THE CONCEPT OF MASCULINITY BASED ON PASHTUNWALI REVEALED IN THE CHARACTER OF BABA AND THE SETTING IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
THE CONCEPT OF MASCULINITY BASED ON PASHTUNWALI REVEALED IN THE CHARACTER OF BABA AND THE SETTING IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters.
By
GRACE MELIA KRISTANTO
Student Number: 074214058
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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THE CONCEPT OF MASCULINITY BASED ON PASHTUNWALI REVEALED IN THE CHARACTER OF BABA AND THE SETTING IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters.
By
GRACE MELIA KRISTANTO
Student Number: 074214058
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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iii Time flies so fast, make sure we are still the pilot.
There’s a line between slutty and classy.
And, I walk right on that line
-Katy Perry-
Give thanks for what you are now, and keep fighting for what you want to be tomorrow
- Fernanda Miramontes-Landeros-
If you don’t like how
things are, change them!
You’re not a tree
-Jim Rohn-
iv Truly
dedicated for my super daddy, the one who sees me
better than anyone else does, and my mommy, the one who has taught me to struggle. Trust me; I do love you, with my own ways.And, for bittersweet life, which has made me the way I am today.
v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama : Grace Melia Kristanto NomorMahasiswa : 07 4214 058
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali Revealed in the Character
of Baba and the Setting in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner.Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bilaada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data mendistribusikan secara terbatas dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya Dibuat di Yogyakarta Padatanggal : 12 Agustus 2011 Yang menyatakan.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to my dearest God, Jesus Christ, who keeps calling me even when I try to walk at the wrong ways. I am grateful for His omnipresence which means a lot for me.
I must thank my advisor, Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. and my co- advisor Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum. I truly appreciate their time, guidance, advice, and support in the process of making this thesis. I thank them for doing their best in helping me making this thesis. I would also like to thank all the lecturers and staffs of English Letters Program during my study in Sanata Dharma University.
I sincerely express my gratitude for Mr. Mustafa Haidari for his time chatting with me. I must thank his kindness for answering my questions and suggesting some of his friends to help me knowing more about Pashtunwali.
I am grateful to my parents, Bambang Kristanto and Melia Aditya, and my little brother, Kevin Aditya Kristanto, for their being around me every time I need, their supporting me, and for their calling me as a part of family. I can never describe how much I am grateful to have Bambang Kristanto, for his implied support, anger, and advice. No one understands and accepts me the way I am better than he does.
I am grateful to my dear friend Nandha Rizki Rahmalia for her ears when I need someone to talk to and words that sting me into action. Thanks go out to Frisma, Niken, and Ucup for being my soul mates and partners in crime. I want to
vii thank Mustika Sari who has taught how to be thankful even in the worst situation to me. My gratitude also goes out to Maria, Tina, Yeni, Tata, Cicil, and Karin for the supports, jokes, giggles, and stories. I must thank Noviyanti Riendrasiwi, S.Pd. for her question “What do you seek in your life?” which has helped me to set my goals in life. I want to thank the AllPlus crews, Yuliyanti Rahayu, S.Pd., Yosefina Heriyanti, S.Pd., Erny Ludvyani, Indriyani Kusumastuti, and Ardinawati, S.Pd. for being supportive, helpful, and incredible workmates.
Lastly, I don’t know how to thank life for every breathtaking moment. For the gifts and tricks in my ups and downs, I will always love life.
