GRAMMATICAL COHESION USED IN NAWAL EL SAADAWI'S WOMAN AT POINT ZERO.

Grammatical Cohesion Used in

Nawal El-

Sadawi’s

Woman at Point Zero

A THESIS

Submitted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelor Degree of English Department Faculty of Arts and Humanities State Islamic

University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya

By:

Hodairiyah

Reg. Number : A03212006

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES

STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SUNAN AMPEL SURABAYA

2016

ABSTRACT

Hodairiyah. 2016. Grammatical Cohesion Used in Nawal El-Sadawi’s Woman at

Point Zero. Thesis, English Department. Faculty of Arts and Humanities. The State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya.

The Advisor : Dr. A. DzoulMilal, M. Pd.

Key words : Discourse, Grammatical Cohesion, Woman at Point Zero novel.

The researcher uses novel to be object of research. The novel is taken from Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at point Zero. This thesis presents the types of grammatical cohesion that is used by Nawal El-Saadawi’s in her novel “Woman at Point Zero”. Furthermore, the researcher has two research problems. Those are what are the types of grammatical cohesion found in Nawal El-Saadawi Woman at Point Zero and what are the functions of grammatical cohesion found in Nawal El-Saadawi Woman at point Zero.

Based on the explanation above, this research focuses on the types of grammatical cohesion used by Nawal El-Saadawi’s novel and the function of types of grammatical cohesion in Nawal El-Saadawi’s novel. The researcher uses the types of grammatical cohesion theory by Halliday (1976) to analyze the types of grammatical cohesion and describes the function of types of grammatical cohesion. To supporting this research of types of grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s novel, the researcher uses the qualitative methods to analyze each word, phrase, and sentence in this novel. Then the researcher describes the conclusion from each word, phrase, and sentence. The data is taken from fragment of sentences that contains the types of grammatical cohesion in Nawal El-Saadawi’s novel. The discussion in this analysis includes the types of grammatical cohesion. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction that found in Nawal El-Saadawi’s novel. Then the researcher also describes about the function the types of grammatical cohesion based on Halliday’s theory.

The results of this study are (1) Reference that included into personal reference, demonstrative reference, definite article reference, comparative reference. (2) Substitution, those are nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution. (3) Ellipsis, those are nominal Ellipsis, Verbal Ellipsis, and Clausal Ellipsis. (4) Conjunction, those are Additive, Adversative, Clausal, and Temporal. And the function of the types of grammatical cohesion 1) reference are “to avoid repeating the same words”, “to point out a scale of proximity”, and “to compare something or situation”. 2) Substitution is to change word or clause and to simplify a sentence. 3). Ellipsis is to simplify a sentence as substitution, but the rule of ellipsis is omitting word or clause. Then, 4). conjunction is to correlate two words, phrase, clause, or sentence.

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Hodairiyah. 2016. Grammatical Cohesion Used in Nawal El-Sadawi’s Woman at

Point Zero. Thesis, English Department. Faculty of Arts and Humanities. The State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya.

The Advisor : Dr. A. DzoulMilal, M. Pd.

Key words : Discourse, Grammatical Cohesion, Woman at Point Zero novel.

Peneliti menggunakan novel sebagai objek penelitian. Novel tersebut adalah karya dari Nawal El-Saadawi yang berjudul “Woman at point Zero”. Skripsi ini berisi tenang “the types of grammatical cohesion” yang digunakan oleh Nawal El-Saadawi dalam novelnya yang berjudul “Woman at Point Zero”. Penulis mempunyai dua permasalahan penelitian. Permasalahan tersebut yaitu, apa jenis “grammatical cohesion” yang ditemukan dalam novel Nawal El-Saadawi yang berjudul Woman at Point Zero dan apa fungsi dari grammatical cohesion yang ditemukan dalam novel Nawal El-Saadawi yang berjudul Woman at point Zero.

