COHERENCE AND COHESION SHIFTS IN THE STUDENTS TRANSLATED TEXT.

COHERENCE AND COHESION SHIFTS IN THE STUDENTS’
TRANSLATED TEXT

A THESIS

Submitted to English Applied Linguistics Program In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for Degree of MAGISTER HUMANIORA (M.Hum)

By
RESTY WAHYUNI
Reg.Number: 810 611 2019

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM
POST-GRADUATE SCHOOL
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN
2014

COHERENCE AND COHESION SHIFTS IN THE STUDENTS’
TRANSLATED TEXT

A THESIS

Submitted to English Applied Linguistics Program In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for Degree of MAGISTER HUMANIORA (M.Hum)

By
RESTY WAHYUNI
Reg.Number: 810 611 2019

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM
POST-GRADUATE SCHOOL
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN
2014

ABSTRACT

Wahyuni, Resty. Registration number: 810 611 2019. Coherence and Cohesion Shifts in
the Students’ Translated Text. A Thesis. English Applied Linguistics
Study Program, Post Graduate School State University of Medan.
2014.

This study deals with coherence and cohesion shifts in the students’ translated text .
The aims of this study are to describe : 1) the types of cohesion shifts used in the
translated text done by the students, 2) the types of coherence shifts used in the
translated text done by the students. The data were taken from the translated text of
students of English faculty at Alwasliyah University of North Sumatra which contain
coherence and cohesion shifts. They were analyzed by using some steps. First, the
researcher selected translated text which contain cohesion and coherence shifts.
Second, the translated text were classified based on Blum – Kulka’s theory about
types of cohesion and coherence shifts namely cohesion shifts consist of shifts in level
explicitness and shifts in text meaning, coherence shifts consist of reader –focused
shifts of coherence and text-focused shifts of coherence. Having analyzed the data
from translated text of students which consists of six paragraphs and determined what
types of cohesion and coherence shifts which were used by them, the findings are
presented as follows : from the translated text, it was found that : 1). There are five
translation procedures which are applied by the students in translating text. They are
modulation (29), reduction (8), deletion (2), naturalization (5) and
reduction+modulation (2), 2). There are 39 cohesion shifts which are used by the
students namely 37 cohesion shifts in text meaning and 2 cohesion shifts in level of
explicitness, 3). there are 38 coherence shifts which were used by the students namely
32 reader-focused shifts of coherence and 6 text-focused shifts of coherence.

ii

ABSTRACT

Wahyuni, Resty. NIM: 810 611 2019. Coherence and Cohesion Shifts in the Students’
Translated Text. Tesis. Linguistik Terapan Bahasa Inggris, Sekolah
Pascasarjana. Universitas Negeri Medan.2014

Tesis ini berhubungan dengan pergeseran koheren dan kohesi dalam terjemahan
siswa. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan : 1) tipe – tipe
pergeseran koheren dan kohesi dalam hasil terjemahan yang dilakukan oleh
mahasiswa, 2) tipe – tipe pergeseran kohesi yang biasa terjadi dalam teks terjemahan
yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa. Data diperoleh dari teks terjemahan yang dilakukan
oleh Mahasiswa Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa
Inggris di Universitas Alwasliyah Sumatera Utara yang pada proses terjemahannya
terdapat pergeseran koheren dan kohesi. Kedua, teks terjemahan diklasifikasikan
berdasarkan teori Blum – Kulka tentang tipe – tipe pergeseran koheren dan kohesi
yang dimana pergeseran kohesi terdiri dari pergeseran level eksplisit dan pergeseran
dalam arti teks, pergeseran koheren terdiri dari pergeseran fokus pembaca dan

