a n ever,
ow in g in pa r t to der e gu la tion ;
• com petitor s a dopt diver se m ea n s to a ttr a ct
cu stom ;
• cu stom er s’ expecta tion s a r e in cr ea sin g;
• investor s’ expecta tion s a r e in cr ea sin g.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 4 –1 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[4 ]
Th u s th e en vir on m en t h a s ch a n ged fr om
bein g “sim ple a n d sta ble” to “com plex a n d
tu r bu len t”[1].
In r espon se, a n u m ber of in itia tives h ave
n ow been a dopted by h igh er edu ca tion esta blish m en ts, a im ed a t in cr ea sin g th e efficien cy
a n d effectiven ess of th e or ga n iza tion . Th ese
in clu de tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t (TQM), th e
Br itish Sta n da r ds In stitu te’s (BSI) BS 5750,
a n d th e Tr a in in g a n d E du ca tion Cou n cil’s
(TE C) “In vestor s in People” in itia tive (IIP ).
Br oa dly spea k in g th ey en deavou r to br in g a
focu s to bea r on th e or ga n iza tion ’s cu stom er s
by a ll of th e wor k for ce in or der to pr ovide
tota l sa tisfa ction or to “deligh t”[2]. In so
doin g th e or ga n iza tion is a ble to str en gth en
its bon ds w ith cu stom er s, a n d th u s exer t
som e m ea su r e of con tr ol over its “fir st level
en vir on m en t”[3]. Focu sin g th e wor k for ce in
th is w ay, to pr ovide cu stom er deligh t,
r equ ir es som e fu n da m en ta l ch a n ges in
em ph a sis on th e pa r t of m a n a gem en t aw ay
fr om th e tr a dition a l style, wh ich is ch a r a cter ized by:
• sh or t-ter m pr ofita bility (bu sin esses) or
sh or t-ter m a ccou n tin g (pu blic ser vices);
• h avin g n o clea r str a te gic position ;
• cla m pin g dow n on costs wh ile toler a tin g
h igh levels of w a sta ge;
• a “ta k e it or leave it” a ttitu de to cu stom er s;
• bu yin g a t th e lowest pr ice;
• m a k in g a r bitr a r y ch a n ges wh en for ced in to
it;
• fir e-figh tin g m a n a gem en t – th e “tr ou blesh ooter ” a ppr oa ch .
In effect, h avin g r ea lized th a t con tr ol ca n be
exer ted on exter n a l fa ctor s on ly a s a r esu lt of
r a dica l in ter n a l ch a n ges, m a n a gem en t h a s
u n der ta k en to ch a n ge its pr ior ities, especia lly on th e u se of r esou r ces w ith in th e or ga n iza tion , pa r ticu la r ly th e wor k for ce[4]:
…th e com petitive situ a tion a n d com petitive
br ea k th r ou gh s r equ ir ed, a pply equ a lly to
m a n a ger s in bu sin ess a n d ser vice or ga n iza tion s. It is ju st a s im por ta n t th a t th ey a r e
ta k en u p in edu ca tion a n d th e N a tion a l
Hea lth Ser vice, a s th a t th ey a r e pr a ctised in
m a n u fa ctu r in g in du str y or th e fin a n cia l
ser vices.
Th e TE C’s IIP in itia tive for m s a pa r t of th e
m a n a gem en t a ppr oa ch to TQM. It is seen to
be pa r ticu la r ly a ppr opr ia te w ith in th e ser vice sector wh er e m ea su r em en ts of qu a lity
ca n n ot be qu a n tified a s r ea dily a s in m a n u fa ctu r in g, wh er e ou tpu ts ca n be m ea su r ed,
weigh ed a n d com pa r ed a ga in st specifica tion s.
In vestor s in People is a str u ctu r ed m eth od for
en su r in g th a t em ployee developm en t is
lin k ed closely to com petitive for ces, a n d th is
r equ ir es a tea m cu ltu r e w ith in a n or ga n iza tion . It is ba sed on th e exper ien ces of m a n y
su ccessfu l UK com pa n ies wh ich h ave fou n d
th a t per for m a n ce is im pr oved by a pla n n ed
a ppr oa ch to settin g a n d com m u n ica tin g bu sin ess goa ls to th e wor k for ce a n d by developin g
people to m eet th ese goa ls so th a t “wh a t people ca n do a n d a r e m otiva ted to do m a tch es
wh a t th e bu sin ess n eeds th em to do”[5]. It
does n ot, h owever, con stitu te a r igid m odel for
doin g th is. It is expected, by its pr opon en ts,
th a t ch a n ges w ill h ave to be m a de w ith in
differ in g situ a tion s, th is bein g especia lly th e
ca se w ith in edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. Th is
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
ca n be expla in ed by fir st u n der sta n din g th e
pr eva ilin g cu ltu r e w ith in h igh er edu ca tion .
Ma n y cu ltu r a l fa ctor s r evolve a r ou n d
issu es of in ter n a l power a n d depen den cy
between a n d a cr oss fu n ction s a n d h ier a r ch ies. Min tzber g a n d Qu in n [6] descr ibe th e
con flictin g for ces wh ich exist w ith in th e
“pr ofession a l con text”, i.e. th e con text wh ich
best descr ibes th e edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion .
F ir st it is n ecessa r y to iden tify wh er e con flicts m igh t a r ise w ith in th is “con text”.
With in th is or ga n iza tion a l con fi gu r a tion th e
k ey pa r t of th e or ga n iza tion is th e “oper a tin g
cor e”, i.e. th e lectu r in g/ a ca dem ic sta ff. At
Bolton In stitu te th ey a r e h or izon ta lly decen tr a lized in to six sch ools. Th e th eor y r ela tes
closely to th e pr a ctice in th a t th e “pr ofession a ls” (a ca dem ic sta ff) em er ge a s h igh ly m otiva ted in dividu a ls a ble to wor k w ith a h igh
de gr ee of a u ton om y in th eir specia lized
a r ea s, wh ile exer tin g “exper t power ” to in flu en ce decision s. Also of n ote is th a t sen ior
m a n a gem en t la ck s for m a l power a n d its pr im a r y ta sk is to en su r e th a t th e or ga n iza tion
k eeps its “sh a pe”, ch iefly by a lloca tin g
r esou r ces a n d dir ectin g on str a te gy. Sen ior
m a n a gem en t for m s th e “str a te gic a pex”
wh ich m u st co-or din a te closely w ith th e oper a tin g cor e, a r ole wh ich is becom in g in cr ea sin gly difficu lt for th e follow in g r ea son s:
• Th e ch a n gin g r ole of m a n a gem en t is a con sequ en ce of th e in cr ea sin g en vir on m en ta l
com plexity fa cin g edu ca tion . Wh er ea s,
tr a dition a lly, m a n a ger s cou ld focu s on
m a in ta in in g or ga n iza tion a l wellbein g by
fa cilita tin g th e wor k of th e pr ofession a ls,
e.g. va lida tin g th eir pr oposa ls for cou r ses,
r esea r ch a n d oth er sch ola r ly a ctivity, n ow a days th eir r ole is m u ch m or e a k in to th a t of
th e bu sin ess m a n a ger. In effect th ey a r e fa r
m or e exter n a lly focu sed on m a r k ets, le gisla tion a n d spon sor s. Co-or din a tion is bou n d
to becom e m or e difficu lt beca u se th e exter n a l dem a n ds pu t on m a n a gem en t w ill con flict w ith th e in dividu a listic m otives of th e
pr ofession a ls, wh o w ill exer t th eir exper t
power in r esistin g ch a n ges.
• Th er e is a per ceived in cr ea se in power on
th e pa r t of m a n a gem en t, r esu ltin g fr om
le gisla tion , th e dem ise of u n ion power, a n d
a n a tion a l cu ltu r e ch a n ge tow a r ds a n a u tocr a tic m a n a ger ia lism a m on g fledglin g
“m a n a ger s” in h igh er edu ca tion . Th is con tr a sts w ith th e dem ocr a tic com m ittee
pr ocesses, wh ich h ave existed to ch a n n el
th e pr ofession a l’s dem a n ds u pw a r ds in th e
or ga n iza tion , e.g. via a ca dem ic boa r ds.
• Co-or din a tion ca n be stifl ed cr u cia lly by th e
tw in for ces of th e su ppor t sta ff on th e on e
h a n d, a n d th e “tech n ostr u ctu r e”[6] on th e
oth er, com bin in g to str a n gle th e lin k
between th e “str a te gic a pex” a n d th e
“oper a tin g cor e”. Th is ca n occu r a s th e
“tech n ostr u ctu r e” pu sh es th e “oper a tin g
cor e” tow a r ds sta n da r diza tion , e.g. in selection pr ocedu r es or cou r se for m a ts, wh ile
th e “su ppor t sta ff ” (in th is ca se th e a dm in istr a tor s) im pose bu r ea u cr a tic system s a s a
m ea n s of con tr ol on th e “w ayw a r d” pr ofession a ls. In th is w ay th e “oper a tin g cor e”
ca n becom e over bu r den ed w ith th e n eed to
follow pr ocedu r es wh ich th ey per ceive a s
bein g m u n da n e, tim e con su m in g a n d often
u n n ecessa r y. Su ch a ctivities a r e diver sion a r y fr om th eir pr im a r y ta sk s a n d a h in dr a n ce to a ch ievin g str a te gic goa ls.
Min tzber g a n d Qu in n [6] pr opose two r ou tes
dow n wh ich th e “pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion ”
ca n go:
1 th e self-in ter est or “politica l m odel”,
wh ich is divisive a n d does n ot r ea lize th e
or ga n iza tion ’s str a te gic poten tia l;
2 th e com m on in ter est or “colle gia te m odel”
wh ich is seen a s th e best r ou te, a s it
r equ ir es people to wor k togeth er. It is th is
m odel wh ich is clea r ly pr efer r ed a n d
wh ich n ecessita tes som e de gr ee of tea m wor k in g.
Most of th e ou tpu ts fr om th e pr ofession a l
or ga n iza tion a r e sta n da r dized, e.g. cou r ses
a n d qu a lifi ca tion s. However, th e en vir on m en ta l dem a n ds a r e su ch th a t n on -sta n da r d
“pr odu cts” a r e in in cr ea sin g dem a n d. In
a ddition , com plexity for ces m a n y n ovel, n on r ou tin e pr oblem s on to th e or ga n iza tion
wh ich m igh t best be dea lt w ith by tea m s.
Sh aw [7] r ecogn ized th a t “typica lly sever a l
con cer n ed a n d k n ow ledgea ble people w ill
ou tper for m on e per son in solvin g pr oblem s”.
Two distin ct cu ltu r es ca n exist w ith in th e
pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion , w ith th e pr ofession a ls displayin g h igh levels of self-m otiva tion a n d a desir e for a u ton om y. On th e oth er
h a n d, th e su ppor t sta ff ’s wor k is m u ch m or e
h igh ly con str a in ed w ith in fu n ction a l a r ea s
a n d th u s pr escr ibed by m a n a gem en t, i.e.
m or e in flu en ced by exter n a l m otiva tor s. Ar e
th e goa ls of both th ese gr ou ps con gr u en t, or
cou ld it be th e ca se th a t th e pr ofession a ls
often fi n d th em selves wor k in g to su ppor t th e
system s pu t in pla ce by th e a dm in istr a tor s?