Berdasarkan penjelasan diatas, fokus penelitian ini terletak pada jenis-jenis grammatical cohesion yang digunakan oleh Nawal El-Saadawi’s dalam novelnya serta fungsi dari jenis-jenis of grammatical cohesion dalam novelnya Nawal El-Saadawi. Dalam penelitian ini, penulis menggunakan teori types of grammatical cohesion dari Halliday (1976) untuk menganalisis jenis-jenis grammatical cohesion serta menggambarkan jenis-jenis fungsi grammatical cohesion. Untuk mendukung penelitian ini, peneliti menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk menganalisis kata, frasa, dan kalimat di novel ini. Kemudian penulis menggambarkan dalam bentuk kesimpulan. Data tersebut diambil dari potongan kalimat yang berisi types of grammatical cohesion dalam novelnya Nawal El-Saadawi’s. Pembahasan dalam analisis ini meliputi jenis-jenis grammatical cohesion. Diantaranya adalah reference, substitution, ellipsis, dan conjunction yang ditemukan dalam novelnya Nawal El-Saadawi. Kemudian, peneliti juga menggambarkan fungsi dari jenis grammatical cohesion berdasarkan teori Halliday.

Hasil dari kajian ini adalah (1) Reference meliputi: personal reference, demonstrative reference, definite article reference, comparative reference. (2) Substitution meliputi: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, dan clausal substitution. (3) Ellipsis, meliputi nominal Ellipsis, Verbal Ellipsis, dan Clausal Ellipsis. (4) Conjunction, meliputi Additive, Adversative, Clausal, dan Temporal. Dan fungsi grammatical cohesion 1) Reference adalah “untuk menghindari pengulangan kata”, “untuk menunjuk skala dekat”, and “untuk membandingkan sesuatu atau situasi”. 2) Substitution adalah untuk mengganti kata atau klausa dan untuk menyederhanakan kalimat. 3). Ellipsis berfungsi untuk menyederhanakan kalimat sebagaimana substitution, tapi aturan ellipsis untuk menghilangkan kata atau klausa. Kemudian 4). Conjunction berfungsi untuk menghubungkan dua kata, frasa, klausa, atau kalimat.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Inside Cover ... i

Inside Title ... ii

Declaration ... iv

Thesis Advisor’s Approval ... v

Thesis Examiner’s Approval ... vi

Motto ... vii

Dedication ... viii

Acknowledgement... ix

Table of Contents ... xi

Abstract ... xiv

Intisari ... xv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the Study ... 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem... 7

1.3. Objective of the Study ... 8

1.4. Significance of the Study ... 8

1.5. Scope and Limitation ... 9

1.6. Definition of Key Terms ... 10

CHAPTER II: LITERARY REVIEW 2.1. Theoretical Framework ... 11

2.1.1. Cohesion ... 11

2.1.2. Types of Cohesion ... 15

2.1.3. Grammatical Cohesion ... 16

2.1.3.1. Reference ... 18

2.1.3.2. Substitution ... 26

2.1.3.3. Ellipsis ... 31

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2.2 Previous Study ... 37

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. Research Approach ... 40

3.2. Data Sources ... 41

3.3. Data ... 41

3.4. Data Collections... 42

3.4.1.1. Research Instrument ... 42

3.4.1.2. Data collection techniques ... 42

3.5. Techniques of Analysis Data ... 43

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Findings ... 44

4.1.1. Reference ... 44

a. Personal Reference ... 44

b. Demonstrative Reference ... 47

c. Definite Article Reference ... 50

d. Comparatives Reference ... 52

4.1.2 Substitution ... 55

a. Nominal Substitution ... 55

b. Verbal Substitution ... 57

4.1.3. Ellipsis ... 59

a. Nominal ellipsis ... 60

b. Verbal Ellipsis ... 62

c. Clausal Ellipsis ... 63

4.1.4. Conjunction ... 66

a. Additive ... 66

b. Adversative ... 67

c. Clausal ... 69

4.1.2. The Function of Grammatical Cohesion ... 74

4.2. Discussion ... 75

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 5.1. Conclusion ... 77

5.2. Suggestions ... 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 80

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is going to describe some descriptions of the study which will be discussed more as the following chapters. They are Background of study, Statement of the Problem, Objective of the study, Significance of the study, Scope & Limitation and Definition of the key terms. All of them will be described and explained as the following below :

1.1 Background of the Study

The development of science and technology which is so fast in this world that makes language development more widely improve. There are many things can be provided as well as we want to do. Everything can be done as fast as possible. All the things cannot be well-developed as now days without some helping elements, one of them is a language.