pergeseran fokus terhadap teks. Setelah menganalisa data dari hasil teks terjemahan
mahasiswa yang terdiri atas 6 paragraf dan ditentukan tipe koheren dan kohesi yang
digunakan oleh mahasiswa tersebut, penemuan yang diperoleh adalah : dari teks
terjemahan ditemukan ada 5 prosedur terjemahan yang diaplikasikan oleh para
mahasiswa dalam melakukan terjemahan. Prosedur terjemahan tersebut adalah :
modulation (29), reduction (8), deletion (2), naturalization (5) dan reduction+
modulation (2). Dari teks yang diterjemahkan, ditemukan bahwa terdapat 39
pergeseran cohesion yang terjadi pada saat mahasiswa melakukan penerjemahan teks,
yaitu sebanyak 37 pergeseran cohesion yang terjadi dalam arti teks dan sebanyak 2
pergeseran cohesion dalam level explicitness dan berdasarkan teks yang
diterjemahkan itu juga ditemukan ada 38 pergeseran coheren yang digunakan oleh
mahasiswa yaitu 32 dengan pergeseran reader-focused dalam coheren dan 6
pergeseran teks – focused dalam coheren

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The piece of academic achievement is really the product of hardship and endurance
of many challeges in life. On the top of everything a very sincere gratitude is rendered to

Allah SWT for everything that has been poured to the writer in completing her academic
writing studies and thesis. A part from that, many people for sure, have assisted her in some
ways or other, though not all names can be mentioned here but some deserve her very
special attention.
At the very beginning she benefited greatly from help, advice, and suggestion in
improving the writing given by Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd. being the first adviser, and
Prof. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A, Ph.D being the second advisor.
An endless gratitude is directed to Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd and Dr. Sri
Minda Murni, M.S. as the head and secretary of English Applied Linguistic Study Program.
Thanks also directed

to Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A, Ph.D., Dr. Sri Minda

Murni,M.S., Prof. Dr. Berlin Sibarani, M.Pd., for being the reviewers and examiners and for
their valuable suggestions and improvements to her thesis.
She is especially grateful to her beloved parents Yuni Amri, ST and Dra. Erna
Kusnita, M.Pd for heir everlasting love, hopeful prayers in her life and the moral and
financial support that have enabled her to finish her study. Her thankfulness also dedicated
to her lovely sister and brother Lavlia Elsa, ST, and Arie Hardian , SH,. for their motivation
support, care and prayers.

Finally, the final words are addressed to all that have shared their valuable insight in
making this thesis as it should be. May allah SWT, The Almighty be with us always.

Medan,

February 2014
The Researcher

Resty Wahyuni

i

pABSTRACT

Wahyuni, Resty. Registration number: 810 611 2019. Coheren and Cohesion Shifts in
the Students’ Translated Texts. A Thesis. English Applied
Linguistics Study Program, Post Graduate School State University of
Medan. 2014.

This study deals with coherence and cohesion shifts in the students’ translated texts.

The aims of this study are to describe : 1) the types of cohesion shifts used in the
translated texts done by the students, 2) the types of coherence shifts used in the
translated texts done by the students. The data were taken from the translated texts of
students of English faculty at Alwasliyah University of North Sumatra which contain
coheren and cohesion shifts. They were analyzed by using some steps. First, the
researcher selected translated texts which contain cohesion and coherence shifts.
Second, the translated texts were classified based on Blum – Kulka’s theory about
types of cohesion and coherence shifts namely cohesion shifts consist of shifts in level
explicitness and shifts in text meaning, coherence shifts consist of reader –focused
shifts of coherence and text-focused shifts of coherence. Having analyzed the data
from translated text of students which consists of six paragraphs and determined what
types of cohesion and coherence shifts which were used by them, the findings are
presented as follows : from the translated text, it was found that : 1). There are five
translation procedures which are applied by the students in translating text. They are
They are modulation (29), reduction (8), deletion (2), naturalization (5) and
reduction+modulation (2), 2). There are 39 cohesion shifts which are used by the
students namely 37 is cohesion shift in text meaning and 2 is cohesion shift in level of
explicitness, 3). there are 38 coherence shifts which were used by the students namely
32 is reader-focused shifts of coherence and 6 is text-focused shifts of coherence.