Grace Melia Kristanto
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................ i
APPROVAL PAGE ...................................................................................... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE .................................................................................. iii
MOTTO PAGE ............................................................................................. iv
DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PENGESAHAN .............................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. ix
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... xi
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1
A. Background of the Study ..................................................................... 1 B. Problem Formulations ......................................................................... 4 C. Objectives of the Study ........................................................................ 4 D. Definition of Terms ............................................................................. 4CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ................................................ 7
A. Review of Related Studies ................................................................... 7 B. Review of Related Theories ................................................................. 10 C. Review on the History of Pashtuns in Afghanistan ............................ 15 D. Review on Pashtunwali ........................................................................ 17 E. Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 22CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 23
A. Object of the Study .............................................................................. 23 B. Approach of the Study ........................................................................ 24 C. Method of the Study ............................................................................ 25CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 26
A. The Characteristics of Baba ................................................................ 271. Determined ....................................................................................... 28
2. Success-Oriented ............................................................................. 29
3. Courageous ...................................................................................... 31
4. Hospitable ....................................................................................... 33
5. Generous ......................................................................................... 35
B. The Setting in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner ............................. 37
1. Traditions Seen in the Setting of Circumstance ............................... 38
2. Religion Seen in the Setting of Circumstance ................................. 41
3. Customs and Habits Seen in the Setting of Circumstance ............... 42
4. Moral Conditions Seen in the Setting of Circumstance ................... 45
C. The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali Revealed in the Character of Baba and the Setting of Circumstance ............................ 47
1. The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali Revealed in the Character of Baba ............................................................................. 48
a. Baba’s being Determined as a Revelation of Ghayrat .............. 49
b. Baba’s being Success-Oriented as a Revelation of Ghayrat.…..50
c. Baba’s being Courageous as a Revelation of Turah & Namus ..........................................................................
52
d. Baba’s being Hospitable as a Revelation of Melmastya …. ...... 53
e. Baba’s being Generous as a Revelation of Melmastya ………..54
f. Baba’s being Determined, Success-Oriented, Courageous, Hospitable, and Generous as a Revelaation of Nang … ............ 55
2. The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali Revealed in the Setting .............................................................................................. 56
a. Traditions Seen in the Setting of Circumstance as a Revelation of
Ghayrat , Turah , and Namus ..................................................................... 56
b. Religion Seen in the Setting of Circumstance as a Revelation of
Melmastya and
Ghayrat ...................................................................................... 58
c. Customs and Habits Seen in the Setting of Circumstance as a Revelation of
Ghayrat and Melmastya ............................................................. 59
d. Moral Conditions Seen in the Setting of Circumstance as a Revelation of
Namus and Melmastya .............................................................. 61
e. Traditions, Religion, Customs, Habits, and Moral Condition Seen in the Setting of Circumstance as a Revelation of Nang 63
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION .................................................................... 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 68 APPENDIX (Summary of The Kite Runner) ................................................ 71
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ABSTRACT
Grace Melia Kristanto. The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali
Revealed in the Character of Baba and the Setting in Khaled Hosseini’s The
Kite Runner Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters,
Sanata Dharma University, 2011.This thesis studies one of Khaled Hosseini’s novels entitled The Kite
Runner. The story tells about Amir who desperately tries to win the approval of
his father, Baba, by winning a kite-fighting tournament to prove that he has the makings of man. This study discusses the concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali which Baba believes and which is represented in the setting.
There are three objectives in this study. The first is to describe Baba’s characteristics. The second is to describe how the setting is depicted in the novel. The third is to discuss the concept of masculinity based Pashtunwali revealed in the character of Baba and the setting.
To answer the questions the writer uses the novel as the primary source, while the secondary sources are books on literature, books of masculinity, and online sources. The writer applies library research method. The writer employs socio-cultural historical approach as the approach to the thesis because the study focuses in the concept of masculinity based on a code of behavior believed socially, culturally, and historically.
The results of the analysis show that the character of Baba and the setting reveal the concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali. Baba’s characteristics which are determined, success-oriented, courageous, hospitable, and generous and the setting reveal turah, melmastya, ghayrat, and namus. It makes Baba succeed in maintaining his nang and makes nang observable in the setting. Finally, since Baba and the setting reveal the codes in Pashtunwali, they also reveal the concept of masculinity believed among the Afghans.
