LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ MASTERY OF GRAMMATICAL RULES: a case study of english conditional sentences.
LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO
ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’
MASTERY OF GRAMMATICAL RULES: A CASE
STUDY OF ENGLISH CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
A Research Paper
Submitted to the English Education Department of the Faculty of Languages and Arts Education of the Indonesian University of Education as a Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for Sarjana Sastra Degree
By:
NURDINI
0808512
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
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UNIVERSITAS PENDIDIKAN INDONESIA
2014
Language Aptitude and Its Relation
to English Second Language
Lear ers’ Mastery of Gra
atical
Rules: A Case Study of English
Conditional Sentences
Oleh Nurdini
Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni
© Nurdini 2014
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Oktober 2014
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Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.
Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.
PAGE OF APPROVAL
Language Aptitude and Its Relation to English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Grammatical Rules: A Case Study of English Conditional
Sentences
A Research Paper
By Nurdini 0808512
Approved by
NIP. 196009191990031001
Head of Department of English Education Faculty of Language and Arts Education
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Main Supervisor
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Prof. Dr. Didi Suherdi, M.Ed. NIP. 196211011987121001
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE OF APPROVAL ... i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... ii
PREFACE ... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS... iv
ABSTRACT ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
LIST OF TABLES ... x
LIST OF FIGURES... xi
CHAPTER I ... 1
INTRODUCTION... 1
1.1Background ... 1
1.2Research Question ... 3
1.3Aim of the Study ... 4
1.4Scope of the Study... 4
1.5Significance of the Study ... 4
1.6Research Method ... 4
1.6.1 Research Design ... 4
1.6.2 Site and Subject of the Study ... 4
1.6.3 Data Collection and Instruments ... 5
1.6.4 Data Analysis ... 5
1.7Organization of the Paper... 5
CHAPTER II ... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW... 6
2.1 Second Language (L2) ... 6
2.2 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) ... 6
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2.3 Language Aptitude ... 11
2.3.1 The History of Language Aptitude Test... 11
2.3.2 Language Aptitude Measurements ... 13
2.3.3 Carroll’s Notions of Language Aptitude ... 15
2.4 Conditional Sentences ... 17
2.5 Related Previous Studies ... 18
CHAPTER III... 22
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 22
3.1Research Design... 22
3.2Site and Subject of the Study ... 23
3.3Data Collections and Instruments ... 23
3.3.1. The Modern Language Aptitude Test ... 23
3.3.2. Test on Conditional Sentences ... 25
3.4 Data Analysis ... 26
3.5 Clarification of Key Terms ... 30
CHAPTER IV ... 31
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 31
4.1The Correlation of Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences... 31
4.1.1 Score Tabulation ... 31
4.1.2 Preliminary Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics ... 32
4.1.3 Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences ... 35
4.1.3.1 Rote Memory ... 36
4.1.3.2 Phonetic Coding ... 38
4.1.3.3 Grammatical Sensitivity... 39 4.1.4 Coefficient of Determination of
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Second Language Learners’ Mastery
of Conditional Sentences ... 41
4.1.5 Level of Significance ... 42
4.2. Chapter Summary ... 43
CHAPTER V ... 45
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ... 45
5.1Conclusion ... 45
5.2Suggestions ... 46
REFERENCES... 47
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The Perspective of Second Language Acquisition
from Linguists, Psychologists, Psycholinguists, Sociolinguists,
and Social Psycholinguists (Saville- Troike, 2006, p.3) ... 7
Table 2.2 Types of Conditional Sentences (Aitken, 1992) ... 17
Table 3.1 The Modern Language Aptitude Test from Language Learning and Testing Foundation... 23
Table 3.2 The Measurements of Carroll’s Language Aptitude Components based on the MLAT’s Subtests (Carroll, 1990) ... 24
Table 3.3 Test on Conditional Sentences ... 25
Table 3.4 The Absolute Value of r (Evans, 1996) ... 26
Table 3.5 The Value of R (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013)... 29
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics (N = 20) ... 32
Table 4.2 The Multiple Correlation of Language Aptitude and its Three Constituent Abilities with conditional sentences... 44
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 The Scatter Plot of MLAT and Test
on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 34 Figure 4.2 The Scatter Plot of Rote Memory and
Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 35 Figure 4.3 The Scatter Plot of Phonetic Coding
and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 36 Figure 4.4 The Scatter Plot of Grammatical Sensitivity
and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 37 Figure 4.5 The Relationship of Investigated Variables... 44
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ABSTRACT
This research paper attempts to reveal the correlation of language aptitude and English
second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. It also investigates the
relationship between three constituent abilities of language aptitude, such as Rote Memory,
Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity, and the learners’ mastery of conditional
sentences. The study employed a quantitative method. The theory used in the study is language aptitude which is proposed by John Carroll (1981). Two instruments were used in the study, such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test and test on conditional sentences, while the subject of the study involved 20 students who are taking English Language and Literature as their major in a state university in Bandung. The findings reveal that there is a
weak positive relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners’
mastery of conditional sentences (r = 0.35). The three constituent abilities of language aptitude also correlate to English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. The obtained r of Rote Memory is -0.39 which indicates a weak negative relationship, while the obtained r of Phonetic Coding is -0.01 and Grammatical Sensitivity is 0.73.
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ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap korelasi dari bakat bahasa dan penguasaan kalimat pengandaian bagi pelajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Penelitian ini juga menginvestigasi hubungan antara tiga kemampuan utama dalam bakat bahasa, seperti Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, dan Grammatical Sensitivity, dengan penguasaan kalimat pengandaian bagi pelajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Metode yang digunakan merupakan metode kuantitatif . Teori yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah teori bakat bahasa yang dikemukakan oleh John Carroll (1981). Dua instrumen digunakan untuk mengungkap fenomena yang dibahas, diantaranya Modern Language Aptitude Test dan tes kalimat pengandaian. Sedangkan untuk subjeknya, penelitian ini melibatkan 20 orang mahasiswa Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris di suatu universitas negeri di Bandung. Hasil temuan mengungkapkan bahwa adanya korelasi positif yang lemah antara bakat bahasa dan penguasaan kalimat pengandaian bagi pelajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua (r = 0.35). Korelasi juga ditemukan dalam tiga kemampuan utama dalam bakat bahasa. Nilai r yang diperoleh Rote Memory adalah -0.39 yang artinya korelasi tersebut adalah korelasi negatif yang lemah, sedangkan nilai r yang diperoleh Phonetic Coding adalah -0.01, dan Grammatical Sensitivity adalah 0.73.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains the general idea of the study. It covers the background of the study, research questions, aim of the study, scope of the study, significance of the study, research method, and organization of the study.
1.1 Background
Any human beings communicate with each other through languages. There is no limitation in learning many languages as long as they are willing to go through the process in order to learn those languages. Thus, after having full knowledge of the first language, there is any possibility for anyone to learn second language for their necessity. There are many reasons why people decide to take a second language to be learned, either it is for one‟s job or for one‟s education. Therefore, in this case, a second language is important for many people to achieve a certain goal of their lives because good communication leads to a better life. In addition, it is important to learn a second language in order to survive and compete with others in this era.