ii

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

viii

LIST OF TABLE

Table 4.1 Cohesion and Coherence Shifts

57

ix

x

xi

xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

i

ABSTRACT

ii

TABLE OF CONTENT

iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

vii

LIST OF TABLE

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Background of the Study
1.2 Research Problems
1.3 The Objectives of the Study
1.4 The Scope of the Study

1.5 The Significance of the Study

CHAPTER II

1
8
8
9
9

THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
2.1 Translation
2.1.1 The Nature of Translation
2.1.2 Types of Translation
2.1.3 Translation Methods
2.1.4 Translation Procedures
2.1.5 Translation Processes
2.2 Translation Shifts
2.2.1 Level Shifts
2.2.2 Category Shifts
2.2.2.1 Structure-shifts
2.2.2.2 Class-shifts
2.2.2.3 Unit-shifts
2.2.2.4 Intra-system-shifts
2.3 Shifts of Cohesion and Coherence in Translation
Types of Cohesion Shift
2.3.1.1 Shifts in level of explicitness
2.3.1.2 Shifts in text meaning
2.3.2 Types of Coherence Shift
2.3.2.1 Reader-focused shifts of coherence
2.3.2.2 Text-focused shifts of coherence
2.4 Cohesion
2.5 Coherence
2.6 Students Translation
2.7 Conceptual Framework

11
12
15
18
20
25
27
27
29
31
33
34
34
35
37
37
39
40
40
41
44
48
49
50

2.3.1

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Data and Source of Data
3.2 The Instruments of Data Collection
3.4 Technique of Data Collection
3.5 Technique of Data Analysis
3.6 The Research Procedure
3.7 The Trustworthiness of the Data

53
53
54
54
54
55
55

CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 The Data Analysis
57
4.1.1.Types of Translation Procedures in the
Translated Text
58
4.1.1.1 Modulation
58
4.1.1.2 Reduction
70
4.1.1.3 Deletion
73
4.1.1.4 Naturalization
74
4.1.1.5 Reduction + Modulation
76
4.1.2.Types of Cohesion Shift in the Translated text 77
4.1.3 Types of Coherence Shift in the Translated text 90
4.2 Research Findings
103
4.3 Discussion
105

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Suggestions

REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B

108
109
110
112
114

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE 4.1

Translation Procedures

TABLE 4.2

Cohesion shifts

TABLE 4.3

Coherence shifts

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1

Holmes’ Map of Translation Studies

Figure 2

The translation Method

Figure 3

Conceptual Framework

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SL

Source Language

TL

Target Language

ST

Source text

TT

Target text

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Background of the Study
Translation involves the rephrasing of a communication expressed (message) in one
language, the source language (SL), into another language, the target language (TL). Three
notions are involved: SL – message – TL. The translator, therefore, should master the linguistic
and non-linguistic knowledge of both SL and TL. Linguistically, he/she should master the
word, phrasal expression, structure of the sentence, syntactic relation between the various
elements of the sentence, and semantic relation of SL and TL. Non-linguistic knowledge refers
to the previous knowledge of the translator possesses towards the text, whether he/she has
known and read it before.
Translation is a phenomenon that has a huge effect on everyday life. Every year, many
books have been translated into several languages in the world. One of them is from English
into Bahasa Indonesia. It is not surprising that the needs of translation product increases
nowadays. Translation itself is not only a linguistic act, it is also a cultural one. It is said to be
so because translation always involves both language and culture as it cannot be separated.
Translators should pay great attention to the differences in kind and degree of
conventionalization in the source and target cultures when transferring a text from one culture
to another.
In reality, Damanik (2005:78) finds out that there is always the danger of interference
from the form of the source language. The study of many translations shows that in order to
translate idiomatically a translator will need to make many adjustments in form. It will not
always be possible to translate a source language noun with a noun in the receptor language.