Wardhaugh (1977:3) said that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by human communication. Kreidler (1998: 19) defined language as a utility that can be used for creating an interaction and allow us to communicate with other people in our daily activity wherever we are, such as in public place, an institution included education or not, tourism object, family, etc. Language is what particular members of society speaks (Wardhaugh, 2006). Language is also a system of communication in speech and written by people of a particular country (John Eastwood, 2011: 247).

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In addition, it can be concluded that language is the communication tool to communicate. Moreover, language helps people to convey what to tell the other people. People can express their mind using verbal or nonverbal language and people are able to produce words to express what they mean (Hurford and Heasley, 1983:3).

Language as communication tool in the discipline of language studies is called linguistics; it is the study covering lexical, syntactical patterns, and discourse level, (Chojimah, 2011:1). Linguistics divided into two kinds, they are: micro linguistics (phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics), macro linguistics (Discourse analysis and pragmatics). They are elements of language that cannot be separated from each other.

This study deals with discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is academic discipline which studies about how language is used in real condition or situation and to analyze the discourse. The data of discouse analysis are text and context. The purpose of the discourse analysis is to get information which has relation with situation and condition in society. Discourse analysis also has many aspects to consider. One of the aspects is cohesion which can be defined as interconnection of some parts (sentence) in text, caused by internal factor.

There are two cohesive devices in the cohesion; grammatical and lexical cohesive devices. First, grammatical cohesive devices deal with cohesion between or among sentences because of grammatical factors. The grammatical factors could be about cohesive devices covering reference (meaning expression which is referring to other word), ellipsis (omission of parts of sentences under the

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assumption which the context make the meaning clear), conjunction (a word which connects word or phrases or clauses), substitution (replacement a word or a group of word with other word which have same meaning), Hamida (2012: 03). Second, lexical cohesive devices deal with cohesion between or among sentence because of lexical choice, lexical cohesive devices covers; repetition (repetition word or phrases to create cohesive interconnection), synonymy (two or more word /expression which have similar meaning), hyponymy (word or phrase which have general-specific meaning relation), metonymy (connection between part and whole meaning relation), antonymy (word, phrase, expression which have opposite meaning), Hamidah (2012:03). The importance of studying cohesion, especially cohesive devices (grammatical and lexical) is to create a good and systematic text and also to make us easily understand what information is delivered on it.

From the explanation above, language is thing which cannot be separated from our daily life, because of language we can interact with other people and express anything. Language is used not only in direct interaction like in conversation but also language can be used in direct interaction like in newspaper, book, prose, poetry, novel and etc. Indirect interaction between the writer and the reader. the researcher would like to conduct a research concern in grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. The object that will be analyzed in this research is novel, becaaause this novel is very important to be analyzed in order to understand what the writer said in that novel. Then, the title

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of this research is” Grammatical Cohesion Used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero”.

Woman at Point Zero is the popular novel by Nawal El- Saadawi in 1975, but in 1983 this novel is translated by Sherief Hetata and it is published in September 15th on 1997. This novel is 108 pages.

The researcher decides to analyze this novel because of some factors. The first is the researcher likes novel from Arabic and the author is Nawal El-Saadawi because all of his works is talking about woman. Nawal El-Saadawi , born in the village of Kafr Tahla, is Egyptian novelists, doctor and militant writer on Arabic women’ problems and their struggle for liberation. Refusing to accept the limitations imposed by both religious and colonial oppression on most women of rural origin, she passed as a doctor in 1955 and become Egypt’s Director of Public Health. She began to write since 25 years ago, her books focused on women. In 1972, her first work of non-fiction, women and sex, evoked the antagonism of highly placed political and theological authorities, and the ministry of Health was pressurized into dismissing her. Under similar pressures she lost her post as Chief Editor of Health Journal and as Assistant General Secretary in the Medical Association in Egypt. From 1973 to 1976 she worked on researching women and neurosis in the Medicine Faculty of Ain Shams University; and from 1979 to 1980 she was the United Nations Advisor for the Women’s Programme in Africa (ECA) and Middle East (ECWA). Later in 1980, as a culmination of the long war she had fought for Egyptian women’s social and intellectual freedom – an activity that had closed all avenues of official jobs to her. She was imprisoned under the