In or der to r espon d to th e pr essu r es
br ou gh t to bea r on th e or ga n iza tion a tea m
a ppr oa ch w a s con sider ed. In a doptin g th is
m eth od, it cou ld be th a t th e or ga n iza tion
loses its “sh a pe”, w ith fea tu r es of Min tzber g
a n d Qu in n ’s “in n ova tive con text”[6] bein g
over la id. In pr a ctice th is m ea n s th a t th e pr ofession a ls wor k togeth er in tea m s a n d m ay
h ave to for go som e in depen den ce. Th er e w ill
a lso be cr oss-fu n ction a l a n d “cr oss-cu ltu r a l”
tea m s (i.e. pr ofession a l a n d su ppor t sta ff) a n d
th u s a m er gin g of differ en t elem en ts fr om
[5 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
w ith in th e con text. Yet if Min tzber g a n d
Qu in n ’s pr oposition th a t th e pr ofession a l
or ga n iza tion ca n follow on e of two r ou tes[6] is
cor r ect, th en th e on ly a lter n a tive to im pr oved
tea m wor k in g w ill be a dr ift tow a r ds th e
politica l/ self-in ter est m odel, wh ich is sim ply
n ot con du cive eith er to effectiven ess or to
efficien cy.
The aims of the study
A stu dy of a n a ppr oa ch to in tr odu cin g tea m wor k in g a t Bolton In stitu te w a s design ed to:
• in vestiga te th e cu ltu r a l a n d m a n a ger ia l
fea tu r es wh ich cu r r en tly exist w ith in th e
situ a tion a l con text;
• ca r r y ou t a n a u dit in r espect of com m u n ica tion s, pla n n in g, tr a in in g a n d su ppor t for
in n ova tion w ith in th e situ a tion ;
• im plem en t tea m bu ildin g a s pa r t of a pilot
pr oject a cr oss a sa m ple of sta ff;
• r a ise aw a r en ess of qu a lity a n d tea m issu es
w ith in th e or ga n iza tion ; a n d
• r ecom m en d a follow -u p pr ogr a m m e.
Planned outcomes
Th e r esea r ch er s’ in ten tion w a s to a cqu ir e:
• a n eva lu a tion of th e specia l cir cu m sta n ces
a n d ch a r a cter istics of sta ff n eeds a n d tea m wor k in g w ith in a h igh er edu ca tion esta blish m en t;
• a n a ssessm en t of th e con str a in ts or obsta cles to a tea m a ppr oa ch w ith in th e edu ca tion a l settin g;
• r ecom m en da tion s for th e fu r th er developm en t of th is a spect of th e qu a lity pr ogr a m m e for Bolton In stitu te’s Sch ool of
Textile Stu dies.
Overview of research methodology
Th e u ltim a te objective of th e stu dy w a s to
im pr ove pr a ctice w ith in th e pa r ticu la r con text by m ea n s of a ction r esea r ch wh ich is
“essen tia lly a n on -th e-spot pr ocedu r e
design ed to dea l w ith a con cr ete pr oblem
loca ted in a n im m edia te situ a tion ”[8].
E ssen tia lly two differ en t types of tea m
exist. P r oject tea m s wer e for m ed fr om a cr oss
n or m a l wor k in g gr ou ps for th e du r a tion of a
pr oject a n d to see it th r ou gh to com pletion .
For exa m ple, on e tea m en deavou r ed to m odu la r ize th e Sch ool’s cou r ses, a n d a n oth er to
w r ite a dista n ce lea r n in g pa ck a ge. Oper a tin g
tea m s wer e for m ed a s “per m a n en t” u n its,
a n d com pr ised people wh o r e gu la r ly wor k ed
togeth er. Th eir objectives wer e to im pr ove
efficien cy a n d effectiven ess in oper a tion s
by m a k in g ch a n ges to th eir ow n m eth ods,
[6 ]
system s, a n d en vir on m en ts. A sin gle qu a lity
steer in g tea m (QST) w a s esta blish ed to a ssess
qu a lity im pr ovem en t su ggestion s fr om pr oject a n d oper a tin g tea m s.
Th e pr ogr a m m e of r esea r ch a ctivities ca r r ied ou t w a s:
1 Br ief h ea d of Sch ool on a ll a spects of
r esea r ch a n d discu ss logistics.
2 Select a sa m ple of oper a tin g tea m s fr om
th e Sch ool of Textiles, in clu din g th e QST,
to a ct a s fa cilita tor s to th e oper a tin g
tea m s.
3 Advise th e QST on th eir r ole, wh ich w ill
in clu de:
• defin in g “qu a lity” w ith in th e Sch ool;
• settin g objectives w ith in th e con text of
“qu a lity”;
• em power in g tea m s to seek solu tion s to
pr oblem s;
• in itia tin g a ction tow a r ds pr oblem solvin g a n d in n ova tion ;
• m ea su r in g ou tcom es a ga in st objectives.
4 Hold in a u gu r a l oper a tin g tea m m eetin gs
w ith th e objectives of:
• for m a lly la u n ch in g th e tea m a ppr oa ch ;
• br iefin g th e tea m s on th eir r oles w ith in
th e r esea r ch pr oject;
• a ssistin g tea m s in iden tifyin g pr oblem
a r ea s w ith in tea m oper a tion s a n d th eir
wor k a n d to con sider h ow a n d wh y pr oblem s a r e ca u sed.
5 Atten d fu r th er m eetin gs in th e r ole of
obser ver a n d/ or a dviser. It w a s in ten ded
th a t a m in im u m of in ter ven tion be m a de,
except wh en specifica lly r equ ested by
tea m s. In ter ven tion a n d a dvice wer e to be
offer ed in th e follow in g a r ea s:
• tea m bu ildin g;
• pr oblem solvin g a n d decision m a k in g;
• com m u n ica tion sk ills;
• objective settin g.
6 Atten d lia ison m eetin gs between th e QST
a n d oper a tin g tea m s, to obser ve discu ssion s of pr oposa ls.
7 Assess th e n u m ber a n d n a tu r e of decision s
m a de by tea m s a n d r ea ction s of th e QST.
8 An a lyse pr oblem s a n d ba r r ier s to in itia tin g a tea m a ppr oa ch . Su ch ba r r ier s a r e
expected to be both in ter n a l (i.e. to th e
people in volved) a n d exter n a l (i.e. a s en vir on m en ta l con str a in ts).
Findings from the action research
A tota l of 14 str u ctu r ed tea m m eetin gs wer e
h eld a m on g five tea m s, between Febr u a r y a n d
J u n e 1993. Clea r ly som e pr oblem s a ffected th e
tea m s. Th e in itia l m eetin gs wer e devoted to
listen in g to m em ber s descr ibin g th e pr oblem s wh ich th ey en cou n ter ed du r in g th e
cou r se of th eir wor k . As su ch , th e m eetin gs
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
wer e fa ir ly u n str u ctu r ed w ith people expla in in g a gr ea t n u m ber of pr oblem s. With ou t
a ttem ptin g to dir ect th e discu ssion in a n y
w ay, th e r esea r ch er m er ely listed th e pr oblem s on a flip ch a r t, h elpin g th e tea m to focu s
on th e ca u ses a n d r esu ltin g pr oblem s.
Th e obser ved ou tcom es a r e discu ssed
below.
Communications
Th is pr oved to be th e m a jor a n d fu n da m en ta l
pr oblem a r ea for a ll th e tea m s. Com m u n ica tion exists in two dom a in s: in ter n a lly,
between tea m m em ber s; a n d exter n a lly,
between th e tea m a n d oth er tea m s, a gen cies
a n d in dividu a ls.
Inte rnal c o mmunic atio n
Th r ee tea m s exper ien ced a n in itia l pr oblem
stem m in g fr om a la ck of open n ess in
discu ssin g pr oblem s. Th is w a s pa r tly du e to
th e m iscon ception th a t th e m eetin gs wer e
pa r t of a m a n a gem en t r epor tin g exer cise,
a lth ou gh a n u m ber of u n der lyin g per son a l
con flicts a lso existed between m em ber s,
wh ich in h ibited com m u n ica tion . Th e r esu lt
w a s th a t a n u m ber of “h idden a gen da s” wer e
br ou gh t a lon g to in itia l m eetin gs su ch a s:
• in dividu a ls deter m in ed to exh ibit a n
u n w illin gn ess to ta k e pa r t or even a w ish to
disr u pt th e m eetin g;
• u sin g th e m eetin g a s a n oppor tu n ity to
“sou n d off ” a bou t lon g-h eld gr ieva n ces or
a bou t u n r ela ted issu es;
• u sin g m eetin gs a s a n oppor tu n ity to dem on str a te dom in a n ce a n d for m a l power r oles.
Gr a du a lly, it w a s possible to a llay th e fea r s
a n d m istr u st a s to th e pu r pose of th e exer cise
a n d a lso to br in g ou t som e of th e u n der lyin g
con flicts. An exa m ple of on e su ch con flict w a s
wh er e on e per son did n ot a ccept th e a u th or ity of a n oth er, beca u se m a n a gem en t h a d n ot
m a de it clea r to th em pr ecisely wh a t th eir
r oles wer e. Th is “for m in g” sta ge[9] w a s
a ssisted by a doptin g th e tech n iqu e of a ddr essin g pr oblem s in a n on -per son a l w ay, e.g. by
a sk in g th e qu estion “wh a t a r e th e a ttr ibu tes
of a ‘good’ tea m ?”, a n d th en a sk in g th e m em ber s to scor e th eir ow n tea m a ga in st ea ch
a ttr ibu te. It w a s th en possible to focu s on
th ose a r ea s of pa r ticu la r str en gth a n d wea k n ess. For exa m ple, w ith in on e of th e m eetin gs, tea m m em ber s listed th e ch a r a cter istics
of a “good” tea m a s sh ow n in Ta ble I, w ith th e
m ea n scor e a ga in st ea ch ch a r a cter istic
sh ow n a lon gside.
Th e n ext sta ge w a s to focu s on th ose ch a r a cter istics wh ich wer e aw a r ded a low m ea n
scor e, i.e. wh ich wer e per ceived a s bein g
pr oblem a r ea s (poin ts 1, 5, 6, a n d 7 in Ta ble I).
Th ey wer e th en pu t in to a h ier a r ch y of ca u ses
a n d effects wh ich a ppea r s below :
Table I
Characteristic
M ean score
1
2
3
4
Being able to talk to one another
Respect for one another’s jobs
Respect for one another’s capabilities
Understanding one another’s strengths
and weaknesses
5 Trust between team members
6 Sharing decision making
7 Information sharing
•
•
•
•
4
8
8
8
4
4
3
sh a r in g decision m a k in g;
in for m a tion sh a r in g;
tr u st between tea m m em ber s;
bein g a ble to ta lk w ith on e a n oth er.
Th e tea m con sider ed th e pr oblem s a n d su ggested th a t tea m bu ildin g w a s n eeded a n d
th a t th is su ggestion be pu t to th e QST.
Exte rnal c o mmunic atio n
Th e two tea m s com pr isin g su ppor t sta ff listed
sim ila r pr oblem s r ela tin g to exter n a l com m u n ica tion s:
• Th ey wer e n ot told officia lly of pla n s wh ich
wou ld a ffect th e pa tter n of th eir wor k . It
w a s on ly wh en it ca m e to im plem en tin g
ch a n ges th a t th ey fou n d ou t a bou t th em .
• In dividu a l a ca dem ic sta ff, th em selves n ot
wor k in g a s m em ber s of a tea m , m a de differ in g dem a n ds on su ppor t sta ff. Ver y often
th is wou ld r esu lt in pea k s a n d tr ou gh s
of wor k loa d, w ith th e a dded difficu lty of
tr yin g to pr ior itize a s ea ch a ca dem ic
cla im ed h is/ h er ow n wor k to be of m ost
im por ta n ce.
• With n o esta blish ed m ediu m for com m u n ica tion existin g for su ppor t sta ff, it w a s
difficu lt for th em to m a k e r equ ests for
ch a n ges.