The word „second‟ in second language refers to any language that is learned
subsequent to the mother tongue, whether that is learning third or fourth language (Ellis, 1997, p.3). In other words, second language can be defined as the language in addition to one‟s first language, although the language may be the third language and so on, to be applied (Saville-Troike, 2006). He (2006) also states that the learning process which is taken by the second language learners can be called second language acquisition.
When it comes to second language or foreign language learning, there is one of many important issues which is frequently investigated by linguistic scholars, that is language aptitude. Language aptitude in the field of linguistic is very similar to language learning ability (Dörnyei, 2005). Aptitude itself can be defined as “capacity that enhances the rate and ease of learning” (Carrol, 1981, cited in
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Ellis, 1994, p. 495). It is likely for second language learners to know how far or how well their ability when it comes to learning a new language(s) for their necessity.
Carroll & Sapon argues that language aptitude is a “basic abilities that are
essential to facilitate foreign language learning” (1959, p. 14). Language aptitude
relates to the concept of human abilities and concerns with the differences of second language or foreign language learners‟ cognitive (Dörnyei, 2005). Therefore, in order to find out language learning success in second language or
foreign language which relates to learners‟ cognitive, there are several language
aptitude tests which are used to measure one‟s ability in learning a new language(s).
The language aptitude tests consist of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) which was developed by Carrol and Sapon in 1956, the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) which was developed by Pimsleur in 1966, the Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language – Foreign Test (CANAL-FT) which was developed in 2000 by Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Ehrman, and many more (Rysiewicz, 2003). However, this study focuses on the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as the instrument to measure English second language learners‟ aptitude.
As mentioned above, the Modern Language Aptitude Test was developed in 1956 by John Carrol and Stanley Sapon (Carrol & Sappon, 1959). MLAT is the most well-known aptitude test and still used all over the world for second language acquisition (SLA) research in its original version (Robinson, 1997). Besides in its original version, MLAT is also available in its translated version, for example MLAT in Hungarian version (DeKeyser, 2000).
Carroll and Sapon (1959) divided the Modern Language Aptitude Test into five subtests; they are Number Learning, Phonetic Script/Phonetic Sensitivity, Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired Associates. The explanation about the subtests will be delivered in Chapter II.
This study, moreover, investigates the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. Their
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language aptitude is measured by the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as the instrument. Besides using MLAT as the instrument to measure the participants‟ language aptitude, this study also uses a questionnaire regarding conditional sentences to find out their mastery of conditional sentences.
There are some studies which have been conducted in the area of second language acquisition or/and language aptitude. Řepová (2004) conducted a study about the possibility of how a second language learner is able to acquire language as long as there is comprehensible input available and how the output plays a little role in SLA.
Alma Jeftić (2011) stated that cognitive theories are one of some crucial
parts in second language or foreign language acquisition and can be used to emphasize the role of language aptitude in order to understand or comprehend the
second language or foreign language. In her study, Jeftić investigated the concept
of ambiguity in foreign language acquisition and the role of language aptitude. She argues that “ambiguity resolution is a key component of language
comprehension and it is similar to ambiguity in perceptual process” (2011, p. 1).
The study used the Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language-Foreign Test or CANAL-FT as the instrument.
Language aptitude as a part of second language acquisition field is one of interesting topics in psycholinguistics to be studied. Therefore, this study concerns with language aptitude and its relation to English second language learners in analyzing conditional sentences based on their knowledge of the concept of English conditional sentences after finishing their language aptitude test, in this case the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
1.2 Research Question
Relevant to the background, this study aims to address the following research questions:
1. What is the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences?
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1.3 Aim of the Study
This study aims to examine the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences by using MLAT as language aptitude instrument and a questionnaire regarding conditional sentences.
1.4 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery regarding conditional sentences. English second language learners that belong to English Education Department of Indonesia University of Education are expected to answers questions from three instruments for this study, they are the Modern Language Aptitude Test and test on conditional sentences. The data are analyzed based on the result from those instruments.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is expected to contribute to the development of language aptitude in foreign language studies or second language acquisition. Besides, it will help those who would like to acknowledge more about language aptitude and its relation to English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences.
1.6 Research Method 1.6.1 Research Design
This study conducts a quantitative approach to achieve the aims of the study. It is also known that quantitative approach is used when the study deals with testing relationship, describing two different variables, and examining cause-effect relations (Ragin, 1994).
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The subject of the study focuses on students who learn English as their second language in Indonesia University of Education. The samples consist of 20 university students who took English Language and Literature as their major.
1.6.3 Data Collection and Instruments
The data are collected from a language aptitude test called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as well as a test on conditional sentences. 1.6.4 Data Analysis
When it comes to analyzing the data, this study goes through several procedures, such as gathering the data which consist of the result of MLAT and test on conditional sentences from participant, analyzing the data from the instruments in accordance to Carroll‟s language aptitude theory and finding the correlation of both variables by using Pearson product-moment coefficient correlation.
1.7 Organization of the Paper
The research paper consists of five chapters. The organization runs as follow: CHAPTER I
This chapter deals with background of the study, research questions, aims of the study, scope of the study, significance of the study, clarification of the terms, and organization of the paper.
CHAPTER II
Chapter two focuses on theoretical review which deals with the research as well as related previous research.
CHAPTER III
Chapter three discusses research methodology, the steps and procedures of the study, and the data resources of the study.
CHAPTER IV
This chapter focuses on research findings and discussions that will be presented. CHAPTER V
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Chapter five deals with the interpretation of the study in a form of conclusion and suggestion for further research.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The theoretical foundation of the study is elaborated in this chapter. It involves second language (L2), second language acquisition (SLA), language aptitude, conditional sentences and related previous studies.
2.1 Second Language (L2)
The word „second‟ in second language refers to any language that is learned after the learners mastered their first language, whether that is learning third or fourth language (Ellis, 1997). Learning second language becomes important since people are not only communicating with those who share both nationality and first language, but also with people who live in another country in order to make the communication works smoothly. Second language can be identified as additional languages after mother tongue (Ellis, 1997).
Second language can be called as target language (TL) which means “any language that is the aim or goal of learning” (Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 2). In L2, there is the term called second language acquisition (L2 acquisition / SLA) which means the learning process of second language learners (Saville-Troike, 2006). The notion of second language acquisition will be delivered in section 2.2.
2.2 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
As mentioned in section 2.1, second language acquisition is a learning process taken by second language learners (Saville-Troike, 2006). Regarding L2 Acquisition, Ellis (1997) explains that as “the way in which people learn a
language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside their classroom” (p.3). Second language acquisition itself is a phenomenon involving psychology and linguistics frameworks as well as “their subfields of applied linguistics,
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p. 2). He (2006) points out that the researchers of those fields have different perspective of second language acquisition. The differences are presented in Table 2.1
Table 2.1
The Perspective of Second Language Acquisition from Linguists, Psychologist, Psycholinguists, Sociolinguists, and Social Psychologists (Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 3)
The Researchers Perspective
Linguists Emphasizing the characteristics of the
differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.