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ABSTRAK
Grace Melia Kristanto. The Concept of Masculinity Based on Pashtunwali
Revealed in the Character of Baba and the Setting in Khaled Hosseini’s The
Kite Runner. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas
Sanata Dharma, 2011.Skripsi ini mempelajari salah satu novel Khaled Hosseini yang berjudul
The Kite Runner. Novel ini menceritakan tentang Amir yang dengan putus asa
berusaha mendapatkan pengakuan dari ayahnya, Baba. Ia berusaha mendapatkan pengakuan dari Baba dengan memenangkan perlombaan layang-layang untuk membuktikan bahwa ia dapat menjadi seorang laki-laki sejati. Skripsi ini membahas konsep maskulinitas berdasarkan Pashtunwali yang diyakini oleh Baba dan yang tergambar di dalam latar belakang The Kite Runner.
Ada tiga tujuan dari skripsi ini. Yang pertama untuk menjabarkan karakteristik-karakteristik Baba. Yang kedua untuk meneliti bagaimana latar belakang digambarkan dalam novel. Yang ketiga untuk menganalisa bagaimana karakter seorang Baba dan latar belakang merepresentasikan konsep maskulinitas berdasarkan Pashtunwali.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan novel sebagai sumber utama, sedangkan sumber penunjang adalah buku-buku sastra, buku-buku maskulinitas, dan sumber-sumber online. Penulis menggunakan metode studi pustaka. Pendekatan yang digunakan oleh penulis adalah pendekatan sosial-budaya sejarah karena penelitian ini berfokus pada konsep maskulinitas berdasarkan etika berperilaku yang diyakini dalam sosial, budaya, dan sejarah.
Hasil dari analisis ini menunjukkan bahwa karakter seorang Baba dan latar belakang novel menunjukkan konsep maskulinitas berdasarkan Pashtunwali. Karakteristik-karakteristik Baba yaitu penuh tekad, berfokus pada kesuksesan, berani, ramah, serta ringan tangan dan latar belakang The Kite Runner menunjukkan turah, melmastya, ghayrat, dan namus. Hal itu membuat Baba telah menunjukkan bahwa ia adalah seseorang yang memiliki nang. Itu juga membuat
nang dapat terlihat dalam latar belakang. Baba dan latar belakang novel
menunjukkan hal-hal yang dijabarkan dalam Pashtunwali sehingga Baba dan latar belakang menunjukkan konsep maskulinitas yang dipercaya oleh bangsa Afghanistan.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study People are unique. They, male or female, have their own characteristics,
thoughts, abilities, and disabilities. In some conditions, certainly men possess characteristics, personalities, or anything else that women do not have and vice versa. One difference between men and women as stated by Andrew Kimbrell (2005) in “What is a Man?” for example is that women can easily express their sadness by crying while men will try their best not to cry even if they are sad (2005). There are still many things differentiating men from women. Nonetheless, each culture sees the characteristics differentiating men from women differently.
As described by Kimbrell, men will attempt not to share their feelings by crying. However, that idea is very much different from British culture in the past. Cunningham and Moor in New Cutting Edge state that in the eighteenth century, a true gentleman showed his feelings by crying many times in public. King George
IV even sat down and cried loudly after hearing a very bad news (2005: 43).
The characteristics men and women possess are developed through any idea or concept of masculinity (for men) or femininity (for women) that they believe. Men, to be particular, have various standards of the-so called masculinity that they want to achieve.
Generally speaking, masculinity simply means the qualities considered to be a typical man. Nonetheless, masculinity is actually much more complicated than that because the qualities required to be a masculine man in a society are various and complex. If King George IV lived in this era and cried to express his sadness, he would never be called masculine. One certain thing about masculinity is it is socially constructed rather than innately constructed. It means that one has to adhere to the concept of masculinity believed in his society to prove that he is masculine. The fact that someone was born as a male does not directly mean that he will certainly be called masculine because masculinity is not simply about one’s sex. Masculinity is a gender identity one possesses through a rather complex process. Thus, there must be some aspects and characteristics to make a man deserve to be called masculine. Any aspects and characteristics are not only from what he believes, but also from what society sees and believes about how a man should be. It is strengthened by Grodan (2008) in “Masculinity Theory – An Overview” who states that “Thus, it is not just the specific behaviors and actions of the individual that define masculinity; rather, masculinity is a consideration of power structures in social and cultural discourse.”