• Wh en m eetin gs w ith a ca dem ic sta ff did
ta k e pla ce, it w a s often a s a r esu lt of th in gs
goin g w r on g. Th ese m eetin gs wer e essen tia lly for fir e-fi gh tin g r a th er th a n for r ea l
pla n n in g pu r poses.
Haphazard c o mmunic atio n struc ture s
As im plied ea r lier, ver y little in th e w ay of
for m a l com m u n ica tion str u ctu r es exist
w ith in th e Sch ool. Th e on ly for m a l ga th er in g
to ta k e pla ce w a s for a ca dem ic sta ff, a n d th is
w a s u sed m a in ly for th e h ea d of Sch ool to
dissem in a te in for m a tion r e ga r din g issu es
su ch a s fu n din g, stu den t en r olm en t ta r gets
a n d r esu lts, a n d cou r se developm en ts. Wh ile
th e m eetin g dea lt w ith str a te gic issu es, th er e
gen er a lly en su ed a discu ssion of oth er topics,
w ith a ll a n d su n dr y con tr ibu tin g (often w ith
ir r eleva n t com m en ts). As a r esu lt, m ost ca m e
aw ay w ith th e feelin g th a t little h a d been
a ccom plish ed by th e m eetin g. Su ppor t sta ff
wer e n ot in vited to th ese m eetin gs.
[7 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
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No time fo r me e tings
Com m u n ica tion w a s fu r th er h in der ed by th e
n eed to fit in th e tea m m eetin gs w ith th e
oth er diver se du ties per for m ed by tea m m em ber s, or in th e fa ce of m or e “u r gen t” wor k
wh ich n eeded to be don e. Th is is a com m on
fea tu r e for m a n y types of m eetin g in edu ca tion , wh er e th e tea ch in g tim eta ble pr edom in a tes, w ith a ll oth er a ctivities h avin g to be
fitted in w ith it, th u s m a k in g it ver y difficu lt
to a r r a n ge su ita ble tim es wh en ever yon e ca n
a tten d. Wor k in g on sever a l sites m a k es it
even m or e difficu lt. Im por ta n tly, th e fa ct th a t
tea m s a r e n ot for m a lly r ecogn ized a n d, th er efor e, th a t m eetin gs a r e con sider ed a s su bsidia r y a ctivities by m a n a gem en t, u su a lly
m ea n s th a t th er e is a r elu cta n ce to a ccom m oda te th em w ith in th e tim eta ble.
Team leadership and skills
At th is sta ge on e a u th or a cted a s th e
fa cilita tor / tea m lea der so a s n ot to in tr odu ce
th e poten tia l pr oblem of electin g a lea der
fr om w ith in th e tea m s (u n less a clea r lea der
existed, a s in on e of th e pr oject tea m s), ow in g
to th e sh or t tim e lim it for th e exper im en ts.
Th is r esu lted in th e tea m s r elyin g h eavily on
h im to ca ll m eetin gs a n d or ga n ize a tten da n ce.
However, it qu ick ly beca m e a ppa r en t th a t
lea der s wer e n eeded w ith th e sk ills to focu s
th e tea m on cu stom er n eeds a n d to u se th e
n ecessa r y decision -m a k in g tools to pr odu ce
u sefu l ou tcom es.
Commitment towards objectives
A n u m ber of m a r k ed differ en ces wer e
obser ved between tea m s in th eir ou tlook
tow a r ds a ction a n d objectives. Th r ou gh ou t
th e exer cise th e sim ple sch em a tic “pla n a ction -r eview ” w a s pr oposed to tea m s a s
bein g th e best w ay to pr oceed. To a ssist in th e
a ction sta ge, th e QST w a s ava ila ble for vettin g pla n s in ter m s of th eir costs a n d lik ely
ou tcom es. Th ey a lso a cted a s fa cilita tor s in
a u th or izin g a ction , bu dgets a n d so on , wh er e
n ecessa r y.
It w a s fou n d th a t pr oject tea m s wer e m or e
a ble to u se th e pla n - a ction - r eview m eth od
th a n th e oper a tin g tea m s beca u se:
• A pr oject h a s its ow n objectives wh ich a r e
m or e clea r ly defin ed th a n th ose of th e da ily
wor k situ a tion .
• Clea r objectives a r e a n ecessa r y pr er equ isite of good pla n n in g. Wh er e objectives a r e
u n clea r or n ot explicit, th en th ey h ave to be
for m u la ted befor e pla n n in g ca n pr oceed.
• Th er e is often a n ovelty va lu e in pr ojects,
wh ich does n ot exist in n or m a l wor k situ a tion s. In a ddition , th er e is a str on ger
ch a n ce of “ta sk closu r e” wh ich seem s to a ct
a s a stim u la n t for pa r ticipa tin g m em ber s;
• Tea m m em ber s h ave th e oppor tu n ity to
dea l w ith u n iqu e a n d n ovel situ a tion s,
[8 ]
in volvin g n ew ta sk s a n d m a n a gem en t r oles.
Th ese wer e m otiva tin g fa ctor s for tea m
m em ber s wh ich a ssisted in a ch ievin g
su ccessfu l ou tcom es a n d a ided th e
dyn a m ism of th e tea m s.
• P r ojects in volve ta sk -closu r e, wh er eby
ou tpu ts ca n be eva lu a ted, a s opposed to
con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t of da ily r ou tin es
wh ich a r e fa r less ea sy to eva lu a te.
• P r ojects a r e clea r ly expected to su cceed a n d
tea m m em ber s w ill wor k tow a r ds su ccessfu l ou tcom es so a s to feel a sen se of selfa ch ievem en t a n d to avoid n e ga tive feedba ck
fr om exter n a l sou r ces.
In con tr a st, for th e oper a tin g tea m s:
• It w a s difficu lt for th em to con ceive of objectives, especia lly con cer n in g issu es su ch a s
qu a lity, cu stom er sa tisfa ction , a n d in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l cu stom er s, sin ce th ey h a d
little pr ior u n der sta n din g of th ese con cepts.
Th is w a s pa r tly beca u se th ey wer e n ot
em bedded w ith in th e cu ltu r e of th e wor k pla ce.
• Th ey did n ot h ave a str a te gic or ien ta tion
a n d th u s la ck ed th e exper ien ce or dr ive to
con sider issu es ou tside th eir ow n n a r r ow
fields.
• Oper a tion a l ta sk s did n ot con ta in a n y pr edeter m in ed objectives or explicit sta n da r ds
wh ich wer e to be m et. Mem ber s of su ch
tea m s la ck ed th e m otiva tion to im pr ove or
ch a n ge th eir wor k in g pr a ctices in th e
a bsen ce of a n y r ew a r ds, i.e. positive feedba ck fr om im pr ovin g th eir wor k or th e la ck
of n e ga tive feedba ck fr om r em a in in g th e
sa m e.
In a ddition to th e differ en ces between pr oject
a n d oper a tin g tea m s, th er e wer e a lso differ en ces between tea m s m a de u p of su ppor t
sta ff a n d th ose com pr isin g a ca dem ic sta ff,
a s follow s.
Su ppor t sta ff wer e fa r m or e depen den t on
m a n a gem en t th a n wer e a ca dem ic sta ff. Th is
su ppor ts th e th eor y th a t m or e th a n on e cu ltu r e ca n exist w ith in a con text[6], i.e. th a t
w ith in th e pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion th er e
a r e elem en ts of th e “m a ch in e bu r ea u cr a cy”,
wh ich depen ds on for m a l m a n a gem en t power
a n d h ier a r ch ies. Th e sta ff in th e su ppor t
fu n ction s oper a ted m u ch a s th ey wou ld do if
th ey wor k ed in a com m er cia l or in du str ia l
or ga n iza tion , on ly ta k in g r espon sibility
wh en explicitly given it by m a n a gem en t.
Th eir expecta tion s wer e sim ila r ly con fin ed
wh en it ca m e to tea m wor k in g. Th ey
per ceived th a t tea m s m u st be for m ed a s a pa r t
of a n over a ll str a te gy, wh er e th ey h ave a
defin ed pa r t to play in m a k in g th a t str a te gy
wor k , oth er w ise th ey la ck pu r pose.
Aca dem ic sta ff wer e h a ppy wor k in g a s a
pa r t of a pr oject tea m , bu t did n ot wor k well
in on e of th e oper a tin g tea m s. However, a
n u m ber of a ca dem ic sta ff qu estion ed th e n eed
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
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for oper a tin g tea m s a n d wh en th is w a s discu ssed fu r th er, expr essed th e fea r th a t tea m wor k in g wou ld in ter fer e w ith th eir ow n pr ofession a l fr eedom a n d a u ton om y.
Conclusions
Tea m wor k in g im pr oves wor k pa tter n s a n d
ou tcom es. An a n a lysis of th e type of wor k
ca r r ied ou t in th e edu ca tion a l con text sh ow s
th a t differ in g r oles a n d sk ills a r e r equ ir ed,
especia lly of th e pr ofession a l. Th e tea ch in g
r ole is tr a dition a lly con sider ed to be h igh ly
in dividu a listic, involvin g cla ssr oom tea ch in g,
tu tor ia ls, pr epa r a tion a n d pa stor a l ca r e. With ou t dou bt th is is con sider ed th e pr im a r y r ole.
Yet, even in th is r ole, a tea m a ppr oa ch is often
u sed n ow a days, in or der to a ch ieve better coor din a tion a n d lin k a ges, avoid du plica tion a n d
to sh a r e exper ien ces. Alth ou gh th e pr ofession a l en joys a u ton om y, h e/ sh e does n ot w a n t
to feel isola tion [10] a n d seek s wor k in g r ela tion sh ips w ith collea gu es to r edu ce a n y su ch
feelin gs. Tea ch in g does n ot, h owever, ta ke u p
a ll of th e wor k in g tim e. In deed, du r in g a n
a ca dem ic yea r th e pr opor tion of tim e spen t in
th is r ole m ay be a s little a s 40 per cen t. Th e
r est of th e tim e is spen t in th e r ole of pla n n er
a n d co-or din a tor, wh ich involves a tten din g
cou r se-r ela ted m eetin gs, su bject-specific m eetin gs a n d pla n n in g m eetin gs. Th is is often
con sider ed to be th e m ost difficu lt r ole, a s it
involves u n der sta n din g exter n a lly gen er a ted
in itia tives, su ch a s Na tion a l Voca tion a l Qu a lification s (NVQs), a n d h avin g to tu r n su ch
idea s in to a ction a ble pr ogr a m m es w ith in th e
existin g con text.
A degr ee of fr u str a tion is often exper ien ced
w ith in th e tea ch in g r ole, ow in g to a n u m ber of
fa ctor s: th e u n str u ctu r ed n a tu r e of m eetin gs
a n d th e fa ilu r e to com plete th e pla n -a ction r eview cycle; h avin g to wor k a t a pa ce of
ch a n ge over wh ich tea ch er s h ave n o in flu en ce;
a n d little cr eden ce bein g given to th eir pr ofession a l opin ion s, especia lly in a r ea s in wh ich
th ey m ay h ave pr ofession a l exper tise. Tea m wor k in g wou ld be of m ost ben efit for th is r ole,
pr ovided th a t it is a s a pa r t of a str u ctu r ed
a ppr oa ch . Cr ea tivity wou ld be im pr oved so
lon g a s th e r igh t envir on m en t wer e cr ea ted.