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Sadat regime. She has since devoted her time to being a writer, journalist and worldwide speaker on women issues. (Nawal: 1983: 109)

The second, this novel is the true story and the experience of the writer its self who told about story of Firdaus’ life as first actress of the novel. The last, this novel is inspirational story which inspires to the readers. It can be called as the inspirational story because this novel told about a prostitute who defended herself by passive attitude to everyone especially men. The passive attitude in this novel means that the woman did not want to try looking for other ways for her future, but she stayed by her mind and she receive whatever will be happened. She received capital punishment as the real of free way. So, this story gave an inspiration for women do not fall on negative ways. We have to brave to help our self because now is woman emancipation. This novel also gave knowledge to men to appreciate and command respect to women although they are prostitute or not. In other hand, there are some novels which were giving inspiration for human, but every novel has certain characteristic to give inspiration for some readers. Such as this novel, this novel is full with intricacies life and physic pressure.

Further, the researcher wants to research this novel Woman at Point Zero by Nawal El-Saadawi in sub-part of cohesion, especially in grammatical cohesion. The descriptions of the types of grammatical cohesion are reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. This novel is from Arabic and translated into English by Sherief Hetata, the writer is interested to analyze the grammatical cohesion. In other hand, the novel is easy to understand and there are many grammatical cohesions found in this novel.

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Having been aware of the previous studies is really important to get more qualified in the research. There are some writers who wrote in the same field. Ulfi Dina Hamida (2012), Grammatical And Lexical Cohesion in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks. In her thesis, she analyzed grammatical and lexical cohesion with qualitative research approach in content or document analysis method to analyze the speech. And her finding of grammatical cohesion is conjunction mostly occur in her research and from lexical cohesion is repetition, hyponymy, metonymy and antonymy.

In addition, Anik Suprianti (2013), The Grammatical Cohesion And Context Of Situation In The Articles Of Hot English Magazine And Hello Bali Magazine. She analyzed the types of grammatical cohesion and situational context which is found in Hot English and Hello Bali, and she used qualitative method. Her result of the analyzis said that the article of that magazine used 3 context situation types, they are field, tenor and mood. And found the types of grammatical chesion, they are referensi, substitusion and conjunction.

. Moreover, Jamilah (2009), Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion of Jurnalistic Text and Fiction Text. Her thesis about cohesion in jurnalistic and fiction texts. And she applied descriptive and comparative method. And her finding is cohesion devices are more dominant in fiction text. Although they have different intensity in using cohesion devices items, cohesion devices are the important role in integrating the texts although they occur in the different type of the text.

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From three previous studies above, the researcher makes conclusion. There is similarity between my thesis and previous study, it uses discourse analysis as the study. The differencess of this thesis is the focus on the study, they use grammatical and lexical cohesion in text but in my thesis only focus on grammatical cohesion using descriptive qualitative method that is applied in Novel. Because the data of this research are explained descriptively and qualitative research so the truth can expressed with some way without number.

In this research, the researcher will analysis text in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at point Zero that consist in grammatical cohesion and will explain detail one by one of the function based on the types of grammatical cohesion with Halliday’s theory. The importance of studying grammatical cohesion is to create a good and systematic text and to understand what information was delivered on it and it will be supported by other linguists such as Guy Cook, Hoey, etc.

1.2 Research Questions

Based on the background of the research, this study is conducted to answer the problem formulated in the following question:

a. What are the types of grammatical cohesion found in Nawal El-Saadawi Woman at Point Zero?

b. What are the functions of grammatical cohesion found in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at point Zero?