The same form may also be used as two different word classes. Once the meaning is clear, they
can think about how to reconstruct the meaning in the receptor language. If the translator
translates every word from the source language to the receptor language, this can be lead to
unidiomatic text.
One of the reasons why the researcher chooses this study as the topic is that this topic
is interesting to be researched since many people especially students often translate written
texts incorrectly. It means that the researcher found that many students translated written texts
without knowing the meaning correctly so that the translation has shifts which give negative
effect in the meaning of the translation. For example, the shift in Target Language (TL) can
effect the changing of the point of view of the Source Language (SL) so that the meaning of
the SL cannot not be delivered in meaningfully.
Shifts are all the mandatory actions of the translators (those dictated by the structural
discrepancies between the two language systems involved in this process) and the optional ones
(those dictated by the personal and stylistic preferences) to which he resorts consciously for
the purpose of natural and communicative rendition of a source text into another language
(another text). Shift should be redefined positively as the consequence of the translator’s effort
to establish translation equivalence (TE) between two different language systems. It is
equivalence to the definition given by Catford (1965:141) that “shifts” means departures from
formal correspondence in the process of going from the source language to the receptor
language.
Approached from reader's point of view, Blum-Kulka (2000:304) equates coherence
with the text's interpretability. In considering shift in coherence through translation she points
out the possibility that the text may change their potential meaning through translation. The
above quotation answers the question ‘what' is coherence and what is shift of coherence. Bell
(1991:165) identifies that coherence consists of the configuration and sequencing of concepts

and relations of the textual world which underlie and are realized by the surface text. Hu
(1991:42) states that coherence covers cohesion and they are intertwined. Further she describes
that coherence in the source language text is closely tied to cohesion, and translation
equivalence can sometimes be attained by manipulating those markers that are overt. As search
for coherence is a general principle in discourse interpretation, Blum-Kulka (2000:298) states
that coherence can be viewed as a covert potential meaning relationship among parts of a text,
made overt by the reader through process of interpretation. For this process to be realized, the
reader or listener must be able to relate the text to relevant or familiar words, either real or
fictional. From the above description, in relation to this study it can be said that coherence shift
is an adjustment of source language unknown concept into known receptor language concept
by making overt the covert discoursal potential meaning relationship among parts of the text
through process of interpretation.
In considering shifts in coherence through translation, on the most general level, with
examining the possibility that texts may change or lose their meaning potential through
translation, Blum-Kulka (2000:304) argues three points that (1) there is a need to distinguish
between reader-focused and text-focused shifts of coherence, and that probably, the former are
less avoidable than the latter; (2) text-focused shifts of coherence are linked to the process of
translation per se, while reader-focused shifts are linked to a change in reader audiences
through translation; and (3) both types of shifts can be studied to a certain extent by
psycholinguistic methods of text processing.
On the other hand, as semantic translation, it can be stated that cohesion shift is meaning
adjustments of meaning components in textual relationships of a known concept in a different
linguistic system of two languages. Cohesion will be considered as an overt relationship
holding between parts of the text, expressed by language specific markers. On the level of
cohesion, shifts in types of cohesive markers used in translation seem to affect translation in

one or both of level of explicitness and/or text meaning(s). Shifts in levels of explicitness means
that the general level of the target texts’ textual explicitness is higher or lower than that of the
source text. Shifts in text meaning means that the explicit and implicit meaning potential of the
source text changes through translation. The overt cohesive relationships between parts of the
texts are necessarily linked to a language’s grammatical system (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:78).
Thus, grammatical differences between languages will be expressed by changes in the types of
ties used to mark cohesion in source and target texts. Such transformations might carry with
them a shift in the text’s overall level of explicitness.
In the fact, the process of translating text faced some challenges because the translator
should consider the culture between source language (SL) and target language (TL). That we
know today, global trends i.e. from western countries are absorbed in Indonesia. People are
interested in the western products , such as magazine, movies, novel, handbooks and the news
about : fashion, lifestyle and celebrity life. Moreover Indonesia nowadays has begun to catch
the world attention so. If Indonesia wants to introduce and promote the whole aspects of life,
like : culture, education, tourism, life philosophy. There is needs to serve the information in
English for example like : translating Indonesian book and literature into good English. To
cover all of them there should be needs professional touch of translation skill to serve both
Indonesian and global readers the good translation and adaptation of the news both from
English into Indonesian and Indonesian into English.
To achieve the goal, Therefore the professional and skillful translators are required.
One of the best ways is preparation from the beginning stage of the schools. So the students
are introduce and trained to translate well in the good quality by considering coherence and
cohesion. So the messages that source language (SL) want to serve will be there in the target
language (TL). But after some preliminary observation some problems arise even in the high
level like university students. They still do many deviants of shifts in translating and