As stated above, masculinity is socially constructed and is shaped by some aspects. Then, one of the aspects socially interlinked to a social scope is the place where a man lives since different places with different circumstance might require different standards of masculinity as well. This fact is also stated by Shroder in “Afghanistan” as “Masculinity plays an important role in shaping men’s help- seeking behavior. However, what men consider as important attributes of masculinity and how these attributes are related vary in different Asian countries.” Seeing the previous quotation alone, it is justifiable to say that something that is considered as a masculine trait in one place does not necessarily mean that it will be considered as the same in a different place. The act of men fulfilling their wives’ needs in Afghanistan, for example, is considered as what typical men should do only by those who live in Afghanistan. People who live in America probably will not see that act as a masculine behavior since typical American women, different from Afghan women who depend on their husbands, make their own living so that they do not need to depend on their husband to buy their needs.
In order to comprehend such a topic, a novel entitled The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini is a great choice. The Kite Runner is a story that depicts the concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali; how masculinity based on Pashtunwali is perceived and expressed, moreover to Baba. Even though Baba is not the main character in this novel, Baba’s ways of thinking, speaking, behaving, and treating his son, Amir, will show how Afghan men see masculinity based on Pashtunwali and respectively will be such a way that underlines how masculinity based on Pashtunwali is revealed in the novel. The fact that this novel tells a story about Afghans also reveals the concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali, particularly for Afghan men due to how Afghans see the role of a man and what characteristics or codes of behavior required from an Afghan man to be called masculine. Therefore, The Kite Runner is undoubtedly the excellent source to gain great understanding about the topic.
B. Problem Formulation
In order to get a good grasp of the topic, three problems were formulated as follows:
1. How is Baba characterized?
2. How is the setting of circumstance described?
3. What is the concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali revealed in the character of Baba and the setting of circumstance?
C. Objectives of the Study
Generally, the objective of this study is to answer the problems formulated in the previous part. There are three objectives that the writer wants to achieve in this study. The first objective is to see how Baba, a character in the novel, is characterized. The second is to find out how the setting of the novel, especially the setting of circumstance is described. The last objective is to understand what concept of masculinity based on Pashtunwali is revealed in the character of Baba and the setting of circumstance.
D. Definition of Terms
To avoid any further misunderstanding in this study, clarification of the key terms is worth to do.
1. Masculinity
According to Reeser in Masculinities in Theory: An Introduction (2010: 2) masculinity, with innumerable variations in time and in space, is more complicated than it is firstly believed and, consequently, it can be studied not as a single definition, but as variety and complexity. Further, he states that Yet even within a single cultural and temporal context, ideas of masculinity are far from stable and fixed. While there are maybe some agreement among some people about a given definition, such a definition is never entirely agreed upon, and it is always contested in some way (2010: 3). As stated by Reeser, the concepts of masculinity are various, complex, and not fixed. Therefore, it will be better seeing masculinity in some definitions and understandings rather than in a single definition because some definitions may complement each other so that finally the intended understanding of masculinity will be perceived.
Stets and Burke in Femininity/Masculinity define masculinity as the degree to which persons see themselves as masculine given what it means to be a man in society (2006: 3). It is rooted in the social (one’s gender) rather than the biological (one’s sex).
Another concept of masculinity is stated by Grodan (2008) in Masculinity Theory – An Overview published in Associatedcontent.com.
Unlike the biological state of maleness, masculinity is a gender identity constructed socially and historically. It is the cultural interpretation of maleness, learnt through participation in society and its institutions. Thus, masculinity is an ever evolving process that requires the individual to be intimately linked to social and cultural discourse. The male is expected to identify with the social institutions.