Psychologists and Psycholinguists Emphasizing the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of language(s) in the brain.
Sociolinguists Emphasizing variability in learner
linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).
Social Psycholinguists Emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of
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learning.
When it comes to second language acquisition, there are two main factors which are needed to be considered thoroughly; the psychological factors (intellectual processing which includes induction and explication, memory, and motor skills) and social factors (natural situation and classroom situation) (Steinberg, 1993). Both factors affect second language acquisition‟s perspective of children and adults learners. Steinberg (1993) explains that induction in psychological factors includes learning rules of second language based on
learners‟ identification and discovery, while explication includes giving
explanation of L2‟s rules and structures by using learners‟ native language. The research of second language acquisition can be considered as an investigation where non-native speakers learn second language as well as acknowledging their L2 learning process (Mansouri, 2007). When it comes to research on second language acquisition, Krashen (2002) points out:
“…area of second language research and practice that the acquisition learning hypothesis helps to interpret is work in second language
aptitude and attitude, providing a parsimonious explanation for what
had appeared to be a strange finding: both language aptitude (as measured by standard tests) and attitude (affective variables) appear to be related to second language achievement, but are not related to
each other.” (Krashen, 2002, p. 19)
Based on the statements above, it is clear that even though aptitude and attitude does not related to each other, but both subjects contribute to the development of second language research and practice. In the case of language aptitude, it can be measured by aptitude‟s standardized tests. The types of aptitude tests will be explained further in the next section.
2.2.1 SLA and Grammatical Concept
Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) stated that there are about forty theories of second language acquisition that can be studied. Some of those theories
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relate to the concept of L2 grammars or non-native grammars due to the fact that it plays an important role in acquiring second language for learners. Non-native grammars can be called as interlanguage grammars (White, 2003). The concept of interlanguage itself was proposed in 1960s and 1970s by Corder (1967), Nemser (1971), Selinker (1972), and
Adjémian (1976) (White, 2003). White (2003) also stated that “these
researchers pointed out L2 learner is systematic and that the error produced by learners do not consist of random mistakes, but, rather suggest
ruled-govern behaviour” (p.1).
Regarding interlanguage, Ellis (1997) states:
“The term interlanguage was coined by the American linguist, Larry
Selinker, in recognition of the fact that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws, in part, on the learner‟s L1 but is also
different from it and also from the target language.” (Ellis, 1997, p.
33)
According to Klein and Perdue (1997), an example of interlanguage can be identified in the way adult L2 learners discovered the basic stage of grammar involving three grammatical rules that can be found in a sentence in every second language. Those rules in a sentence consist of a Noun Phrase (NP) which is followed by verb and another NP can be added, for example, girl take bread; a Noun Phrase which is followed by a copula and either NP or adjective, for example, it’s bread; a verb which is followed by NP, for example, pinching its (Cook, 2012, pp. 2-3).
In the case of grammars, second language learners used to analyze or identify the structure of sentences which is called syntax. Syntax itself is one of many important perspectives which are learned by second language
learners thoroughly. Gass (1984) points out “in attempting to come to an understanding of the processes involved in acquiring the syntax of a second language, it has become evident that we must consider generalizations and approximations of target language (TL) structures” (p. 115). The basic knowledge of target language is given as the first step to help learners
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understand the language. However, the basic knowledge of TL is not enough to enrich the development of syntax. Due to the fact, there are many additional factors to influence the development of syntax of second language, such as language transfer and language universals (Gass, 1984).
Language transfer can be described as the possibility to transfer the
meaning and the form of learners‟ native language and culture to the target
language and culture (Lado, 1957). According to Gass (1984), language transfer or the use of learners‟ native language structures on L2 plays as
“one of a number of cognitive mechanisms which underlie second language
acquisition (p. 117).
However, in order to make language transfer works on L2 development, there is a crucial prerequisite that have to be considered; that
is “a certain amount of similarity between L1 and L2 structures to enable the learner to recognize that a similarity between the L1 and the L2 structures exists” (Gass, 1984, p. 118). The statements are supported by some studies, such as from a study that conducted by Keller-Cohen (1979) that
investigated the comparison of a Japanese, a Germany, and a Finnish‟s child
acquisition of English interrogative structure. The result of his study showed that “the lack of congruence between L1 and L2 structures resulted in the slower development of the productive use of yes/no questions in English on the part of the Finnish child in comparison with the German and Japanese children” (Keller-Cohen, 1979, cited in Gass, 1984, p. 119).
Another factor that influences the development of syntax is language
universals which can be described as “linguistics elements which are common to all languages (in the form of either absolute or statistical universals)” (Gass, 1984, p. 126). The absolute of language universals means the set of universals‟ linguistics elements which are used or common in all languages, while the statistical of language universals means the set of
universals‟ linguistics elements which are used or common in most or
certain languages (Gass, 1984). Language universals can be used as guidance in SLA in the context of native language as well as target language
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system (Grass, 1984). Sharwood Smith (1980) and Kumpt (1982) stated that language universals can be tested as long as there is the availability of second language data as its basic concept.
2.3 Language Aptitude
The term language aptitude relates closely to second language achievement (Krashen, 2002). Aptitude itself can be defined as “capacity that enhances the rate
and ease of learning” (Carroll, 1981, cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 495). To make it simpler, aptitude can be associated with ability to do something (Dörnyei, 2005).
In other words, language aptitude can be defined as “language learning ability”
(Dörnyei, 2005). Regarding aptitude, Robinson states that:
“Aptitude is therefore a theoretical construct operationalized in the form of a test, which aims to predict phenomena that characterize second language acquisition (SLA) (such as incidental learning, metalinguistic awareness, fossilization, and others) and the extent to which successful SLA occurs as a result.” (Robinson, 2013, p. 1).
Aptitude is considered to be the best way to discover how far the learners will be succeed in learning new languages (Nikolov & Ottó, 2006). Even Skehan (1989) points out that aptitude is the most reliable way to predict language learning success. It is based on many researches which investigate the correlation of language aptitude and the outcome of second language (Harley & Hart, 1997). Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) state the value of aptitude and language learning success correlates between 0.20 – 0.60. It means the relationship of language aptitude and L2 variables depicts a positive result. Regarding the correlation between language aptitude batteries and the chosen samples, Carroll states:
“The predictive validity coefficients for foreign language aptitude batteries in representative samples are typically in the range .40 to .60 against suitable criterion measures of success in foreign language attainment, such as final course grades, objective foreign language
attainment tests, or instructors‟ estimates of foreign learning ability”
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In the context of second language learning, language aptitude plays an important role. Through aptitude, learners are able to see whether they can get best results in learning L2 compared to others. Since the concept of language aptitude is to figure out the language learning success, it is no wonder if many researchers study the phenomena more thoroughly, especially those who focus on the field of second language learning.