considering the coheren and cohesion from the source language (SL) to the target language
(TL). The facts in University especially in English Departement the approaches of translation
still have been introduced. That’s why the researcher is interested to conduct the research about
coheren and cohesion shifts in the students’ translated text.
Based on the preliminary observation the researcher took an example as following :
Source Language (SL) :

He was born in the isolated village of Pandan Gadang, Suliki, a remote
coastal area in West Sumatera. His first name was Engku Datuk Ibrahim
with title Tan Malaka. He was growing like the other Minangkabau boys,
except his extraordinary naughtiness. Born as a son of high class society
(engku). Tan Malaka was educated in teacher’s school for the basic level.
Kweekschool in Bukittinggi which was the only school of such kind in
Sumatera at that time.

Target Language (TL)
AN :

Dia Lahir di desa yang terisolasi, Pandan Gadang, Suliki, daerah pingiran pantai terpencil di
Sumatera Barat. Nama pertamanya adalah Engku Datuk Ibrahim dan bergelar Tan Malaka.
Beliau tumbuh seperti anak – anak laki – laki Minangkabau lainnya kecuali kenakalannya yang
sangat luar biasa. Terlahir sebagai anak laki – laki dengan kelas sosial yang tinggi (engku), Tan
Malaka bersekolah disekolah Guru untuk tingkat dasar, Kweekschool di Bukit tinggi yang
merupakan satu – satunya sekolah untuk tingkat tersebut di Sumatera pada saat itu.

HK : Dia dilahirkan Pandan Gadang sebuah kampung terpencil di Suliki, sebuah kawasan pantai yang
jauh di sumatera Barat. Nama pertamanya adalah Engku Datuk Ibrahim dengan gelar Tan
Malaka. Dia tumbuh sama seperti anak Minangkabau yang lain, kecuali kenakalannya yang
benar – benar luar biasa. Dilahirkan sebagai seorang anak dari kelas sosial tinggi (Engku), Tan
Malaka dididik di sekolah guru untuk tingkat dasar, Kweekschool di Bukittinggi yang
merupakan sekolah satu – satunya dengan jenis tersebut pada saat itu.
SM : Dia Dilahirkan Pandan Gadang sebuah desa primitif di Suliki, Sebuah kawasan pantai yang jauh
dari Sumatera sumatera Barat. Nama pertamanya adalah Engku Datuk Ibrahim dengan gelar
Tan Malaka. Dia tumbuh sama seperti anak Minangkabau yang lain, kecuali kenakalannya yang
benar – benar luar biasa. Dilahirkan sebagai seorang anak dari kelas sosial tinggi (Engku), Tan
Malaka dididik di sekolah guru untuk tingkat dasar, Kweekschool di Bukittinggi yang
merupakan sekolah satu – satunya dengan jenis tersebut pada saat itu.

From those above texts, they used some translation procedures, for the fist
translator AN(Anisa) used modulation as the translation procedure, it is to be said so because
the translator Syntactically, the sentence “He was born...” is active sentence. It should be
translated into “...ia lahir”. On the other hand, in the TL, it is translated into passive sentence
“Dia dilahirkan...” it is done by HK(Hiskia) In this case, the translator used modulation as the
translation procedure since there is changing in the point of view in the TL.