Those definitions are chosen because this study intends to convey masculinity as a socially and culturally constructed concept that includes one’s physical appearance, way of thinking, and way of behaving.
2. Pashtunwali
Background Brief in Afganistan: Cultural Appreciation Booklet states The most important code is Pashtunwali, which means ‘the way of the Pashtuns’. Although associated with the country’s largest ethnic group (Pashtun), it represents a general ideological framework underpinning social behavior among all Afghans. At the heart of Pashtunwali is a recognition of the importance of honor (nang), and it is from this that most other Afghan cultural values flow (2007: 5).
There are some codes described in Pashtunwali. UK Defense Forum (2006: 1) in their “RS 48 Pushtunwali – Afghanistan’s Cultural Background” states
The Pushtunwali is based on 10 main principles: Melmastia (hospitality and protection to every guest); Nanawati (the right of a fugitive to seek refuge, and acceptance of his offer of peace when earnestly meant); Badal (the right of blood feuds or revenge); Turah (bravery); Sabat (steadfastness); Imandari (righteousness); ‘Isteqamat (persistence); Nang (honor); Ghayrat (dignity); and Namus (defence of women).
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW This chapter discusses three main parts. The first part is review of the
related studies. This part aims at reviewing other related studies done previously by other writers. The next part is review of related theories. At this point, the writer puts theories of character and characterization, theories of setting, theories of masculinity, review of history of Pashtuns in Afghanistan, and review of Pashtunwali.
A. Review of Related Studies
In this part, the writer deals with studies that have been done previously related to the object and the topic of this study. The studies are taken from the theses of the students of Sanata Dharma University.
The first study taken is Elizabeth Nita Kurniasari’s undergraduate thesis entitled The Influence of Amir’s Guilty Feeling upon His Self Concept in
Hosseini’s The Kite Runner . In this undergraduate thesis, Elizabeth Nita
Kurniasari uses psychological approach in which she tries to analyze how the main character’s guilty feeling influences his self concept. Elizabeth Nita Kurniasari concludes that one’s self-concept is not always stable and can be influenced by many emotional factors such as guilty feeling (2004: ix). In her undergraduate thesis, Elizabeth Nita Kurniasari concludes that Amir’s first self- concept which is “I am worthless” is affected by his social self-concept and ideal self-concept so that Amir eventually becomes more confident with his ability and self-concept (2009: ix).
The second study is taken from Yeni Oviana Mamanua’s A Study of
Friendship as Reflected in the Character of Hassan as Seen in Khaled Hosseini’s
The Kite Runner . Yeni Oviana Mamanua also uses psychological approach to
analyze the character of Hassan and the meaning of friendship believed by Hassan. In this undergraduate thesis, Yeni Oviana Mamanua concludes that there are three reasons why Hassan loyally keeps his friendship with Amir. The first reason is because Amir is his master. The next reason is because Hassan wants to keep his status as a loyal friend. The last reason is because Amir is the only friend to Hassan (2009: xii).
Another study taken is Paskalina Widiastuti Ratnaningsih’s undergraduate thesis entitled The Influence of Jalil, Rasheed, and Laila on Mariam’s Personality
Changes in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand of Splendid Suns . In her study, she
uses psychological approach to analyze the personality changes experienced by the main character in the novel. Finally, Paskalina Widiastuti Ratnaningsih concludes that Jalil and Rasheed make Mariam lose her self-respect, become an unfriendly person, and turn out to be a bad-tempered person, whereas Laila makes Mariam become a friendly, brave, and affectionate person (2009: xiii).
The last study is taken from Maximillian Samuel Puji’s undergraduate thesis entitled Masculinity of Josephine March in Louisa May Alcott’s Little
Women . In this thesis, Maximillian Samuel Puji uses psychological approach to
reveal the masculinity of Josephine March, the main character in the novel. As the conclusion of his study, he discovers that Josephine March’s masculinity is revealed through physical determinant, functional determinant, emotional determinant, intellectual determinant, and interpersonal determinant. All those determinants are developed because of poverty and her disappointment on discrimination (2007: xi).