Adm in istr a tion a n d su ppor t r oles a r e
pa r tly per for m ed by th e pr ofession a l, bu t a r e
m a in ly th e dom a in of su ppor t sta ff. Th e ver y
ter m “su ppor t” im plies th e n eed to lia ise a n d
to co-or din a te w ith th ose wh om on e is su ppor tin g. It a lso in volves bein g k n ow ledgea ble
a bou t pla n s wh ich w ill r equ ir e su ppor t. Th u s
in ter disciplin a r y tea m s wou ld clea r ly be of
ben efit in im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of wor k
ca r r ied ou t a cr oss th e or ga n iza tion . Tea m s
con sistin g on ly of section s of su ppor t sta ff
cou ld a ssist in im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of wor k
don e w ith in th e section s. Th eir ta sk wou ld be
to look for con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t in
oper a tion a l m a tter s, h avin g been given th e
str a te gic “lea d” fr om a bove.
Tea m wor k in g im pr oves th e n a tu r e of wor k
itself. Th e n a tu r e of wor k in clu des su ch per son a l a n d envir on m en ta l fa ctor s a s th e n eed to
be a ccepted a n d to en joy m or a l a n d socia l
su ppor t fr om collea gu es. Clea r ly tea m wor k in g
wou ld im pr ove th e possibilities for a tta in in g
th is r equ ir em en t a n d wh ile su ppor t fr om on e’s
tea m collea gu es w ill n ot a lw ays be for th com in g, th e r ea son s beh in d decision s w ill a t lea st
be clea r. Feelin gs of isola tion w ill a lso be
gr ea tly r edu ced. In cr ea sin g th e scope of con tr ol over on e’s close wor k in g envir on m en t is a
fu n da m en ta l r ole for qu a lity cir cles a n d oth er
su ch tea m s. In a ddition , tea m s offer both th e
oppor tu n ity to ta ke r espon sibility a n d to sh a r e
it w ith oth er s, th u s r edu cin g th e per ceived
r isk in th e even t of m ista ke or fa ilu r e.
A n u m ber of lim ita tion s to th e tea m
a ppr oa ch wer e a lso in dica ted by th e stu dy.
Th er e is a da n ger in a cceptin g r esista n ce in
th e for m of n e ga tive a ttitu des a n d opin ion s
fr om sta ff m em ber s in volved in th e stu dy, a n d
im m edia tely con clu din g th a t th ese w ill set
th e bou n da r ies for th e fu tu r e. Opposition w ill
gen er a lly be en cou n ter ed wh er ever a n d
wh en ever ch a n ges a r e pr oposed, bu t th is
m u st be over com e by th e w ill a n d th e sk ill of
m a n a gem en t in effectin g ch a n ge. A r a n ge of
lim itin g fa ctor s a ppea r s to exist:
• Th e often -m en tion ed desir e for a u ton om y
fr om th e pr ofession a l sta ff, wh ich is a
str on g r ea son for m a n y in ch oosin g th e
tea ch in g pr ofession in th e fir st pla ce. It w a s
n ot th e r em it of th is r esea r ch to iden tify
per son a lity tr a its w ith in tea ch er s, bu t it is
offer ed a s a possibility th a t m a n y of th em
h ave a qu estion in g a n d r ea son in g a ppr oa ch
to th eir wor k wh ich m ay in vite con flict
w ith for ces a ttem ptin g to im pose con tr ols.
• Tim e lim ita tion s, br ou gh t a bou t by in cr ea sin g wor k loa ds fr om a ddition a l a dm in istr a tion a n d in cr ea sin g n u m ber s of stu den ts,
bu t a lso beca u se of tim eta blin g con str a in ts
wh ich ca n m a k e it extr em ely difficu lt for
tea m m em ber s to m eet. Th is pr oblem is
exa cer ba ted wh en on e con sider s th e
n u m ber a n d va r iety of tea m s to wh ich a n y
on e per son m ay belon g, e.g. cou r se tea m s,
pr oject tea m s, cr oss-fu n ction a l tea m s, a n d
so on . Th e ver y pr ocess of a tten din g tea m
m eetin gs m ay a ffect per for m a n ce cr itica lly
in oth er a r ea s, n ot lea st in a ttem ptin g to
im plem en t a n y pla n s decided by th e tea m .
• Decidin g th e a r ea s in wh ich tea m s w ill
oper a te. As im plied in th e for e goin g pa r a gr a ph , th er e exists th e possibility of
em ployin g tea m s a cr oss w ide expa n ses of
edu ca tion a l wor k . Th is m ay differ fr om a
con ven tion a l m a n u fa ctu r in g en vir on m en t
wh er e wor k is typica lly don e a cr oss m or e
n a r r ow ly defin ed a n d differ en tia ted,
[9 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
•
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
•
•
•
fu n ction a l lin es. Th er e is a da n ger, th er efor e, th a t too m a n y tea m s m ay be cr ea ted
wh ich m a k es th eir co-or din a tion difficu lt.
Su ppor t sta ff a n d pr ofession a l sta ff r eceive
differ en t r a tes of pay a n d differ in g con dition s of ser vice. Th is cou ld cr ea te r esen tm en t a n d r esista n ce wh er e cr oss-fu n ction a l
tea m s oper a te, in a ccor da n ce w ith
Her zber g’s[11] two-fa ctor th eor y, wh er eby
extr in sic r ew a r ds a ct a s a “h ygien e fa ctor ”
a n d becom e a “dissa tisfier ” wh en differ en ces a r e per ceived to exist.
Cr oss-fu n ction a l tea m s m ay a lso r u n in to
difficu lty if pr ofession a l sta ff feel th a t it is
“ben ea th th em ” to sh a r e decision m a k in g
w ith su ppor t sta ff, a lth ou gh it m u st be
sta ted th a t th is h a s n ot been fou n d to be th e
ca se w ith in th is stu dy.
Tea m wor k in g w ill n ot su r vive in th e lon g
ter m if it is u sed in isola tion . Mu ch r efer en ce is m a de to th is in pu blish ed liter a tu r e,
su ggestin g th a t tea m wor k in g la ck s m ea n in g to m em ber s u n less it is a n in h er en t pa r t
of a n over a ll str a te gy for con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t, sh a r ed u n der sta n din g, a n d
pa r ticipa tive m a n a gem en t style.
Wh er e top m a n a gem en t su ppor t does n ot
exist (a t depa r tm en ta l or or ga n iza tion a l
level), or wh er e th e str u ctu r es a n d system s
for co-or din a tin g a n d su ppor tin g tea m s in
th eir wor k a r e n ot in pla ce.
Tea m s m u st exist in th e con text of a r a n ge
of qu a lity-r ela ted policies. Mem ber sh ip of
tea m s wh ich a ppea r to oper a te “in a va cu u m ”
ca n foster feelin gs of poin tlessn ess. N eedless
to say, su ch policies n eed clea r dir ection a n d
su ppor t fr om top m a n a gem en t if th ey a r e to
sta n d a ch a n ce of su cceedin g.
Tea m wor k in g wou ld h elp a ca dem ics to
r edu ce du plica tion of effor t, sh a r e ta sk s, a n d
to im pr ove co-or din a tion in tea ch in g pr ogr a m m es. Th e la ck of co-or din a tion is often a
m a jor com pla in t fr om stu den ts wh o exper ien ce per ceived in con sisten cies, ga ps, a n d
con tr a diction s.
As th e scope of wor k r espon sibilities in
h igh er edu ca tion w iden s a n d in cr ea ses in
com plexity, a join t a ppr oa ch to decision
m a k in g m ay often be desir a ble, beca u se
m or e exper ien ce a n d in for m a tion is br ou gh t
to bea r on a pr oblem .
Co-or din ation a n d u n der sta n din g between
a ca dem ic a n d su ppor t sta ff wou ld im pr ove a s a
r esu lt of tea m wor k in g wh ich im pr oves u n der sta n din g of oth er s’ r oles a n d con cer n s, a n d
pr ovides a focu s on m u tu a l ou tcom es.
Tr a in in g is n eeded in tea m lea der sh ip a n d
tea m dyn a m ics a n d tim e m u st be given for
tea m developm en t, wh ich m ay con stitu te a
m a jor in vestm en t a n d cu ltu r e sh ift. Th ese
two m ay pr ove to be th e m a in con str a in t a n d
ba r r ier, r espectively, to su ch a n in itia tive.
References
Implications
We wer e a ble to iden tify som e im plica tion s
for th ose a ttem ptin g to in tr odu ce tea m wor k in g in h igh er edu ca tion .
It wou ld be w r on g to a ssu m e th a t tea m wor k in g does n ot a lr ea dy exist. Tea m wor k in g
often does exist in a n in for m a l w ay, w ith a
gr ea t dea l of com m u n ica tion involvin g n e gotia tion r ela tin g to in dividu a ls’ in pu ts in to, for
exa m ple, a pr ogr a m m e of stu dy.
For m a l tea m wor k in g occu r s n a tu r a lly in
cer ta in situ a tion s – pr in cipa lly wh en r ela ted
to specia l pr ojects, e.g. wh en developin g a
m odu la r de gr ee cou r se. Su ch pr ojects in volve
ta sk -closu r e a n d a llow tea m m em ber s to
u n der ta k e m a n a ger ia l ta sk s wh ich th ey
oth er w ise ca n n ot do, su ch a s decision m a k in g, lea der sh ip a n d a lloca tion of r esou r ces.
Aca dem ics cer ta in ly va lu e th eir fr eedom ,
wh ich is m a in ly cen tr ed on peda gogic m a tter s. Attem pts to h a r n ess th em in to tea m s for
th e day-to-day on goin g r u n n in g of tea ch in g
pr ogr a m m es a r e per ceived by th em a s
“u n n ecessa r y”, r estr ictive, a n d a ttem pts to
con tr ol a r e often r esen ted.
Th e tr a dition a l da ily sch edu le of wor k does
n ot a llow tim e for r e gu la r m eetin gs to ta k e
pla ce in wh ich a ll tea m m em ber s a r e in volved
– th is effectively pr eclu des tea m wor k in g.
[ 10 ]
1 Law r en ce, P.R. a n d Lor sch , J .W., Orga n iz a tion
a n d En viron m en t, Boston Division of
Resea r ch , Ha r va r d Un iver sity P r ess, Boston ,
MA, 1967.
2 Por ter, M., Com petitiv e A dva n ta ge: Crea tin g
a n d S u sta in in g S u per ior Per for m a n ce, F r ee
P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1985.
3 E m er y, F.E . a n d Tr ist, F.L., “Th e ca u sa l textu r e
of or ga n iza tion a l en vir on m en ts”, Hu m a n
R ela tion s, Vol. 18, 1965, pp. 21-32.
4 Mor tiboys, R. a n d Oa k la n d, J ., T ota l Qu a lity
M a n a gem en t a n d Effectiv e L ea d ersh ip, Depa r tm en t of Tr a de a n d In du str y, Lon don , 1991.
5 E m ploym en t Depa r tm en t, In v estors in People,
book let, E D, Sh effield, 1991.
6 Min tzber g, H. a n d Qu in n , J .B., T h e S tra teg y
Process: Con cepts, Con tex ts, Ca ses, 2n d ed.,
P r en tice-Ha ll In ter n a tion a l, Hem el
Hem pstea d, 1991.
7 Sh aw, J ., in Klein , J . (E d.), Work in g w ith
Grou ps, Hu tch in son , Lon don , 1976, p. 76.
8 Coh en , L. a n d Ma n ion , L., R esea rch M eth od s in
Ed u ca tion , 3r d ed., Rou tledge, Lon don , 1989.
9 Belbin , R.M., M a n a gem en t T ea m s – W h y T h ey
S u cceed or Fa il, Hein em a n n , Oxfor d, 1981.
10 McN u lty, I., Copin g w ith Cr isis, pr oject r epor t,
F u r th er E du ca tion Un it, 1988.