2.3.1 The History of Language Aptitude Test
The notion of ability testing was started about 4000 years ago when
Chinese government decided to form a test to figure out the citizens‟ ability in order to use their services for the government‟s benefits or enroll them to
an educational program (Cooper, 2002). Since then, another test was developed to determine one‟s intelligence and it started to develop in 1905 with the most well-known test regarding one‟s intelligence and it is called the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (Alshahrani, 2011).
When it comes to language aptitude, it was developed for the same
reason as the development of intelligence test, that is “to identify hopelessly untalented students in state schools” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 34). In 1920s and 1930s, many schools in United States of America paid a little attention to foreign language learning so that it was no wonder if many students in the country failed the subject (Spolsky, 1995). Since the problem started to spread and made the educators started to show their concern, they decided
to develop a test called „prognosis tests‟ (Dörnyei, 2005).
Spolsky (1995) points out that even though those „prognosis tests‟ did
not have a theoretical foundation, but they had two methods that were used in developing language aptitude test, analytical and synthetic. Analytical
deals with learners‟ cognitive abilities, while synthetic concerns with learners‟ performance in second language or L2 (Dörnyei, 2005).
In 1950s and 1960s, the development of language aptitude test shone brightly with the appearance of two aptitude tests, one was proposed by John Carroll and Stanley Sapon, and another was proposed by Paul Pimsleur (Rees, 2000). Those years were also known as the second part of
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language aptitude test development and labeled as its golden period in United States (Rees, 2000).
John Carroll and Stanley Sapon worked together to form an aptitude test called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) in 1950s (Robinson, 2013). Then Paul Pimsleur proposed his own version of language aptitude test known as Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) in 1960s (Sparks & Ganschow, 2001). Those two aptitude tests gained many attentions in the field of second language studies and became the foundation in making another new version of language aptitude test in the following years.
2.3.2 Language Aptitude Measurements
As mentioned in the section 2.3.1, there are two aptitude tests which were developed in 1950s and 1960s called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB). Robinson (2013) states that out of those two aptitude tests, the MLAT which was published by Carroll and Sapon in 1959 is the most well-known aptitude test and still uses quite frequently by many researchers in the field of second language development.
Carroll and Sapon (1959) explain that MLAT divided into five parts; they are Number Learning, Phonetic Script/Phonetic Sensitivity, Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired Associates. Number Learning deals with short-term memories and „auditory alertness‟ and the language used in this part is an invented or „new‟ language (Dörnyei, 2005). The test takers will listen to the name of the numbers through a cassette tape (Carroll & Sapon, 1959 cited in Dörnyei, 2005).
Phonetic Script / Phonetic Sensitivity consists of some „nonsense
words‟ and the test takers are expected to match those words to its written forms which are available on the test page (Carroll & Sapon, 1959 cited in Dörnyei, 2005). Similar to Number Learning, the test takers will hear the
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Spelling Clues deals with finding the synonym or close-related meaning of the stimulus words based on the way those words is pronounced; Words in Sentences deals with measuring the grammatical sensitivity of the test takers who are expected to find out the words which have the same functions as the underlined words in the stimulus sentences; Paired Associate requires the test takers to memorize some words in a foreign language intact with English translation of the words (Robinson, 2013).
Before publishing their language aptitude test officially to public, Carroll and Sapon went through an experiment to make sure that the test was reliable. They state that:
“The Modern Language Aptitude Test is the outcome of a five-year research study conducted during the years 1953-1958 at Harvard University. In the course of this study, many varieties of verbal tests were devised and tried out; the present test is comprised of a group of relatively uncorrelated sub-tests which more or less consistently showed good validity and made unique contributions to the prediction of success in foreign languages. The experimental tests were administered to about five thousand persons.” (Carroll & Sapon, 1959:3, cited in Dörnyei, 2005, p. 35).
While MLAT divided into five main parts, PLAB consists of six sections they are Grade Point Average (GPA) that requires test takers need to report the recent grade of history, math, science, and English; Interest in Foreign Language Learning which involves asking some questions to the test takers to indicate their interest in learning foreign language learning on a scale one to five; Vocabulary means the test takers need to answer some questions regarding English adjectives; Language Analysis consists of several English words which are available for the test takers to translate them into an invented language; Sound Discrimination is about identifying one of three similar words which is spoken through audio tape; Sound – Symbol Association involves identifying two or three syllables from an
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invented language and choosing the right answer out of four words which are available on the test paper (Dörnyei, 2005).
Since those two successful language aptitude tests emerged in the field of foreign language education, there are other aptitude tests which are inspired by both MLAT and PLAB. They are York Language Aptitude Test which was developed by Green in 1975, the Defense Language Aptitude Battery by Petersen and Al-Halik which was published in 1976, the Aptitude Test for Studies in Modern Languages which was developed by Trost and Bickel in 1981, the German Aptitude Test which was formed by Miller and Phillips in 1982, and VORD which was developed by Parry and Child in 1990 (Dörnyei, 2005).
There are several aptitude tests which were developed in recent years, such as the Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language – Foreign Test (CANAL – FT) which was formed by Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Ehrman in 2000 (Abrahamsson & Hyltestamm, 2008), and computer – based aptitude test called Swansea Language Aptitude Test (LAT) which was developed in 2003 by Meara and Lorenzo – Duz (Alshahrani, 2011). However, Meara and Lorenzo – Duz faced some problems in developing LAT due to the difficulty in coding non-Roman languages and developing an independent test (Alshahrani, 2011). Meara then developed a new aptitude test which is called LLAMA Language Aptitude Test in 2005 to solve those problems (Meara, 2005).
2.3.3 Carroll’s Notions of Language Aptitude
Even though test regarding one‟s ability started to emerge 4000 years back, but the most influential movement of language aptitude is started by John Carroll in 1950s (Wen, 2011). Carroll and his colleague, Stanley Sapon, formed an idea to create an aptitude test which was mentioned in the section 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. Carroll (1981) saw the importance of foreign language learning and views that special abilities, beyond intelligence, are needed in order to success in learning foreign language.
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In the field of second language learning, aptitude can be categorized
as “a set of relatively fixed characteristics or talents not affected by previous
learning experience” (Alshahrani, 2011, p. 17). Those talents enable learners with higher aptitude to embrace a new language easier than those with lower aptitude (Carroll & Sapon, 1959).