This study uses the same object as the first and second undergraduate thesis by Elizabeth Nita Kurniasari and Yeni Oviana Mamanua, but the writer is more interested in analyzing how masculinity is revealed in the character and the setting so that this study will have a different focus from the first and second undergraduate thesis taken.
This study, as the third undergraduate thesis by Paskalina Widiastuti Ratnaningsih, examines a novel by Khaled Hosseini. Nevertheless, the novel analyzed in this study is different from the novel used in the third undergraduate thesis taken. Therefore, this study will have different topic, focus, and approach with Paskalina Widiastuti Ratnaningsih’s undergraduate thesis. As the last undergraduate thesis, this study also deals with masculinity. Nonetheless, this study relates masculinity not only to the characters, but also to the setting so that this study uses a socio-cultural historical approach instead of psychological approach. Therefore, this study will discover something new that is the concept of masculinity revealed in the character and the setting in The Kite Runner.
B. Review of Related Theories
To be able to answer the problems formulated previously, some theories are needed to the base of the analysis. Since this study deals with how the character of Baba and the setting can reveal the concept of masculinity, theories of character and setting are undoubtedly important. Then, theories of masculinity and Pashtunwali are the next theories needed to do the analysis.
1. Theory of Character and Characterization
Character, according to Abrams in A Glossary of Literary Terms is the person represented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the readers as being endowed with moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say-the dialogue-and by what they do-the action (1993: 23). In order to comprehend a character, one should observe nine things an author puts into his character. Those nine things, as stated by Murphy in Understanding
Unseens: An Introduction to English Poetry and English Novel for Overseas
Students (1972: 161-173), are:a. Personal Description The author can describe a person’s appearance and clothes. It is a kind of physical description that helps us to imagine the character.
b. Character as Seen by Another The author describes the character through the eyes and opinions of another character and they are reflected image of the character.
c. Speech
The readers can get clues to the character through what the person says in a conversation or when he puts forward an opinion.
d. Past Life What happened in the past life can give the clue to understand what shaped a person’s character. This can be done by the direct comment by the author, the character’s thought, through the conversation of other characters.
e. Conversation of Other Characters A clue to a person’s character can be derived through the conversation of the other characters and the things they say about him.
f. Reactions The author can also give us a clue to a person’s character by letting us know how that person reacts to various situations and events.
g. Direct Comment The author can describe or comment on a person’s character directly.
h. Thoughts The author can give us direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about. In this respect he is able to do what he cannot do in real life. He can tell us what different people are thinking. In the novel we accept this. The reader then is in a privileged position he has, as it were, a secret listening device plugged in to the inmost thoughts on a person in a novel. i. Mannerism
The author can describe a person’s mannerism, habits or idiosyncrasies which may also tell us something about his character.
Murphy makes clear that those nine ways can help the readers know better about a character. Dealing with personal description, the readers can assume that a character is a rich person by looking what he wears for example jewelries and a fur coat. It is indeed true that speech can also reveal the characteristics of a character since in most situations, a person’s speech can show what he thinks about or what he seems to think about. Murphy’s opinion about past life is also worth to ponder. Past life is a great aspect to know more about a character. Simply knowing about a character’s past life or experience is useful to grasp his thought and what makes him think and react in certain ways. Aspects such as thoughts, mannerisms, and direct comment also say a lot about a person’s characteristic. All in all, those nine ways do contribute a lot in supporting the readers to be more capable of imagining a character, comprehending what he feels and thinks about, and how his feelings and thoughts lead him to act toward a situation or a problem.
2. Theory of Setting
One of intrinsic elements that is impossible to ignore is setting. In fact, setting provides clues or information to gain insight into the characters’ emotions, motives, and conflicts. According to Abrams in A Glossary of Literary Terms (1993: 192), “the overall setting of a narrative work is the general locale, historical time, and social circumstances in which its action occurs; the setting of a single episode or scene within a work is the particular physical location in which it takes place.”