11 Her zber g, F., Work a n d N a tu re of M a n ,
Gr a n a da P u blica tion s, Lon don , 1974.
setting: a case study
Richard J. Varey
Dire c to r, BNFL Co rpo rate Co mmunic atio ns Unit, The Manage me nt Sc ho o l,
Unive rsity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK
Terry Nolan
Sc ho o l o f Te xtile Studie s, Bo lto n Institute , Bo lto n, UK
Describes how, in response to
the major changes in the
operating environment for a
higher education institution,
an approach to teamworking
was piloted and facilitated by
one of the authors. Describes
the approach taken and
highlights some of the issues
raised in the programme, with
explanations. Discusses
lessons learned from the
initiative.
Introduction
Ou r pa per is der ived fr om a n MBA disser ta tion pr oject wh ich focu sed on th e im plem en ta tion of tea m wor k in g w ith in th e Sch ool of
Textile Stu dies a t Bolton In stitu te. Th e idea
stem m ed fr om th e a u th or s’ exper ien ces in th e
h igh er edu ca tion en vir on m en t wh ich h a s
ch a n ged r a pidly sin ce th e la te 1980s, br in gin g
w ith it con sider a tion s wh ich pr eviou sly wer e
believed by m a n y to a ffect on ly com m er cia l
or ga n iza tion s. Th ese in clu de:
• depa r tm en ts a s “cost” a n d “pr ofi t” cen tr es;
• view in g stu den ts, spon sor s, pa r en ts, in du str y, a n d oth er gr ou ps a s cu stom er s;
• dem a n d for cou r ses va r yin g w ith econ om ic
a n d socia l con dition s;
• r esou r ces a lloca ted in r ela tion to dem a n d
a s opposed to depa r tm en ta l
“r equ ir em en ts”.
Th ese n otion s r efl ect a n in cr ea sin gly com petitive en vir on m en t, wh er ein a n u m ber of fea tu r es ca n be iden tifi ed:
• th er e a r e m or e com petitor s th a n ever,
ow in g in pa r t to der e gu la tion ;
• com petitor s a dopt diver se m ea n s to a ttr a ct
cu stom ;
• cu stom er s’ expecta tion s a r e in cr ea sin g;
• investor s’ expecta tion s a r e in cr ea sin g.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 4 –1 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[4 ]
Th u s th e en vir on m en t h a s ch a n ged fr om
bein g “sim ple a n d sta ble” to “com plex a n d
tu r bu len t”[1].
In r espon se, a n u m ber of in itia tives h ave
n ow been a dopted by h igh er edu ca tion esta blish m en ts, a im ed a t in cr ea sin g th e efficien cy
a n d effectiven ess of th e or ga n iza tion . Th ese
in clu de tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t (TQM), th e
Br itish Sta n da r ds In stitu te’s (BSI) BS 5750,
a n d th e Tr a in in g a n d E du ca tion Cou n cil’s
(TE C) “In vestor s in People” in itia tive (IIP ).
Br oa dly spea k in g th ey en deavou r to br in g a
focu s to bea r on th e or ga n iza tion ’s cu stom er s
by a ll of th e wor k for ce in or der to pr ovide
tota l sa tisfa ction or to “deligh t”[2]. In so
doin g th e or ga n iza tion is a ble to str en gth en
its bon ds w ith cu stom er s, a n d th u s exer t
som e m ea su r e of con tr ol over its “fir st level
en vir on m en t”[3]. Focu sin g th e wor k for ce in
th is w ay, to pr ovide cu stom er deligh t,
r equ ir es som e fu n da m en ta l ch a n ges in
em ph a sis on th e pa r t of m a n a gem en t aw ay
fr om th e tr a dition a l style, wh ich is ch a r a cter ized by:
• sh or t-ter m pr ofita bility (bu sin esses) or
sh or t-ter m a ccou n tin g (pu blic ser vices);
• h avin g n o clea r str a te gic position ;
• cla m pin g dow n on costs wh ile toler a tin g
h igh levels of w a sta ge;
• a “ta k e it or leave it” a ttitu de to cu stom er s;
• bu yin g a t th e lowest pr ice;
• m a k in g a r bitr a r y ch a n ges wh en for ced in to
it;
• fir e-figh tin g m a n a gem en t – th e “tr ou blesh ooter ” a ppr oa ch .
In effect, h avin g r ea lized th a t con tr ol ca n be
exer ted on exter n a l fa ctor s on ly a s a r esu lt of
r a dica l in ter n a l ch a n ges, m a n a gem en t h a s
u n der ta k en to ch a n ge its pr ior ities, especia lly on th e u se of r esou r ces w ith in th e or ga n iza tion , pa r ticu la r ly th e wor k for ce[4]:
…th e com petitive situ a tion a n d com petitive
br ea k th r ou gh s r equ ir ed, a pply equ a lly to
m a n a ger s in bu sin ess a n d ser vice or ga n iza tion s. It is ju st a s im por ta n t th a t th ey a r e
ta k en u p in edu ca tion a n d th e N a tion a l
Hea lth Ser vice, a s th a t th ey a r e pr a ctised in
m a n u fa ctu r in g in du str y or th e fin a n cia l
ser vices.
Th e TE C’s IIP in itia tive for m s a pa r t of th e
m a n a gem en t a ppr oa ch to TQM. It is seen to
be pa r ticu la r ly a ppr opr ia te w ith in th e ser vice sector wh er e m ea su r em en ts of qu a lity
ca n n ot be qu a n tified a s r ea dily a s in m a n u fa ctu r in g, wh er e ou tpu ts ca n be m ea su r ed,
weigh ed a n d com pa r ed a ga in st specifica tion s.
In vestor s in People is a str u ctu r ed m eth od for
en su r in g th a t em ployee developm en t is
lin k ed closely to com petitive for ces, a n d th is
r equ ir es a tea m cu ltu r e w ith in a n or ga n iza tion . It is ba sed on th e exper ien ces of m a n y
su ccessfu l UK com pa n ies wh ich h ave fou n d
th a t per for m a n ce is im pr oved by a pla n n ed
a ppr oa ch to settin g a n d com m u n ica tin g bu sin ess goa ls to th e wor k for ce a n d by developin g
people to m eet th ese goa ls so th a t “wh a t people ca n do a n d a r e m otiva ted to do m a tch es
wh a t th e bu sin ess n eeds th em to do”[5]. It
does n ot, h owever, con stitu te a r igid m odel for
doin g th is. It is expected, by its pr opon en ts,
th a t ch a n ges w ill h ave to be m a de w ith in
differ in g situ a tion s, th is bein g especia lly th e
ca se w ith in edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. Th is
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
ca n be expla in ed by fir st u n der sta n din g th e
pr eva ilin g cu ltu r e w ith in h igh er edu ca tion .
Ma n y cu ltu r a l fa ctor s r evolve a r ou n d
issu es of in ter n a l power a n d depen den cy
between a n d a cr oss fu n ction s a n d h ier a r ch ies. Min tzber g a n d Qu in n [6] descr ibe th e
con flictin g for ces wh ich exist w ith in th e
“pr ofession a l con text”, i.e. th e con text wh ich
best descr ibes th e edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion .
F ir st it is n ecessa r y to iden tify wh er e con flicts m igh t a r ise w ith in th is “con text”.
With in th is or ga n iza tion a l con fi gu r a tion th e
k ey pa r t of th e or ga n iza tion is th e “oper a tin g
cor e”, i.e. th e lectu r in g/ a ca dem ic sta ff. At
Bolton In stitu te th ey a r e h or izon ta lly decen tr a lized in to six sch ools. Th e th eor y r ela tes
closely to th e pr a ctice in th a t th e “pr ofession a ls” (a ca dem ic sta ff) em er ge a s h igh ly m otiva ted in dividu a ls a ble to wor k w ith a h igh
de gr ee of a u ton om y in th eir specia lized
a r ea s, wh ile exer tin g “exper t power ” to in flu en ce decision s. Also of n ote is th a t sen ior
m a n a gem en t la ck s for m a l power a n d its pr im a r y ta sk is to en su r e th a t th e or ga n iza tion
k eeps its “sh a pe”, ch iefly by a lloca tin g
r esou r ces a n d dir ectin g on str a te gy. Sen ior
m a n a gem en t for m s th e “str a te gic a pex”
wh ich m u st co-or din a te closely w ith th e oper a tin g cor e, a r ole wh ich is becom in g in cr ea sin gly difficu lt for th e follow in g r ea son s:
• Th e ch a n gin g r ole of m a n a gem en t is a con sequ en ce of th e in cr ea sin g en vir on m en ta l
com plexity fa cin g edu ca tion . Wh er ea s,
tr a dition a lly, m a n a ger s cou ld focu s on
m a in ta in in g or ga n iza tion a l wellbein g by
fa cilita tin g th e wor k of th e pr ofession a ls,
e.g. va lida tin g th eir pr oposa ls for cou r ses,
r esea r ch a n d oth er sch ola r ly a ctivity, n ow a days th eir r ole is m u ch m or e a k in to th a t of
th e bu sin ess m a n a ger. In effect th ey a r e fa r
m or e exter n a lly focu sed on m a r k ets, le gisla tion a n d spon sor s. Co-or din a tion is bou n d
to becom e m or e difficu lt beca u se th e exter n a l dem a n ds pu t on m a n a gem en t w ill con flict w ith th e in dividu a listic m otives of th e
pr ofession a ls, wh o w ill exer t th eir exper t
power in r esistin g ch a n ges.
• Th er e is a per ceived in cr ea se in power on
th e pa r t of m a n a gem en t, r esu ltin g fr om
le gisla tion , th e dem ise of u n ion power, a n d
a n a tion a l cu ltu r e ch a n ge tow a r ds a n a u tocr a tic m a n a ger ia lism a m on g fledglin g
“m a n a ger s” in h igh er edu ca tion . Th is con tr a sts w ith th e dem ocr a tic com m ittee
pr ocesses, wh ich h ave existed to ch a n n el
th e pr ofession a l’s dem a n ds u pw a r ds in th e
or ga n iza tion , e.g. via a ca dem ic boa r ds.
• Co-or din a tion ca n be stifl ed cr u cia lly by th e
tw in for ces of th e su ppor t sta ff on th e on e
h a n d, a n d th e “tech n ostr u ctu r e”[6] on th e
oth er, com bin in g to str a n gle th e lin k
between th e “str a te gic a pex” a n d th e
“oper a tin g cor e”. Th is ca n occu r a s th e
“tech n ostr u ctu r e” pu sh es th e “oper a tin g
cor e” tow a r ds sta n da r diza tion , e.g. in selection pr ocedu r es or cou r se for m a ts, wh ile
th e “su ppor t sta ff ” (in th is ca se th e a dm in istr a tor s) im pose bu r ea u cr a tic system s a s a
m ea n s of con tr ol on th e “w ayw a r d” pr ofession a ls. In th is w ay th e “oper a tin g cor e”
ca n becom e over bu r den ed w ith th e n eed to
follow pr ocedu r es wh ich th ey per ceive a s
bein g m u n da n e, tim e con su m in g a n d often
u n n ecessa r y. Su ch a ctivities a r e diver sion a r y fr om th eir pr im a r y ta sk s a n d a h in dr a n ce to a ch ievin g str a te gic goa ls.
Min tzber g a n d Qu in n [6] pr opose two r ou tes
dow n wh ich th e “pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion ”
ca n go:
1 th e self-in ter est or “politica l m odel”,
wh ich is divisive a n d does n ot r ea lize th e
or ga n iza tion ’s str a te gic poten tia l;
2 th e com m on in ter est or “colle gia te m odel”
wh ich is seen a s th e best r ou te, a s it
r equ ir es people to wor k togeth er. It is th is
m odel wh ich is clea r ly pr efer r ed a n d
wh ich n ecessita tes som e de gr ee of tea m wor k in g.