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1.3 Research Objectives

The objectives of study are:

a. To give description of the kinds of grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

b. To give description of the function of grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

1.4 Significance of the Research

The significance of this research is to enrich the understanding about cohesion especially in grammatical cohesion through novel as Nawal

El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero., by reading this novel and investigate grammatical cohesive devices used in the novel. From this research we can understand and know how cohesion used and applied in the text. To study grammatical cohesion is very important not only to create a good and systematic text but also to understand the novel.

Moreover, the writer hopes this study will contribute for: 1. English Department Student

The students can understand and know what is the types of grammatical cohesion, this study also can improve their skill in English especially in discourse analysis.

2. Other Researchers

This research can be used as reference for other researcher who try to conduct the similar research dealing with discourse analysis.

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1.5 Scope and Limitation

Scope and limitation is purposed to make a border of this research. So, the researcher focuses on the important aspect and also deep conclusion for this research. The scope and limitation include:

a. Novel

There are many novels that can be found by the different titles in some books. But, the researcher focuses on one titles of novel, Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero, this novel is one of novel that discusses about woman, and the researcher is very interested and loves this novel because it is from Arabic and the author is Nawal El-Saadawi (Egyptian novelists, doctor and militant writer on Arab women’s problems and their struggle for liberation-was born in the village of Kafr Tahla).

b. Grammatical cohesion

Any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language, especially in grammar, grammatical cohesion is limited to investigate in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. Because, the researcher can find the types of grammatical cohesion which is applied in the novel. It is very important to analyze the novel to create a good and systematic text and also to make it easy to understand what information was delivered on it.

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1.6 Definition of the Key Terms

In order to give clear definition and as guidance for the readers to understand the whole study, the definition of key term are given here.

Cohesion: aptitude connection between one element with other elements until become good arranged words to be listened and read.

Grammatical cohesion: Cohesion between or among sentence because of grammatical factors.

Reference : Expression which the meaning referring other word.

Substitution: Replacement a word or a group of word with other word which have same meaning

Ellipsis: Omission of parts of sentences under the assumption which the context make the meaning clear.

Conjunction: A word which connects word or phrases or clauses.

Woman at Point Zero: The novel which is written by Nawal El-Sadawi and translated into English by Sherief Hetata as the true story of his experience.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews several theories related to this research. Those are definion of cohesions, type of cohesion, definion of grammatical cohesions, types of grammatical cohesion which consist of four kinds (references, subtitution, ellipsis, and conjunction), definion of context and related studies to support the analysis and studies.

2.1. Theoretical Framework

2.1.1. Cohesion

Cohesion is one of the elements of linguistic which has a function to connect imperfect text become the perfect text, till the reader can understand what is the mean of the text. In other words, cohesion is regarded as a semantic concept that refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 4). Flowerdew and Mahlberg (2009: 103) introduced the notion of the property of connectedness to refer to Cohesion. Connectedness is the flow of information and is reflected by the choice of vocabulary words or grammatical linking words that contribute to textual relations (Flowerdew and Mahlberg, 2009: 106). As Scott and Thompson (2001: 14) stated, cohesion depends on repetition within the text. Hoey (1991: 4) described cohesive ties that require the reader to look to the surrounding sentences for their interpretation. Cohesion occurs where

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the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 4).

Stoddard defined cohesion as a mental construct (1991: 20). This definition implies that cohesion must be interpreted and it requires mental effort on the part of the reader. In other words, cohesion requires to search for certain words or grammatical items that help to give meaning and purpose to clauses and sentences, so that information is distributed in a logical way.

Cohesion is usually interpreted in contrast to coherence. Many scholars pay attention to the fact that both of terms can be focused easily. And this research is focused on cohesion. So, it is necessary to give differences between two terms. Cohesion is one of elements of linguistic which connect between one text and other text until good form of text and it can be understood by the reader what the text about. While of coherence, it deals with meaning form of the text, it correlates or not. But, it does not seem simple to define the unique characteristics of cohesion and coherence. Both refer to text-forming mechanisms, but it does not presuppose that they have same meaning or they are synonymous.