In accordance to his notions of language aptitude, Carroll (1981) then sets four constituent abilities which are necessary for the learners to master in order to do well in second language or foreign language learning, namely Phonetic Coding, Grammatical Sensitivity, Rote Memory or Rote Learning, and Inductive Language Learning. Phonetic Coding can be defined as “an ability to distinct sound, to form associations between these sounds and
symbols representing them, and to retain these associations” (Carroll, 1981, p. 105). The ability requires L2 learners to pay more attention to “coding, assimilation, and remembering of phonetic material” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 39). Grammatical Sensitivity is “the ability to recognize the grammatical
functions of words (or other linguistic entities) in sentences structures”
(Carroll, 1981, p. 105). Dörnyei (2005) points out that this ability focuses on
learners‟ awareness of grammatical concepts. Another constituent ability in Carroll‟s language aptitude theory is Rote Memory or Rote Learning which means “the ability to learn associations between sounds and meaning rapidly and efficiently, and to retain these associations” (Carroll, 1981, p. 105). Inductive Language Learning is “the ability to infer or induce the rules governing a set of language materials, given example of language materials
that permit such inference” (Carroll, 1981, p. 105).
In the Modern Language Aptitude Test, those abilities can be measured through the five parts of the test, unless Inductive Language Learning since the ability was quite difficult to measure when the MLAT was developed for the first time in 1950s so that the measurement for the ability is not included in the test (Carroll, 1980). To solve the problem, Skehan (1989) formed an idea to combine Grammatical Sensitivity and Inductive Language Learning into one test and create a new measurement
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called Language Analytic ability. Language Analytic ability also can be measured by Pimsleur – Language Aptitude Battery in section four which is called Language Analysis.
Furthermore, other three abilities can be measured by using the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT). Part I (Number Learning) and Part V (Paired Associates) in MLAT are used to measure the learners‟ Rote Memory ability, Part II (Phonetic Script) and Part III (Spelling Clues) are used to measure Phonetic Coding ability, and Part IV (Words in Sentences) is used to investigate the Grammatical Sensitivity (Carroll, 1990).
Carroll‟s ideas of language aptitude are considered as the most influential one since the MLAT, which was developed by him and Sapon, is still used frequently in research regarding language aptitude from time to time (Sparks & Ganschow, 2001). Although there are many efforts to develop new versions of language aptitude batteries, the MLAT still serves as the most reliable predictor for language learning success (Sparks & Ganschow, 2001).
2.4 Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences can be explained as “a two-clause sentence in which the first clause states a supposition or hypothesis and the second clause states the
results if that condition is met” (Elliott, 1981, p. 4). Two clause sentences of conditional sentences consist of if-clause and main clause (Thomson & Martinet, 1986). For example:
If it rains, I shall stay at home
Based on the example above which was created by Thomson & Martinet (1986), the sentence if it rains serves as the if-clause, while I shall stay at home serves as the main clause.
Conditional sentences divided into four types, they are zero conditional, first conditional, second conditional, and third conditional (Aitken, 1992). Table 2.2 below explains the types of conditional sentences along with its forms and examples:
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Nurdini, 2014 Table 2.2
Types of Conditional Sentences (Aitken, 1992)
Types Description Form Example
Zero Conditional To states that things are generally or always true.
If + Present form + present simple or imperative
If we heat waters, it boils.
First Conditional To states future events that are likely to happen.
If + Present Simple + Simple Future.
If he is feeling better, he will come here.
Second Conditional To express unreal or hypothetic condition from present point of view. Something probably could happen if a situation was different.
If + Past Simple + would + Infinitive.
If I had million dollars, I would give a lot to charity.
Third Conditional To express imposs-ible situations since those situations are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.
If + Past Perfect + would have + Past Participle.
If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades.
Besides using if for the if-clause, it is highly possible to use other expression such as when, unless, providing, provided (that), otherwise, or else, what if, suppose (that), supposing (that), even if, only if (Evans, 1998). For the
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main clause we also can use may, might, can, could, must, and should besides using either will or would (Evans, 1998).
2.5 Related Previous Studies
There are some studies which have been conducted in the area of second language acquisition or/and language aptitude. Řepová (2004) conducted a study about the possibility of how a second language learner is able to acquire language as long as there is comprehensible input available and how the output plays a little role in SLA. Her subject of the study was a male Czech adult who did his au-pair in England. His ability in English before he arrived to England was “‟pre
-intermediate‟ in terms of grammar and vocabulary or reading, but listening and speaking were rather „elementary‟” (Řepová, 2004, p. 46). She investigated how
the Czech citizen survived in English speaking country even though he did not produce enough output and tended to avoid speaking in English in regular basis. The result of the study revealed that the subject of her study showed a promising progress after nine months of observation with his comprehension in English played the significant role compared to his output.
Alma Jeftić (2011) stated that cognitive theories are one of some crucial parts in second language or foreign language acquisition and can be used to emphasize the role of language aptitude in order to understand or comprehend the
second language or foreign language. In her study, Jeftić investigated the concept
of ambiguity in foreign language acquisition and the role of language aptitude.
She argues that “ambiguity resolution is a key component of language
comprehension and it is similar to ambiguity in perceptual process” (2011, p. 1). The study used the Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language-Foreign Test or CANAL-FT as the instrument.
In his research, Winke (2013) stated that out of four aptitude components, such as rote memory, grammatical sensitivity, working memory, and phonetic coding, rote memory contributed greatly to advanced Chinese language learner in listening, reading, and speaking materials, while working memory had the least impact for them. He investigated 96 English native speakers who learned Chinese
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as their second language. Besides using the Modern Language Aptitude Test as
the main instruments for testing participants‟ aptitude, Winke also used phonological working memory test as well as questionnaire on motivation and strategy use. When it comes to the result of questionnaire on motivation and strategy, Winke stated that both had an equal impact.
A paper from Hummel (2007) revealed the relationship between aptitude, phonological memory (PM), and second language proficiency in non-novice English adult learners. The samples of his study were 77 French native speakers who chose Teaching English as Second Language major in a university. For the instruments, he used Spelling Clues, Paired Associates, and Words in Sentences from MLAT, the phonological memory (PM) test, and MTLEP for the measurement of L2 proficiency since the test is considered correlates greatly to TOEFL (r = .80). The result of his study implied “aptitude subtests and PM
together predicted 29% of the variance in L2 proficiency” (Hummel, 2007, p. 1). A thesis by Bell (2008) pointed out that aptitude is important to explain the differences among second language learners in the context of French grammatical gender. 36 adult non-native French speakers volunteered to participate in her study. She used four main components of language aptitude to investigate the differences of awareness level on second language learners. MLAT was used to measure rote memory, grammatical sensitivity, and phonetic coding ability, while Part IV (Language Analysis) in Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) was used to measure inductive language learning. The result of the study showed that inductive language learning “predicted membership to the aware and unaware group accurately 72.22% of the time (Bell, 2008, p. 4). She also stated that inductive language learning played an important role on awareness of French grammatical gender.
A thesis from Alshahrani (2011) explored the relationship between foreign language aptitude and second language proficiency of 56 male students who enrolled King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia and took major in English. She used MLAT (Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired Associates) in Arabic, social demography sheet, and language proficiency test as the study‟s
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instruments. She analyzed the participants‟ progress in language proficiency after they had intensive English course in seven months. The result of the study implied that before the intensive course of English, language aptitude presented the positive correlation with English language proficiency ranging from .27 to .34. After seven months, the relationship of both variables remained steady since language aptitude did not affect the progress of English proficiency within that period of time.