Most of th e ou tpu ts fr om th e pr ofession a l
or ga n iza tion a r e sta n da r dized, e.g. cou r ses
a n d qu a lifi ca tion s. However, th e en vir on m en ta l dem a n ds a r e su ch th a t n on -sta n da r d
“pr odu cts” a r e in in cr ea sin g dem a n d. In
a ddition , com plexity for ces m a n y n ovel, n on r ou tin e pr oblem s on to th e or ga n iza tion
wh ich m igh t best be dea lt w ith by tea m s.
Sh aw [7] r ecogn ized th a t “typica lly sever a l
con cer n ed a n d k n ow ledgea ble people w ill
ou tper for m on e per son in solvin g pr oblem s”.
Two distin ct cu ltu r es ca n exist w ith in th e
pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion , w ith th e pr ofession a ls displayin g h igh levels of self-m otiva tion a n d a desir e for a u ton om y. On th e oth er
h a n d, th e su ppor t sta ff ’s wor k is m u ch m or e
h igh ly con str a in ed w ith in fu n ction a l a r ea s
a n d th u s pr escr ibed by m a n a gem en t, i.e.
m or e in flu en ced by exter n a l m otiva tor s. Ar e
th e goa ls of both th ese gr ou ps con gr u en t, or
cou ld it be th e ca se th a t th e pr ofession a ls
often fi n d th em selves wor k in g to su ppor t th e
system s pu t in pla ce by th e a dm in istr a tor s?
In or der to r espon d to th e pr essu r es
br ou gh t to bea r on th e or ga n iza tion a tea m
a ppr oa ch w a s con sider ed. In a doptin g th is
m eth od, it cou ld be th a t th e or ga n iza tion
loses its “sh a pe”, w ith fea tu r es of Min tzber g
a n d Qu in n ’s “in n ova tive con text”[6] bein g
over la id. In pr a ctice th is m ea n s th a t th e pr ofession a ls wor k togeth er in tea m s a n d m ay
h ave to for go som e in depen den ce. Th er e w ill
a lso be cr oss-fu n ction a l a n d “cr oss-cu ltu r a l”
tea m s (i.e. pr ofession a l a n d su ppor t sta ff) a n d
th u s a m er gin g of differ en t elem en ts fr om
[5 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
w ith in th e con text. Yet if Min tzber g a n d
Qu in n ’s pr oposition th a t th e pr ofession a l
or ga n iza tion ca n follow on e of two r ou tes[6] is
cor r ect, th en th e on ly a lter n a tive to im pr oved
tea m wor k in g w ill be a dr ift tow a r ds th e
politica l/ self-in ter est m odel, wh ich is sim ply
n ot con du cive eith er to effectiven ess or to
efficien cy.
The aims of the study
A stu dy of a n a ppr oa ch to in tr odu cin g tea m wor k in g a t Bolton In stitu te w a s design ed to:
• in vestiga te th e cu ltu r a l a n d m a n a ger ia l
fea tu r es wh ich cu r r en tly exist w ith in th e
situ a tion a l con text;
• ca r r y ou t a n a u dit in r espect of com m u n ica tion s, pla n n in g, tr a in in g a n d su ppor t for
in n ova tion w ith in th e situ a tion ;
• im plem en t tea m bu ildin g a s pa r t of a pilot
pr oject a cr oss a sa m ple of sta ff;
• r a ise aw a r en ess of qu a lity a n d tea m issu es
w ith in th e or ga n iza tion ; a n d
• r ecom m en d a follow -u p pr ogr a m m e.
Planned outcomes
Th e r esea r ch er s’ in ten tion w a s to a cqu ir e:
• a n eva lu a tion of th e specia l cir cu m sta n ces
a n d ch a r a cter istics of sta ff n eeds a n d tea m wor k in g w ith in a h igh er edu ca tion esta blish m en t;
• a n a ssessm en t of th e con str a in ts or obsta cles to a tea m a ppr oa ch w ith in th e edu ca tion a l settin g;
• r ecom m en da tion s for th e fu r th er developm en t of th is a spect of th e qu a lity pr ogr a m m e for Bolton In stitu te’s Sch ool of
Textile Stu dies.
Overview of research methodology
Th e u ltim a te objective of th e stu dy w a s to
im pr ove pr a ctice w ith in th e pa r ticu la r con text by m ea n s of a ction r esea r ch wh ich is
“essen tia lly a n on -th e-spot pr ocedu r e
design ed to dea l w ith a con cr ete pr oblem
loca ted in a n im m edia te situ a tion ”[8].
E ssen tia lly two differ en t types of tea m
exist. P r oject tea m s wer e for m ed fr om a cr oss
n or m a l wor k in g gr ou ps for th e du r a tion of a
pr oject a n d to see it th r ou gh to com pletion .
For exa m ple, on e tea m en deavou r ed to m odu la r ize th e Sch ool’s cou r ses, a n d a n oth er to
w r ite a dista n ce lea r n in g pa ck a ge. Oper a tin g
tea m s wer e for m ed a s “per m a n en t” u n its,
a n d com pr ised people wh o r e gu la r ly wor k ed
togeth er. Th eir objectives wer e to im pr ove
efficien cy a n d effectiven ess in oper a tion s
by m a k in g ch a n ges to th eir ow n m eth ods,
[6 ]
system s, a n d en vir on m en ts. A sin gle qu a lity
steer in g tea m (QST) w a s esta blish ed to a ssess
qu a lity im pr ovem en t su ggestion s fr om pr oject a n d oper a tin g tea m s.
Th e pr ogr a m m e of r esea r ch a ctivities ca r r ied ou t w a s:
1 Br ief h ea d of Sch ool on a ll a spects of
r esea r ch a n d discu ss logistics.
2 Select a sa m ple of oper a tin g tea m s fr om
th e Sch ool of Textiles, in clu din g th e QST,
to a ct a s fa cilita tor s to th e oper a tin g
tea m s.
3 Advise th e QST on th eir r ole, wh ich w ill
in clu de:
• defin in g “qu a lity” w ith in th e Sch ool;
• settin g objectives w ith in th e con text of
“qu a lity”;
• em power in g tea m s to seek solu tion s to
pr oblem s;
• in itia tin g a ction tow a r ds pr oblem solvin g a n d in n ova tion ;
• m ea su r in g ou tcom es a ga in st objectives.
4 Hold in a u gu r a l oper a tin g tea m m eetin gs
w ith th e objectives of:
• for m a lly la u n ch in g th e tea m a ppr oa ch ;
• br iefin g th e tea m s on th eir r oles w ith in
th e r esea r ch pr oject;
• a ssistin g tea m s in iden tifyin g pr oblem
a r ea s w ith in tea m oper a tion s a n d th eir
wor k a n d to con sider h ow a n d wh y pr oblem s a r e ca u sed.
5 Atten d fu r th er m eetin gs in th e r ole of
obser ver a n d/ or a dviser. It w a s in ten ded
th a t a m in im u m of in ter ven tion be m a de,
except wh en specifica lly r equ ested by
tea m s. In ter ven tion a n d a dvice wer e to be
offer ed in th e follow in g a r ea s:
• tea m bu ildin g;
• pr oblem solvin g a n d decision m a k in g;
• com m u n ica tion sk ills;
• objective settin g.
6 Atten d lia ison m eetin gs between th e QST
a n d oper a tin g tea m s, to obser ve discu ssion s of pr oposa ls.
7 Assess th e n u m ber a n d n a tu r e of decision s
m a de by tea m s a n d r ea ction s of th e QST.
8 An a lyse pr oblem s a n d ba r r ier s to in itia tin g a tea m a ppr oa ch . Su ch ba r r ier s a r e
expected to be both in ter n a l (i.e. to th e
people in volved) a n d exter n a l (i.e. a s en vir on m en ta l con str a in ts).
Findings from the action research
A tota l of 14 str u ctu r ed tea m m eetin gs wer e
h eld a m on g five tea m s, between Febr u a r y a n d
J u n e 1993. Clea r ly som e pr oblem s a ffected th e
tea m s. Th e in itia l m eetin gs wer e devoted to
listen in g to m em ber s descr ibin g th e pr oblem s wh ich th ey en cou n ter ed du r in g th e
cou r se of th eir wor k . As su ch , th e m eetin gs
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wer e fa ir ly u n str u ctu r ed w ith people expla in in g a gr ea t n u m ber of pr oblem s. With ou t
a ttem ptin g to dir ect th e discu ssion in a n y
w ay, th e r esea r ch er m er ely listed th e pr oblem s on a flip ch a r t, h elpin g th e tea m to focu s
on th e ca u ses a n d r esu ltin g pr oblem s.
Th e obser ved ou tcom es a r e discu ssed
below.
Communications
Th is pr oved to be th e m a jor a n d fu n da m en ta l
pr oblem a r ea for a ll th e tea m s. Com m u n ica tion exists in two dom a in s: in ter n a lly,
between tea m m em ber s; a n d exter n a lly,
between th e tea m a n d oth er tea m s, a gen cies
a n d in dividu a ls.
Inte rnal c o mmunic atio n
Th r ee tea m s exper ien ced a n in itia l pr oblem
stem m in g fr om a la ck of open n ess in
discu ssin g pr oblem s. Th is w a s pa r tly du e to
th e m iscon ception th a t th e m eetin gs wer e
pa r t of a m a n a gem en t r epor tin g exer cise,
a lth ou gh a n u m ber of u n der lyin g per son a l
con flicts a lso existed between m em ber s,
wh ich in h ibited com m u n ica tion . Th e r esu lt
w a s th a t a n u m ber of “h idden a gen da s” wer e
br ou gh t a lon g to in itia l m eetin gs su ch a s:
• in dividu a ls deter m in ed to exh ibit a n
u n w illin gn ess to ta k e pa r t or even a w ish to
disr u pt th e m eetin g;
• u sin g th e m eetin g a s a n oppor tu n ity to
“sou n d off ” a bou t lon g-h eld gr ieva n ces or
a bou t u n r ela ted issu es;
• u sin g m eetin gs a s a n oppor tu n ity to dem on str a te dom in a n ce a n d for m a l power r oles.
Gr a du a lly, it w a s possible to a llay th e fea r s
a n d m istr u st a s to th e pu r pose of th e exer cise
a n d a lso to br in g ou t som e of th e u n der lyin g
con flicts. An exa m ple of on e su ch con flict w a s
wh er e on e per son did n ot a ccept th e a u th or ity of a n oth er, beca u se m a n a gem en t h a d n ot
m a de it clea r to th em pr ecisely wh a t th eir
r oles wer e. Th is “for m in g” sta ge[9] w a s
a ssisted by a doptin g th e tech n iqu e of a ddr essin g pr oblem s in a n on -per son a l w ay, e.g. by
a sk in g th e qu estion “wh a t a r e th e a ttr ibu tes
of a ‘good’ tea m ?”, a n d th en a sk in g th e m em ber s to scor e th eir ow n tea m a ga in st ea ch
a ttr ibu te. It w a s th en possible to focu s on
th ose a r ea s of pa r ticu la r str en gth a n d wea k n ess. For exa m ple, w ith in on e of th e m eetin gs, tea m m em ber s listed th e ch a r a cter istics
of a “good” tea m a s sh ow n in Ta ble I, w ith th e
m ea n scor e a ga in st ea ch ch a r a cter istic
sh ow n a lon gside.
Th e n ext sta ge w a s to focu s on th ose ch a r a cter istics wh ich wer e aw a r ded a low m ea n
scor e, i.e. wh ich wer e per ceived a s bein g
pr oblem a r ea s (poin ts 1, 5, 6, a n d 7 in Ta ble I).