Based on Abrams’ definition about setting, the writer concludes that there are three types of setting namely setting of place, setting of time, and setting of circumstance. The setting of place and setting of time might be stated clearly such as England in the eighteenth century, at night in a hotel room, etc. The setting of circumstance might be slightly different with the other two in the way that it needs closer observation since it is not always stated explicitly. It can be understood by observing the social condition in a story that gives sight to the background of the characters and the society in which the characters live. Harvey in Character and
the Novel (1965: 56) makes that point clear by stating that “the social environment
basically refers to the society that is taken mostly in the novel. The environment shows a social condition of people who live there.” Hudson in An Introduction to the Study of Literature states that setting is the whole environment in the story. It includes the customs, traditions, habits, and characters’ view of life (1960: 158).
According to Holman in A Handbook of Literature (1986: 465), there are some elements that make a setting. Those elements are described as follows:
1. The actual geographic location, including topography, scenery and even the detail of a room’s interior;
2. The occupations and daily activities of the characters;
3. The time or period in which the action takes place, for example, historical period or season of the year;
4. The general environment of the characters, for example, religion, mental, moral, social and emotional condition of the characters.
3. Theory of Masculinity In this part, the writer will define masculinity from two points of view.
The first is masculinity in general and the second is masculinity believed in Afghanistan.
Grodan (2008) in “Masculinity Theory – An Overview” states that Unlike the biological state of maleness, masculinity is a gender identity constructed socially and historically. It is the cultural interpretation of maleness, learnt through participation in society and its institutions. Thus, masculinity is an ever evolving process that requires the individual to be intimately linked to social and cultural discourse. The male is expected to identify with the social institutions that construct masculinity and react in manner that is commensurate with what these institutions view as acceptable behavior.
In other words, as stated in 50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies, “masculinity is the set of social practices and cultural representations associated with being a man” (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 82). Those two definitions highlight that masculinity is far beyond one’s biological or physical state. Social, cultural, and historical aspects are the prominent factors which construct masculinity. Therefore, to be called masculine, one should fully understand and follow what his society requires about how he should behave in society.
Since the object of this study is a novel taking place in Afghanistan, the idea of masculinity believed in Afghanistan is very worth to ponder. Nyrop and Seekins in Afghanistan: A Country Study (1986: 126) states that “Afghan society is consistent in its attitudes toward the underlying principles of gender. It is the application of these principles that varies from group to group.” The Afghans’ consistence in determining masculinity is seen through the way they set and see the role of men in the society. According to Background Brief in Afghanistan:
Cultural Appreciation Booklet (2007: 19), “Gender roles are strictly defines, with
men representing the ‘public face’ of the household in its dealings with the outside world.” The previous quotation shows that men are considered important in Afghanistan. They have to build respectable image to cope with the society which surrounds them.
Masculinity in Afghanistan is marked by men’s power and full control. TRADOC Culture Center in Afghanistan Smart Book declares “Afghanistan is very much a masculine society where competition, assertiveness and power play a crucial role in everyday life” (2009: 43). Besides that, as stated by Nyrop & Seekins, ed in Afghanistan: A Country Study (1986: 127), “Men are expected to be leaders, protectors, and disciplinarians . . . Men must also be brave”. Further, masculinity in Afghanistan is also based on the so-called Pashtunwali. Citizendium.com in their article entitled ‘Pashtun People’ states that “Manliness is a complex ideal in Pashtunwali.” Therefore, one must follow Pashtunwali to be called masculine. Pashtunwali and the codes within it will be discussed in the next part.
C. Review on the History of Pashtuns in Afghanistan
Since this study aims at seeing how masculinity is revealed in the character and setting, the writer believes that a short and brief review on Pashtun should be put in this chapter. Afghanistan is a home for many tribes and cultures. One of many tribes living in Afghanistan is the Pashtun. Winkler in A Study
Guide to the Riverhead Edition of Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner states
Afghanistan main ethnic composition includes the Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Baluchi, and Turkoman people. The Afghan nation is a very heteregeneous population, comprising at least 22 languages… Practically everyone in Afghanistan is Muslim representing both Shia and Sunni Muslims… All Afghan ethnic groups have been able to preserve their kinship, village, and regional ties (2007: 4).