Al-Khawalda (2013) investigated the interpretation of English conditional sentences as well as the reason behind the interpretation among Arabic native speakers. The result of his study stated that those who participated in the study, 100 Arabic native speakers, did not aware of the variation of English conditional sentences after analyzing ten sentences.
A thesis from Cheng (2005) identified the differences between English and Chinese conditional sentences syntactically and how the issue affects Chinese
native speakers‟ acquisition of English. After analyzing the data from 98 Chinese
native speakers who have participated in the study, the result revealed that “the acquisition order to syntactic complexity of the conditional sentences. On top of that, it is important to be aware of how L1 transfer effects interact with the
syntactic complexity factor in the ESL‟s production of English conditionals” (p.
2).
The previous studies elaborate how language aptitude relates to other components in second language learning. Therefore, this presents study attempts to find out the correlation between language aptitude and English second language
learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. This study also analyzed the correlation of three language aptitude components such as Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study attempts to find out the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. The methodology used to achieve the aim of the study is also elaborated in this chapter. It covers research design, site and subject of the study, data collection and instruments, data analysis, and clarification of key terms.
3.1 Research Design
This is a quantitative study because it deals with testing a hypothesis of the relationship between two or more variables. In order to investigate the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, this study used Pearson product – moment correlation coefficient, which is symbolized by lowercase r, as one of the statistical concepts. The formula of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is presented in section 3.4.
Besides investigating the relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study also investigates the relationship of language aptitude’s three constituent abilities with the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. In doing so, the study uses multiple correlation formula since it uses to calculate more than two independent variables and one dependent variable, in this case is language aptitude as well as its constituent abilities as independent variables and English second language learners mastery of conditional sentences as dependent variable. The formula is presented in section 3.4.
Kranzler & Moursund state that “the values of correlation coefficients range from -1.00 to +1.00…” (1999, p. 54). If the value represents a positive result, it means the correlation or the relationship between the two variables is positive, while negative result indicates a negative correlation between those
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variables (Kranzler & Moursund, 1999). There is always a possibility that the value of correlation coefficient is 0.0 which means there is no relationship between two variables (Patel, 2009).
For multiple correlations which is symbolized by uppercase R, Bluman (2012) states that “The value of R can range from 0 to +1; R can never be negative” (p. 578). It means that if the value of R is closer to +1, then the correlation is stronger; if the value of R is closer to 0, then the correlation is weak (Bluman, 2012).
3.2 Site and Subject of the Study
Twenty students of a state university in Bandung from the Faculty of Language and Arts Education volunteered to involve in the study. They took English Language and Literature as their major in the University. Currently, they are from sophomore of grade 2012. The subject of the study consisted of 5 male students and 15 female students. The range of their ages is from 18 to 19 years old. They have studied English formally since they were in elementary school and then broaden their knowledge of the language in college by majoring in English Language and Literature.
3.3 Data Collection and Instruments
The data were collected by using two main instruments, the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as the selected language aptitude test and test on conditional sentences in order to find out the English second language learners’ mastery of English conditional sentences.
3.3.1 The Modern Language Aptitude Test
The study used the sample of standardized language aptitude test called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) developed by Carroll and Sapon in 1959 (Winke, 2013). The sample can be obtained from Language Learning and Testing Foundation website. According to Carroll and Sapon (1959), the test consists of five parts; they are Number Learning (Part I),
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Phonetic Script (Part II), Spelling Clues (Part III), Words in Sentences (Part IV), and Paired Associate (Part V).
Table 3.1
The Modern Language Aptitude Test from Language Learning and Testing Foundation
Subtests Number of Questions
Number Learning 4
Phonetic Script 5
Spelling Clues 4
Words in Sentences 6
Paired Associates 6
Total 25
There were 25 questions in total. Part I consisted of 4 questions, Part II consisted of 5 questions, Part III consisted of 4 questions for each part, Part IV and Part V consisted of 6 questions for each. The samples of this study were expected to answer those questions within less than 20 minutes. The right answer of the test scored 1, while the wrong answer scored 0.
Part I and V are used to measure the learners’ Rote Memory ability, Part II and III are used to measure Phonetic Coding ability, and Part IV is used to investigate the Grammatical Sensitivity (Carroll, 1990). Table 3.2 below summarizes the measurements of Carroll’s language aptitude components based on MLAT’s subtests
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Nurdini, 2014 Table 3.2
The Measurements of Carroll’s Language Aptitude Components based on the MLAT’s Subtests (Carroll, 1990)
Carroll’s Language
Aptitude Components
The MLAT’s Subtest Part I Number Learning Part II Phonetic Script Part III Spelling Clues Part IV Words in Sentences Part V Paired Associates Rote
Memory _ _ _
Phonetic
Coding _ _ _
Grammatical
Sensitivity _ _ _ _
Inductive Language Learning
_ _ _ _ _
Even though Inductive Language Learning ability is one of four constituent abilities in Carroll’s language aptitude theory, but the measurement for the ability is not included in the Modern Language Aptitude Test since the ability was quite difficult to measure when the MLAT was developed for the first time in 1950s (Carroll, 1980).
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The test consisted of 10 essays and 10 matching exercises regarding conditional sentences in various types which have been stated in Chapter II. The questions were gathered from ESLibrary.com. The given time to answers the entire questions on the test was 20 minutes. The form of the test was written test. Each participant collected 1 point for giving the right answer, while the wrong answer caused them in getting no point.
Table 3.3
Test on Conditional Sentences
Types of Conditional Sentences Number of Questions
Zero Conditional 3
First Conditional 4
Second Conditional 6
Third Conditional 7
Total 20
3.4 Data Analysis
In order to find the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study went through several procedures to analyze the data. Gathering the data from both the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and test on conditional sentences was the first step to do in the study. Secondly, the study calculated the sum of both MLAT and the test. MLAT as the selected language aptitude test presented as X variable, while the second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences presented as Y variable.
Besides measuring the total scores of MLAT, the study also analyzed each part of the selected language aptitude test which represents the constituent abilities of language aptitude that proposed by Carroll and correlated them with the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences as well by using the selected statistical concept.
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After calculating the scores of both variables, measuring the value of correlation was the next step to do. To measure the value of correlation, the study conducted the formula of Pearson product – moment correlation coefficient. The formula is:
√ ] ]
Where:
r = the value of correlation between two variables. N = the number of participants or samples.
X = sum of X scores. X2
= sum of squared X scores. Y = sum of Y scores.
Y2
= sum of squared Y scores.
XY = sum of the products of X and Y scores.