Th ey wer e th en pu t in to a h ier a r ch y of ca u ses
a n d effects wh ich a ppea r s below :
Table I
Characteristic
M ean score
1
2
3
4
Being able to talk to one another
Respect for one another’s jobs
Respect for one another’s capabilities
Understanding one another’s strengths
and weaknesses
5 Trust between team members
6 Sharing decision making
7 Information sharing
•
•
•
•
4
8
8
8
4
4
3
sh a r in g decision m a k in g;
in for m a tion sh a r in g;
tr u st between tea m m em ber s;
bein g a ble to ta lk w ith on e a n oth er.
Th e tea m con sider ed th e pr oblem s a n d su ggested th a t tea m bu ildin g w a s n eeded a n d
th a t th is su ggestion be pu t to th e QST.
Exte rnal c o mmunic atio n
Th e two tea m s com pr isin g su ppor t sta ff listed
sim ila r pr oblem s r ela tin g to exter n a l com m u n ica tion s:
• Th ey wer e n ot told officia lly of pla n s wh ich
wou ld a ffect th e pa tter n of th eir wor k . It
w a s on ly wh en it ca m e to im plem en tin g
ch a n ges th a t th ey fou n d ou t a bou t th em .
• In dividu a l a ca dem ic sta ff, th em selves n ot
wor k in g a s m em ber s of a tea m , m a de differ in g dem a n ds on su ppor t sta ff. Ver y often
th is wou ld r esu lt in pea k s a n d tr ou gh s
of wor k loa d, w ith th e a dded difficu lty of
tr yin g to pr ior itize a s ea ch a ca dem ic
cla im ed h is/ h er ow n wor k to be of m ost
im por ta n ce.
• With n o esta blish ed m ediu m for com m u n ica tion existin g for su ppor t sta ff, it w a s
difficu lt for th em to m a k e r equ ests for
ch a n ges.
• Wh en m eetin gs w ith a ca dem ic sta ff did
ta k e pla ce, it w a s often a s a r esu lt of th in gs
goin g w r on g. Th ese m eetin gs wer e essen tia lly for fir e-fi gh tin g r a th er th a n for r ea l
pla n n in g pu r poses.
Haphazard c o mmunic atio n struc ture s
As im plied ea r lier, ver y little in th e w ay of
for m a l com m u n ica tion str u ctu r es exist
w ith in th e Sch ool. Th e on ly for m a l ga th er in g
to ta k e pla ce w a s for a ca dem ic sta ff, a n d th is
w a s u sed m a in ly for th e h ea d of Sch ool to
dissem in a te in for m a tion r e ga r din g issu es
su ch a s fu n din g, stu den t en r olm en t ta r gets
a n d r esu lts, a n d cou r se developm en ts. Wh ile
th e m eetin g dea lt w ith str a te gic issu es, th er e
gen er a lly en su ed a discu ssion of oth er topics,
w ith a ll a n d su n dr y con tr ibu tin g (often w ith
ir r eleva n t com m en ts). As a r esu lt, m ost ca m e
aw ay w ith th e feelin g th a t little h a d been
a ccom plish ed by th e m eetin g. Su ppor t sta ff
wer e n ot in vited to th ese m eetin gs.
[7 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
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No time fo r me e tings
Com m u n ica tion w a s fu r th er h in der ed by th e
n eed to fit in th e tea m m eetin gs w ith th e
oth er diver se du ties per for m ed by tea m m em ber s, or in th e fa ce of m or e “u r gen t” wor k
wh ich n eeded to be don e. Th is is a com m on
fea tu r e for m a n y types of m eetin g in edu ca tion , wh er e th e tea ch in g tim eta ble pr edom in a tes, w ith a ll oth er a ctivities h avin g to be
fitted in w ith it, th u s m a k in g it ver y difficu lt
to a r r a n ge su ita ble tim es wh en ever yon e ca n
a tten d. Wor k in g on sever a l sites m a k es it
even m or e difficu lt. Im por ta n tly, th e fa ct th a t
tea m s a r e n ot for m a lly r ecogn ized a n d, th er efor e, th a t m eetin gs a r e con sider ed a s su bsidia r y a ctivities by m a n a gem en t, u su a lly
m ea n s th a t th er e is a r elu cta n ce to a ccom m oda te th em w ith in th e tim eta ble.
Team leadership and skills
At th is sta ge on e a u th or a cted a s th e
fa cilita tor / tea m lea der so a s n ot to in tr odu ce
th e poten tia l pr oblem of electin g a lea der
fr om w ith in th e tea m s (u n less a clea r lea der
existed, a s in on e of th e pr oject tea m s), ow in g
to th e sh or t tim e lim it for th e exper im en ts.
Th is r esu lted in th e tea m s r elyin g h eavily on
h im to ca ll m eetin gs a n d or ga n ize a tten da n ce.
However, it qu ick ly beca m e a ppa r en t th a t
lea der s wer e n eeded w ith th e sk ills to focu s
th e tea m on cu stom er n eeds a n d to u se th e
n ecessa r y decision -m a k in g tools to pr odu ce
u sefu l ou tcom es.
Commitment towards objectives
A n u m ber of m a r k ed differ en ces wer e
obser ved between tea m s in th eir ou tlook
tow a r ds a ction a n d objectives. Th r ou gh ou t
th e exer cise th e sim ple sch em a tic “pla n a ction -r eview ” w a s pr oposed to tea m s a s
bein g th e best w ay to pr oceed. To a ssist in th e
a ction sta ge, th e QST w a s ava ila ble for vettin g pla n s in ter m s of th eir costs a n d lik ely
ou tcom es. Th ey a lso a cted a s fa cilita tor s in
a u th or izin g a ction , bu dgets a n d so on , wh er e
n ecessa r y.
It w a s fou n d th a t pr oject tea m s wer e m or e
a ble to u se th e pla n - a ction - r eview m eth od
th a n th e oper a tin g tea m s beca u se:
• A pr oject h a s its ow n objectives wh ich a r e
m or e clea r ly defin ed th a n th ose of th e da ily
wor k situ a tion .
• Clea r objectives a r e a n ecessa r y pr er equ isite of good pla n n in g. Wh er e objectives a r e
u n clea r or n ot explicit, th en th ey h ave to be
for m u la ted befor e pla n n in g ca n pr oceed.
• Th er e is often a n ovelty va lu e in pr ojects,
wh ich does n ot exist in n or m a l wor k situ a tion s. In a ddition , th er e is a str on ger
ch a n ce of “ta sk closu r e” wh ich seem s to a ct
a s a stim u la n t for pa r ticipa tin g m em ber s;
• Tea m m em ber s h ave th e oppor tu n ity to
dea l w ith u n iqu e a n d n ovel situ a tion s,
[8 ]
in volvin g n ew ta sk s a n d m a n a gem en t r oles.
Th ese wer e m otiva tin g fa ctor s for tea m
m em ber s wh ich a ssisted in a ch ievin g
su ccessfu l ou tcom es a n d a ided th e
dyn a m ism of th e tea m s.
• P r ojects in volve ta sk -closu r e, wh er eby
ou tpu ts ca n be eva lu a ted, a s opposed to
con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t of da ily r ou tin es
wh ich a r e fa r less ea sy to eva lu a te.
• P r ojects a r e clea r ly expected to su cceed a n d
tea m m em ber s w ill wor k tow a r ds su ccessfu l ou tcom es so a s to feel a sen se of selfa ch ievem en t a n d to avoid n e ga tive feedba ck
fr om exter n a l sou r ces.
In con tr a st, for th e oper a tin g tea m s:
• It w a s difficu lt for th em to con ceive of objectives, especia lly con cer n in g issu es su ch a s
qu a lity, cu stom er sa tisfa ction , a n d in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l cu stom er s, sin ce th ey h a d
little pr ior u n der sta n din g of th ese con cepts.
Th is w a s pa r tly beca u se th ey wer e n ot
em bedded w ith in th e cu ltu r e of th e wor k pla ce.
• Th ey did n ot h ave a str a te gic or ien ta tion
a n d th u s la ck ed th e exper ien ce or dr ive to
con sider issu es ou tside th eir ow n n a r r ow
fields.
• Oper a tion a l ta sk s did n ot con ta in a n y pr edeter m in ed objectives or explicit sta n da r ds
wh ich wer e to be m et. Mem ber s of su ch
tea m s la ck ed th e m otiva tion to im pr ove or
ch a n ge th eir wor k in g pr a ctices in th e
a bsen ce of a n y r ew a r ds, i.e. positive feedba ck fr om im pr ovin g th eir wor k or th e la ck
of n e ga tive feedba ck fr om r em a in in g th e
sa m e.
In a ddition to th e differ en ces between pr oject
a n d oper a tin g tea m s, th er e wer e a lso differ en ces between tea m s m a de u p of su ppor t
sta ff a n d th ose com pr isin g a ca dem ic sta ff,
a s follow s.
Su ppor t sta ff wer e fa r m or e depen den t on
m a n a gem en t th a n wer e a ca dem ic sta ff. Th is
su ppor ts th e th eor y th a t m or e th a n on e cu ltu r e ca n exist w ith in a con text[6], i.e. th a t
w ith in th e pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion th er e
a r e elem en ts of th e “m a ch in e bu r ea u cr a cy”,
wh ich depen ds on for m a l m a n a gem en t power
a n d h ier a r ch ies. Th e sta ff in th e su ppor t
fu n ction s oper a ted m u ch a s th ey wou ld do if
th ey wor k ed in a com m er cia l or in du str ia l
or ga n iza tion , on ly ta k in g r espon sibility
wh en explicitly given it by m a n a gem en t.
Th eir expecta tion s wer e sim ila r ly con fin ed
wh en it ca m e to tea m wor k in g. Th ey
per ceived th a t tea m s m u st be for m ed a s a pa r t
of a n over a ll str a te gy, wh er e th ey h ave a
defin ed pa r t to play in m a k in g th a t str a te gy
wor k , oth er w ise th ey la ck pu r pose.
Aca dem ic sta ff wer e h a ppy wor k in g a s a
pa r t of a pr oject tea m , bu t did n ot wor k well
in on e of th e oper a tin g tea m s. However, a
n u m ber of a ca dem ic sta ff qu estion ed th e n eed
Ric hard J. Vare y
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for oper a tin g tea m s a n d wh en th is w a s discu ssed fu r th er, expr essed th e fea r th a t tea m wor k in g wou ld in ter fer e w ith th eir ow n pr ofession a l fr eedom a n d a u ton om y.
Conclusions
Tea m wor k in g im pr oves wor k pa tter n s a n d
ou tcom es. An a n a lysis of th e type of wor k
ca r r ied ou t in th e edu ca tion a l con text sh ow s
th a t differ in g r oles a n d sk ills a r e r equ ir ed,
especia lly of th e pr ofession a l. Th e tea ch in g
r ole is tr a dition a lly con sider ed to be h igh ly
in dividu a listic, involvin g cla ssr oom tea ch in g,
tu tor ia ls, pr epa r a tion a n d pa stor a l ca r e. With ou t dou bt th is is con sider ed th e pr im a r y r ole.
Yet, even in th is r ole, a tea m a ppr oa ch is often
u sed n ow a days, in or der to a ch ieve better coor din a tion a n d lin k a ges, avoid du plica tion a n d
to sh a r e exper ien ces. Alth ou gh th e pr ofession a l en joys a u ton om y, h e/ sh e does n ot w a n t
to feel isola tion [10] a n d seek s wor k in g r ela tion sh ips w ith collea gu es to r edu ce a n y su ch
feelin gs. Tea ch in g does n ot, h owever, ta ke u p
a ll of th e wor k in g tim e. In deed, du r in g a n
a ca dem ic yea r th e pr opor tion of tim e spen t in
th is r ole m ay be a s little a s 40 per cen t. Th e
r est of th e tim e is spen t in th e r ole of pla n n er
a n d co-or din a tor, wh ich involves a tten din g
cou r se-r ela ted m eetin gs, su bject-specific m eetin gs a n d pla n n in g m eetin gs. Th is is often
con sider ed to be th e m ost difficu lt r ole, a s it
involves u n der sta n din g exter n a lly gen er a ted
in itia tives, su ch a s Na tion a l Voca tion a l Qu a lification s (NVQs), a n d h avin g to tu r n su ch
idea s in to a ction a ble pr ogr a m m es w ith in th e
existin g con text.