It will nearly be impossible looking at Afghanistan without paying attention to the Pashtuns since they are the biggest tribe in Afghanistan. The Pashtuns themselves cannot be separated from their code of life namely Pashtunwali. Therefore, Pashtunwali will also be put in this chapter. To make it more understandable, the writer will divide this into two parts. This part will discuss about Pashtun and the next part will discuss about Pashtunwali.
As stated above, Afghan people consist of many kinds of ethnic group. One of the ethnic groups in Afghanistan, as well as the biggest one, is the Pashtun. Nyrop and Seekins in Afghanistan: A Country Study state that
The largest and most powerful ethnic group is the Pashtun. The Pashtuns are primarily Pashtu speaking, although those residing in Kabul are often Dari speaking… In 1980 Dupree estimated that there were about 6.5 miliions Pashtuns in Afghanistan (1986: 105).
Pashtuns, as the biggest tribe in Afghanistan, certainly have their own characteristics. Merrill, Paxson, and Tobey in An Introduction to Afghanistan
Culture (2006: 6) state that they are loyal to their tribal and sub-tribal groups and
they mostly work as merchants, traders, farmers, and animal breeders.The Pashtuns have their own standard of masculinity. Pashtun men have to learn and show masculinity since they are boys. Thus, they have already been taught about what is and is not allowed for a man to do. Kurtz (2001) in “Out of Sparta: The Face of the Pashtuns” states that
A Pashtun boy is raised in a state of nature – forced to learn toughness, and self-reliance in a world self-consciously understood as violent, deceitful, and cruel. A Pashtun boy is actively encouraged to the harshness of his world by himself becoming violent, deceitful, and cruel (2001).
Parents try so hard to make their children tough and strong. They unhesitatingly beat their children just for minor mistakes and encourage them to beat their friends in a fight. If a Pashtun boy comes home crying because he has been beaten by his friends, he will undoubtedly be beaten again by his father for showing his weakness. It’s clear that the Pashtuns hate any signs of weakness. Kurtz states further that “what is odious to a Pashtun is not theft, or lying, or fighting, but weakness, carelessness, and clumsiness – anything which diminishes an individual’s power and self-command.”
Although Pashtuns are best-known for their toughness and masculinity, they are also known for their hospitality – which is embedded in Pashtunwali, the code of conduct they believe. More about hospitality and the other codes in Pashtunwali will be explained in the next part of the review.
D. Review on Pashtunwali
Pashtunwali or Pushtunwali literally means the way of the Pashtuns. It is the code of conduct or the code of behavior to which the Pashtuns must adhere.
Pashtunwali itself has been believed since a long time ago. Wapedia in their online article entitled “Pashtunwali” states “Pashtunwali dates back to ancient pre- Islamic times but it is still widely in use.” Furthermore, Kakar in Tribal Law of
Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority states
Embedded in the legal history of Afghanistan are the tribal codes of the Pashtun or Afghan tribes that eventually shaped the modern-day state of Afghanistan. These tribal law codes are called Pashtunwali, and they are widely practiced as a component of customary law, especially in rural Pashtun majority areas (Kakar, 2008: 1).
Pashtunwali is found in all kinds of society without exception. Whether a Pashtun man is rich or poor and whether he lives in a rural area or in an urban area, he certainly has to follow Pashtunwali. Amato in Tribes, Pashtunwali and How They
Impact Reconciliation and Reintegration Efforts in Afghanistan (2010: 23) states
that Pashtunwali is seen as an ideal to be aspired to by all Pashtuns, even those who are not as strict in its application as others. Pashtunwali plays an important role both in the highlands, or areas of low production and in irrigated regions at lower altitudes.