James Evans (1996) points out the absolute value of r which is represented in the table below:
Table 3.4
The Absolute Value of r (Evans, 1996)
The Absolute Value of r Interpretation
0.00 - 0.19 Very weak
0.20 - 0.39 Weak
0.40 - 0.59 Moderate
0.60 - 0.79 Strong
0.80 - 1.00 Very strong
After finding the obtained r of the two variables, the next step was measuring coefficient of determination. Coefficient of determination which is
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symbolized by lowercase r2 can be defined as “the percent of the variation in the values of the dependent variable (Y) that can be "explained" by variations in the value of the independent variable (X)” (Taylor, 1990, p. 3). To obtain coefficient of determination, the study adopted the formula as follow:
CD = r2.100% Where:
CD = coefficient of determination. r2 = the obtained square of r
Calculating the significance of the correlation between X and Y variables was useful in order to give the study an idea of how far the relationship of those variables which was stated in the study. The study then created two possible hypotheses as the first step of defining the significance of the correlation between X and Y variables, they were H0: ρ = 0 which means there is no relationship
between X and Y variable or it can be called as null hypothesis and H1= ρ 0
which means there is a possibility that relationship and the value of statistic is either greater or lower than 0. The Greek symbol of ρ (rho) represents the true correlation coefficient.
In order to figure out the significance of correlation coefficient, the study had to find the standardized t statistic for r by using the following formula:
√
Where:
t = standardized t statistic or t score. r = the value of correlation.
N = the number of participants or samples. r2 = the obtained square of r
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To find out the correlation of all language aptitude’s three constituent abilities and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study employs the formula of multiple correlations. The formula is:
R =
√
Where:
ryx1 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables y and x1.
ryx2 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables y and x2.
rx1x2 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables x1 and x2
According to Bluman (2012), the value of R is always higher compared to the value of individual correlation coefficient. He (2012) also states that the value of R “can never be negative” (p. 578). Table 3.5 below presents the interpretation of R.
Table 3.5
The Value of R (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013)
The Value of R Interpretation
0.51 – 1.00 Strong association
0.26 – 0.50 Moderate association
0.00 – 0.25 Weak association
In order to figure out the significance of multiple correlations, the study used an F test for R by using the following formula:
F = ⁄
Where:
R2 = squared R.
n = the number of data groups.
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The result of those measurements was presented to answer the research question regarding the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. The correlation of three language aptitude components (Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity) and the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences were also investigated by using the same formulas. Furthermore, after concluding the result of the analysis, the suggestions for future studies were provided.
3.5 Clarification of Key Terms
In order to avoid any misunderstanding and misconception in the study, there are some clarified terms that commonly used in the study:
Second Language
Second language is the language in addition to one’s first language, although the language may be the third language and so on, to be applied (Saville-Troike, 2006). In this case, the second language refers to another language that acquired by the learners in the study.
Language Aptitude.
Language aptitude can be called “language learning ability” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 32). Aptitude itself can be defined as “capacity that enhances the rate and ease of learning” (Carrol, 1981, cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 495).
The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
An instrument designed to measure aptitude for foreign language learning in high school, college, and adult populations (McGuire & Scott, 2005, p. 2).
Conditional sentences.
Conditional sentences can be explained as “a two-clause sentence in which the first clause states a supposition or hypothesis and the second clause states the results if that condition is met” (Elliott, 2006, p. 4).
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CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains findings gathered after analyzing the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. The analysis included analyzing the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences by using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. The next steps were analyzing the coefficient of determination and level of significance for both variables. Furthermore, the study also analyzed the correlation of language aptitude‟s three constituent abilities such as Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity with the result of the test on conditional sentences for the learners.
4.1 The Correlation of Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences
4.1.1 Score Tabulation
This study used two main instruments; the first was the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) to measure the English second language learners‟ aptitude, while the second one was test on conditional sentences which was used to measure the second language learners‟ mastery of English conditional sentences. The MLAT consisted of five parts and 25 questions in total. As mentioned in Chapter III, Part I consisted of 4 questions, Part II consisted of 5 questions, Part III consisted of 4 questions for each part, Part IV and Part V consisted of 6 questions for each. One point was given for every right answer, while the wrong answer scored zero.
Twenty questions were available on test on conditional sentences. The test consisted of 10 essays and 10 matching exercises regarding conditional sentences in various types. Each participant collected 1 point
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for giving the right answer, while the wrong answer caused them in getting no point. The total scores on both tests are presented in Appendix I.
Based on the total score of both tests, the lowest score of language aptitude test is 12, while the highest score is 22 from 25 available questions. In test on conditional sentences, the lowest score is 6, while the highest score is 13 from 20 available questions. Unfortunately, no students are able to achieve a full mark in both tests. The highest score in MLAT or language aptitude test which was collected by the sample of this study is 22 instead of 25, while the highest score in test on conditional sentences is 13 instead of 20.
Besides calculating the score of language aptitude as a whole, the study also calculated the score of three constituent abilities of language aptitude which were also investigated in the study. The scores of three constituent abilities of language aptitude are presented in Appendix II.
In accordance to the table in Appendix II, the highest score of Rote Memory is 10, while the lowest score is 8. The maximum score for Rote Memory is 10, after combining Part I (4 questions) and Part V (6 questions) in the language aptitude test. Sixteen subjects of the study are able to achieve the maximum score in Rote Memory, while the rest are able to get score range between 8 and 9.
In the case of Phonetic Coding, the highest score is 7, while the lowest score is 0. The maximum score of Phonetic Coding is 9 after combining Part II (5 questions) and part III (4 questions) in the MLAT. The subject of the study are not able to get a full mark in Phonetic Coding, instead they only get a score range from 0 to 7.
The highest score of Grammatical Sensitivity is 6. It is from the total 6 questions of Part IV in the MLAT. Out of 20 English second language learners in the study, only 2 subjects who get the highest score. The lowest score of Grammatical Sensitivity is 0 and only 1 subject who manages to get the score. The rest 17 subjects are able to get a score range from 1 to 5.
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4.1.2 Preliminary Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics
The descriptive analysis is given to provide information regarding two variables in the study. The information includes standard deviation (SD), sample variance, range, minimum and maximum score. Along with the descriptive statistics, this chapter also provides information regarding the measurements which are needed in this study. As mentioned in Chapter III, the study used language aptitude test, which is called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), and test on conditional sentences for 20 students who were willing to volunteer for the study.
The MLAT consisted of 25 questions, while test on conditional sentences consisted of 20 questions. The MLAT was used to measure the subjects‟ language aptitude and their abilities in aptitude‟s constituent abilities, such as Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity, while test on conditional sentences was used to measure their mastery of the material. The following table summarizes the descriptive statistics of investigated variables.
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Table 4.1
Descriptive Statistics (N = 20)
Variables Items Points Mean Standard Deviation
(SD) Sample Variance Maximum Minimum
Language Aptitude
25 25 16.2 2.38 5.64 22 12
Rote Memory
10 10 9.7 0.66 0.43 10 8
Phonetic Coding
9 9 2.8 1.54 2.39 7 0
Grammatical
Sensitivity 6 6 3.85 1.57 2.45 6 0
Conditional
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As shown in the Table 4.1, the mean of language aptitude which measured by the Modern Language Aptitude test is 16.2 (SD = 2.38), which is 64.8% of the total score (25), while the mean for test on conditional sentences is 11.23 (SD = 1.77), which was 56.15% of the total score (20). The sample variance of the data ranged from 0.43 to 5.64.