A degr ee of fr u str a tion is often exper ien ced
w ith in th e tea ch in g r ole, ow in g to a n u m ber of
fa ctor s: th e u n str u ctu r ed n a tu r e of m eetin gs
a n d th e fa ilu r e to com plete th e pla n -a ction r eview cycle; h avin g to wor k a t a pa ce of
ch a n ge over wh ich tea ch er s h ave n o in flu en ce;
a n d little cr eden ce bein g given to th eir pr ofession a l opin ion s, especia lly in a r ea s in wh ich
th ey m ay h ave pr ofession a l exper tise. Tea m wor k in g wou ld be of m ost ben efit for th is r ole,
pr ovided th a t it is a s a pa r t of a str u ctu r ed
a ppr oa ch . Cr ea tivity wou ld be im pr oved so
lon g a s th e r igh t envir on m en t wer e cr ea ted.
Adm in istr a tion a n d su ppor t r oles a r e
pa r tly per for m ed by th e pr ofession a l, bu t a r e
m a in ly th e dom a in of su ppor t sta ff. Th e ver y
ter m “su ppor t” im plies th e n eed to lia ise a n d
to co-or din a te w ith th ose wh om on e is su ppor tin g. It a lso in volves bein g k n ow ledgea ble
a bou t pla n s wh ich w ill r equ ir e su ppor t. Th u s
in ter disciplin a r y tea m s wou ld clea r ly be of
ben efit in im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of wor k
ca r r ied ou t a cr oss th e or ga n iza tion . Tea m s
con sistin g on ly of section s of su ppor t sta ff
cou ld a ssist in im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of wor k
don e w ith in th e section s. Th eir ta sk wou ld be
to look for con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t in
oper a tion a l m a tter s, h avin g been given th e
str a te gic “lea d” fr om a bove.
Tea m wor k in g im pr oves th e n a tu r e of wor k
itself. Th e n a tu r e of wor k in clu des su ch per son a l a n d envir on m en ta l fa ctor s a s th e n eed to
be a ccepted a n d to en joy m or a l a n d socia l
su ppor t fr om collea gu es. Clea r ly tea m wor k in g
wou ld im pr ove th e possibilities for a tta in in g
th is r equ ir em en t a n d wh ile su ppor t fr om on e’s
tea m collea gu es w ill n ot a lw ays be for th com in g, th e r ea son s beh in d decision s w ill a t lea st
be clea r. Feelin gs of isola tion w ill a lso be
gr ea tly r edu ced. In cr ea sin g th e scope of con tr ol over on e’s close wor k in g envir on m en t is a
fu n da m en ta l r ole for qu a lity cir cles a n d oth er
su ch tea m s. In a ddition , tea m s offer both th e
oppor tu n ity to ta ke r espon sibility a n d to sh a r e
it w ith oth er s, th u s r edu cin g th e per ceived
r isk in th e even t of m ista ke or fa ilu r e.
A n u m ber of lim ita tion s to th e tea m
a ppr oa ch wer e a lso in dica ted by th e stu dy.
Th er e is a da n ger in a cceptin g r esista n ce in
th e for m of n e ga tive a ttitu des a n d opin ion s
fr om sta ff m em ber s in volved in th e stu dy, a n d
im m edia tely con clu din g th a t th ese w ill set
th e bou n da r ies for th e fu tu r e. Opposition w ill
gen er a lly be en cou n ter ed wh er ever a n d
wh en ever ch a n ges a r e pr oposed, bu t th is
m u st be over com e by th e w ill a n d th e sk ill of
m a n a gem en t in effectin g ch a n ge. A r a n ge of
lim itin g fa ctor s a ppea r s to exist:
• Th e often -m en tion ed desir e for a u ton om y
fr om th e pr ofession a l sta ff, wh ich is a
str on g r ea son for m a n y in ch oosin g th e
tea ch in g pr ofession in th e fir st pla ce. It w a s
n ot th e r em it of th is r esea r ch to iden tify
per son a lity tr a its w ith in tea ch er s, bu t it is
offer ed a s a possibility th a t m a n y of th em
h ave a qu estion in g a n d r ea son in g a ppr oa ch
to th eir wor k wh ich m ay in vite con flict
w ith for ces a ttem ptin g to im pose con tr ols.
• Tim e lim ita tion s, br ou gh t a bou t by in cr ea sin g wor k loa ds fr om a ddition a l a dm in istr a tion a n d in cr ea sin g n u m ber s of stu den ts,
bu t a lso beca u se of tim eta blin g con str a in ts
wh ich ca n m a k e it extr em ely difficu lt for
tea m m em ber s to m eet. Th is pr oblem is
exa cer ba ted wh en on e con sider s th e
n u m ber a n d va r iety of tea m s to wh ich a n y
on e per son m ay belon g, e.g. cou r se tea m s,
pr oject tea m s, cr oss-fu n ction a l tea m s, a n d
so on . Th e ver y pr ocess of a tten din g tea m
m eetin gs m ay a ffect per for m a n ce cr itica lly
in oth er a r ea s, n ot lea st in a ttem ptin g to
im plem en t a n y pla n s decided by th e tea m .
• Decidin g th e a r ea s in wh ich tea m s w ill
oper a te. As im plied in th e for e goin g pa r a gr a ph , th er e exists th e possibility of
em ployin g tea m s a cr oss w ide expa n ses of
edu ca tion a l wor k . Th is m ay differ fr om a
con ven tion a l m a n u fa ctu r in g en vir on m en t
wh er e wor k is typica lly don e a cr oss m or e
n a r r ow ly defin ed a n d differ en tia ted,
[9 ]
Ric hard J. Vare y
and Te rry No lan
Imple me nting te amwo rking in
a highe r e duc atio n se tting: a
c ase study
•
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 0
•
•
•
fu n ction a l lin es. Th er e is a da n ger, th er efor e, th a t too m a n y tea m s m ay be cr ea ted
wh ich m a k es th eir co-or din a tion difficu lt.
Su ppor t sta ff a n d pr ofession a l sta ff r eceive
differ en t r a tes of pay a n d differ in g con dition s of ser vice. Th is cou ld cr ea te r esen tm en t a n d r esista n ce wh er e cr oss-fu n ction a l
tea m s oper a te, in a ccor da n ce w ith
Her zber g’s[11] two-fa ctor th eor y, wh er eby
extr in sic r ew a r ds a ct a s a “h ygien e fa ctor ”
a n d becom e a “dissa tisfier ” wh en differ en ces a r e per ceived to exist.
Cr oss-fu n ction a l tea m s m ay a lso r u n in to
difficu lty if pr ofession a l sta ff feel th a t it is
“ben ea th th em ” to sh a r e decision m a k in g
w ith su ppor t sta ff, a lth ou gh it m u st be
sta ted th a t th is h a s n ot been fou n d to be th e
ca se w ith in th is stu dy.
Tea m wor k in g w ill n ot su r vive in th e lon g
ter m if it is u sed in isola tion . Mu ch r efer en ce is m a de to th is in pu blish ed liter a tu r e,
su ggestin g th a t tea m wor k in g la ck s m ea n in g to m em ber s u n less it is a n in h er en t pa r t
of a n over a ll str a te gy for con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t, sh a r ed u n der sta n din g, a n d
pa r ticipa tive m a n a gem en t style.
Wh er e top m a n a gem en t su ppor t does n ot
exist (a t depa r tm en ta l or or ga n iza tion a l
level), or wh er e th e str u ctu r es a n d system s
for co-or din a tin g a n d su ppor tin g tea m s in
th eir wor k a r e n ot in pla ce.
Tea m s m u st exist in th e con text of a r a n ge
of qu a lity-r ela ted policies. Mem ber sh ip of
tea m s wh ich a ppea r to oper a te “in a va cu u m ”
ca n foster feelin gs of poin tlessn ess. N eedless
to say, su ch policies n eed clea r dir ection a n d
su ppor t fr om top m a n a gem en t if th ey a r e to
sta n d a ch a n ce of su cceedin g.
Tea m wor k in g wou ld h elp a ca dem ics to
r edu ce du plica tion of effor t, sh a r e ta sk s, a n d
to im pr ove co-or din a tion in tea ch in g pr ogr a m m es. Th e la ck of co-or din a tion is often a
m a jor com pla in t fr om stu den ts wh o exper ien ce per ceived in con sisten cies, ga ps, a n d
con tr a diction s.
As th e scope of wor k r espon sibilities in
h igh er edu ca tion w iden s a n d in cr ea ses in
com plexity, a join t a ppr oa ch to decision
m a k in g m ay often be desir a ble, beca u se
m or e exper ien ce a n d in for m a tion is br ou gh t
to bea r on a pr oblem .
Co-or din ation a n d u n der sta n din g between
a ca dem ic a n d su ppor t sta ff wou ld im pr ove a s a
r esu lt of tea m wor k in g wh ich im pr oves u n der sta n din g of oth er s’ r oles a n d con cer n s, a n d
pr ovides a focu s on m u tu a l ou tcom es.
Tr a in in g is n eeded in tea m lea der sh ip a n d
tea m dyn a m ics a n d tim e m u st be given for
tea m developm en t, wh ich m ay con stitu te a
m a jor in vestm en t a n d cu ltu r e sh ift. Th ese
two m ay pr ove to be th e m a in con str a in t a n d
ba r r ier, r espectively, to su ch a n in itia tive.
References
Implications
We wer e a ble to iden tify som e im plica tion s
for th ose a ttem ptin g to in tr odu ce tea m wor k in g in h igh er edu ca tion .
It wou ld be w r on g to a ssu m e th a t tea m wor k in g does n ot a lr ea dy exist. Tea m wor k in g
often does exist in a n in for m a l w ay, w ith a
gr ea t dea l of com m u n ica tion involvin g n e gotia tion r ela tin g to in dividu a ls’ in pu ts in to, for
exa m ple, a pr ogr a m m e of stu dy.
For m a l tea m wor k in g occu r s n a tu r a lly in
cer ta in situ a tion s – pr in cipa lly wh en r ela ted
to specia l pr ojects, e.g. wh en developin g a
m odu la r de gr ee cou r se. Su ch pr ojects in volve
ta sk -closu r e a n d a llow tea m m em ber s to
u n der ta k e m a n a ger ia l ta sk s wh ich th ey
oth er w ise ca n n ot do, su ch a s decision m a k in g, lea der sh ip a n d a lloca tion of r esou r ces.
Aca dem ics cer ta in ly va lu e th eir fr eedom ,
wh ich is m a in ly cen tr ed on peda gogic m a tter s. Attem pts to h a r n ess th em in to tea m s for
th e day-to-day on goin g r u n n in g of tea ch in g
pr ogr a m m es a r e per ceived by th em a s
“u n n ecessa r y”, r estr ictive, a n d a ttem pts to
con tr ol a r e often r esen ted.
Th e tr a dition a l da ily sch edu le of wor k does
n ot a llow tim e for r e gu la r m eetin gs to ta k e
pla ce in wh ich a ll tea m m em ber s a r e in volved
– th is effectively pr eclu des tea m wor k in g.
[ 10 ]
1 Law r en ce, P.R. a n d Lor sch , J .W., Orga n iz a tion
a n d En viron m en t, Boston Division of
Resea r ch , Ha r va r d Un iver sity P r ess, Boston ,
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10 McN u lty, I., Copin g w ith Cr isis, pr oject r epor t,
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