In coherence shift, the translator AN(Anisa) and HK(Hiskia) translating the word
“isolated” based on their understanding, because the word “isolated” is refers to the target
meaning “terpencil” and “terisolasi” it is belong to the isolated meanwhile SM(Samrizal)
translated that with “primitif”, the “primitive” is not belong to the meaning of isolated. So we
can concluded both AN(Anisa) and HK(Hiskia) have coherence in translating the single text
but SM(Samrizal) has coherence shift in translating the text namely reader-focused shift.
About the cohesion shift, from those above texts, the students have cohesion shifts in
translating the text because they change the view point of the Target Language (TL) namely
meaning explicitness.
The coherence and cohesion shifts in the students’ translated text becomes the starting
point as the primer data of this research.it said to be so, because many of the students have no
coherence and cohesion in the translated text. Relating to this phenomenon the researcher
interested to conduct the research.
The theories proposed by Blum Kulka (2000), Popovič's (2000), and Damanik (2005)
which involve translation shifts both in textual and discoursal relationship developed by
adopting a discoursal and communicative approach to the study of translation, leads the writer’s
interest conduct this research. Thus, this study is going to analyse what cohesion and coherence
shifts occur in the translated done among the university students.

1.2 Research Problems
The problems of this study are presented in the following questions:
(1) What types of Translation Procedures are used in the translated text done by the
students?
(2) What types of cohesion shifts are used in the translated texts done by the students?
(3) What types of coherence shifts are used in the translated texts done by the students?

1.3 The Objectives of the Study
Related with the research problem above, here are the objectives of the study:
(1) to describe the types of Translation Procedures used in the translated text done by the
students,
(2) to describe the types of cohesion shifts used in the translated texts done by the students,
(3) to describe the types of coherence shifts used in the translated texts done by the
students.

1.4 The Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is the theories of translation, translation shifts’ theory,
translation procedures, cohesion, coherence, shifts of cohesion, and shifts of coherence. On the
level of translation procedure the types which are used in translation are categorize into :
Modulation, reduction, deletion and naturalization. On the level of cohesion, shifts in types of
cohesive markers used in translation are categorized into (1) shifts in level of explicitness; i.e.
the general level of the receptor texts’ textual explicitness is higher or lower than that of the
source text; (2) shifts in text meaning; i.e. the explicit and implicit meaning potential of the
source text changes through translation. Shifts in coherence through translation are related to
three points (1) reader-focused shifts of coherence; and (2) text-focused shifts of coherence.
and (3) both types of shifts can be studied to a certain extent by psycholinguistic methods of
text processing. Shifts of cohesion and coherence translation are based on the theory proposed
by Blum-Kulka. The theory of translation shifts will be elaborated with the theory of cohesion

and coherence to describe the cohesion and coherence shifts in translation done among the
students to produce a natural text.

1.5 The Significance of the Study
Findings of this study are strongly expected to have the theoretically and practically
indispensable significances. Theoretically, the research findings will be valuable contributions
for other researchers who will conduct a research in the field of translation studies, particularly
about the coherence and cohesion shifts in the translation text. Practically, on the other hand,
the research findings will be beneficial for the translators in general and the Indonesian
translators in particular as a consideration for doing translation.

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1

Conclusions
Based on the problems of the study and the data which have been analyzed, conclusions
are drawn as the following:

1.

Students of English faculty at Alwasliyah University of North Sumatra used five
translation procedures in their translation namely modulation, reduction, deletion,
naturalization and reduction+modulation. They also use all types of cohesion and
coherence shifts in their translation.

2.

Based on the data, it is concluded that there are 38 coherence shifts which were used
by the students namely 32 is reader-focused shift of coherence and 6 is text-focused
shift of coherence.

3.

Based on the data, it is concluded that there are 39 cohesion shifts which were used by
the students namely 2 cohesion shifts in level of explicitness and 37 cohesion shifts in
text meaning.

5.2

Suggestion
Having seen the findings of the study, the following suggestions are staged:

1.

It is advisable for other researchers especially who will conduct a research in the field
of translation studies to understand the types of cohesion and coherence shifts which
are used by translators especially in translated texts.

2.

It is also suggested that students of applied linguistics should be exposed to a wide
range not only in written texts but also in oral texts.

3.

It is suggested for the future researchers to develop their knowledge about coherence
and cohesion shifts because their understanding about cohesion and coherence shifts
would help them especially for them who want to do research about translation studies.

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