In MLAT, there are five main parts in which the test takers are expected to answer. Part I [Number Learning] and Part V [Paired Associate] were used to measure the test takers‟ memory, in this case is called Rote Memory. Part II [Phonetic Script] and Part III [Spelling Clues] were used to measure the test takers‟ Phonetic Coding ability, while Part IV which is called Words in Sentences was used to measure the test takers‟ sensitivity of grammatical concept or in this case is called Grammatical Sensitivity.
4.1.3 Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences
In order to find out the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences, this study used the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) to measure the learners‟ language learning ability, while test on conditional sentences was used to measure learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. Using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, the relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences in the study is 0.35. The figure 4.1 elaborates the scatter diagram or best-fit line of the correlation of language aptitude and English L2 learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences.
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Figure 4.1 The Scatter Plot of MLAT and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) From the figure above, it is shown that there is a linear relationship between language aptitude which is represented by horizontal axis (variable X) and English L2 learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences which is represented by vertical axis (variable Y). The dots of the scatter plot represents the distribution of the two variables, in this case the scores of the Modern Language Aptitude Test and test on conditional sentences taken by the samples of this study. Through the figure above, it appears that the relationship or the association of both variables is linear positive.
According to Evans (1996), if the absolute value of r ranges from .20 to .39, the relationship reflects a weak positive relationship. Since the absolute value of r on the relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.35, it means the relationship reflects a weak positive relationship.
4.1.3.1 Rote Memory
Rote Memory as one of the constituent abilities in Carroll‟s language aptitude theory is also investigated in the study. Since Rote Memory relates to language aptitude, it means that there are two independent variables to be related to conditional sentences as the dependent variable. After applying the formula of multiple correlations to find out the correlation of the variables, it is found
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
6 11 16 21
C o n d it io n a l S e n te n ce s
The Modern Language Aptitude Test
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that the value of R of language aptitude and Rote Memory with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.62. The result emphasizes that the two independent variables and the learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences defines a strong relationship since the value of R is closer to 1 (Bluman, 2012).
To see whether Rote Memory employs linear relationship with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences, the figure 4.2 below explains the scatter diagram or best fit-line for a linier relationship. The diagram is based on the scores of Rote Memory, which can be measured by using Part I [Number Learning] and Part V [Paired Associates] in the Modern Language Aptitude Test, and test on conditional sentences.
Figure 4.2The scatter plot of Rote Memory and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20)
From the figure above, it is shown that there is a linear relationship between Rote Memory which is represented by horizontal axis (variable X) and English L2 learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences which is represented by vertical axis (variable Y). The dots of the scatter plot elaborates the distribution of the two variables, in this case the scores of Rote Memory, which is measured by Part I [Number Learning] and Part V [Paired Associates] in the Modern Language Aptitude Test, and test on
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
8 8.5 9 9.5 10
C o n d it io n a l S e n te n ce s Rote Memory
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LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ MASTERY OF
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D. gifts E. forecasts 13. grbj
A. car port B. seize
C. boat D. boast E. waste
4. Part IV [Words in Sentences] Question 14-19
In each of the following questions, we will call the first sentence the key sentence. One word in the key sentence will be underlined and printed in capital letters. Your task is to select the letter of the word in the second sentence that plays the same role in that sentence as the underlined word in the key sentence.
Look at the following sample question:
Sample: JOHN took a long walk in the woods.
Children in blue jeans were singing and dancing in the park.
A B C D E
You would select “A.” because the key sentence is about “John” and the second sentence is about “children”. Now, let’s begin with the questions:
14. MARY is happy.
From the look on your face, I can tell that you must have had a bad day. A B C D E Answer:
15. We wanted to go out, BUT we were too tired.
Because of our extensive training, we were confident when we were out sailing,
A B C
yet we were always aware of the potential dangers of being on the lake.
D E
Answer:
16. John said THAT Jill liked chocolate.
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LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ MASTERY OF
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A B C D E
news show. Answer:
17. The officer gave me a TICKET!
When she went away to college, the young man’s daughter wrote him the most A B C
beautiful letter that he had ever received. D E
Answer:
18. James is cutting the APPLE
Daisy, my sister, is beating the cat with a long stick
A B C D E
Answer:
19. MONEY is his only object.
Not so many years ago, most farming was done by hand. A B C D E Answer
5. Part V [Paired Associates] Question 20-25
Your task here is to MEMORIZE the Maya-English vocabulary below. There are only six words to memorize on this practice test. Take 40 seconds to memorize this vocabulary
Vocabulary Maya English
c?on gun si? wood
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LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ MASTERY OF
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kab juice bat ax pal son
Now begin with the questions: 20. bat
A. animal B. stick C. jump D. ax E. stone 21. kab
A. juice B. cart C. corn D. tool E. run
22. c?on A. story B. gun C. eat D. mix E. bird
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Nurdini, 2014
LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ MASTERY OF
GRAMMATICAL RULES
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu | perpustakaan.upi.edu
A. road B. tree C. yell D. fish E. hand 24. si?
A. look B. yes C. forgive D. cook E. wood
25. pal A. chief B. son C. friend D. gold E. boat
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B. Test on Conditional Sentences Question 1-10
Complete the following sentences using the correct form of the verb provided.
1. Chocolate [melt] when you heat it.
2. He is not going to pass his exam. If he [study] harder,
he [pass].
3. If Robert’s boss [be] angry, he [fire] him.
4. Bob didn’t write to me when he was on vacation, but if he [know] my address, he [send] me a postcard. 5. If she [break up] with him, he [be] lonely. 6. I’m sorry I was late. I forgot to set my alarm clock last night. If the
alarm clock [ring], I [get] to the meeting on time.
7. I have to work tomorrow, but if I [be] free, I [go] shopping with you.
8. I don’t own a pair of skis. If I [skis], I [go]
skiing with you tomorrow.
9. They didn’t go to her party, but if she [invite] them, they [go].
10.It was cold yesterday, but if it [be] warmer, we [go] to the beach.
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Question 11-20
Matching Exercises
Match the first part of the sentence on the left with the correct ending on the right.
11.I would buy a wig A. I would have called an ambulance.
12.You will have bad dreams B. I would call an ambulance. 13.If you mix black and white C. I would have tried to learn
some French
14.If I had seen the accident D. If I hadn’t looked at my calendar.
15.If you behave nicely E. If I were bald. 16.If I saw a bad car accident F. You get grey 17.If I had planned a trip to
France
18.The boss would fire me
G. If you watch a scary movie before bed.
H. You get dough 19.If you mix flour and water I. I will buy you a treat 20.I would have forgotten your
birthday
J. If I came to work late again