Some discourse analysts determined these concepts from context or linguistic point of view. Thus, cohesion is defined either as an evaluative measure of texts or as linguistic devices used for putting sentences together (Stoddard, 1991: 13). Halliday and Hasan (1976) in Anastasya Tsareva presented that cohesion as linguistically determined. So, the description of sentence connectors given by other scholars refers to cohesion. It is as evidence of linguistically. There

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seems no point in denying that the basic concept of cohesion concentrates on connections made by grammatical or lexical items, whereas coherence is a mental phenomenon that refers to the mind of the writer and reader (Thompson, 2004: 179). Other linguists said that it is referring to other scholars, describes cohesion in contrast to coherence. The first concept is defined as components of the surface text that are mutually connected and the latter one is described as components of the textual world that are mutually accessible and relevant (Hoey, 1991: 11).

The concept of cohesion comprises the interfaces between lexis and grammar, as well as between grammar and text analysis (Scott and Thompson, 2001: 14). The role of cohesive ties in a text is to prompt the perception of coherence. The concept of coherence can therefore be described from the reader/hearer’s point of view as the unfolding perception of purpose within a delimited area of meaning (Scott and Thompson, 2001: 6).

Coherence is not defined in the work of Halliday and Hasan (1976) in Anastasya Tsareva who have been influential in the discussion of cohesion. They described the concept of coherence under the term of texture.

The concept of texture is used to express the property of being a text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 2). Cohesion is one part of what is said to be textual. Various language resources used to express relationship to the environment fulfill the function of the textual component which characterizes a text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 299).

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Texts are formed by grammatical units; words, clauses, and sentences. And, the unit link is the parts of a sentence or a clause and they are called to be structural. “Structure is one means of expressing texture” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 7). From this statement, It shows whether a text is well-formed or not. In contrast, cohesion is not seen as structural relations in the usual sense.

Halliday and Hasan (1976:9) use the term cohesion to refer to non-structural text-forming relations. They use a special role in creating a text, but they are not structure. Text-forming relations are properties of a text. They give to link information within a text. This is achieved through relations in meaning. The significant property of the cohesive relation is the fact that one item provides the source for the interpretation of another (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 19).

From readers’ perception, cohesion seems to be complicated. Many differences of readers’ interpreted variously. Cohesion can be found and interpreted across sentence boundaries, but readers who have different processing abilities may or may be not able to be experienced to understanding of a text. However, cohesion is important in the description of a text since it gives texture that functions as a unity with respect to its environment (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 2). Moreover texture or coherence includes the connection between the text and the cognitive and experiential environment of the processor (Stoddard, 1991: 19). Flowerdew and Mahlberg (2009: 103) said that cohesion focuses on features on the textual surface, whereas coherence describes underlying meaning relationships reflected by features on the surface text.

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Halliday (1994: 309) said that the main idea of cohesion saying that we need to establish relationships between sentences and clauses in order to construct discourse. The number of grammatical items in a sentence determines its length. However, these grammatical items or the number of sentences in a paragraph or the whole text are only a characteristic feature of discourse structure, but they do not determine whether a text is coherent or not. What helps to describe cohesion in written discourse is the study of semantic resources used for linking across sentences in order to see how the different parts of a text are connected. What can be observed within sentences are structures which define the relations among the parts (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 10). In terms of cohesion, what can be observed across sentences in written discourse are not structures but links that have particular features that are to be interpreted on the part of a reader.

2.1.2 Types of Cohesion

There are two broad divisions of cohesion identified by Halliday and Hasan (1976:6) grammatical and lexical. Reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction are the various types of grammatical cohesion. Lexical cohesion is realized through repetition of lexical items, synonyms, super ordinates and general words. Table 1 (based on Halliday and Hasan, 1976) presented the division of the types of cohesion that will be described further in this chapter:

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Cohesion

Grammatical Lexical

Reference Exophoric [situational] Reiteration Repetition

Endophoric [textual] Synonyms

Anaphoric [to

preceding text]

Cataphoric [to

following text]

Superordinate

Subtitution General word

Ellipsis Collocation

Conjunction

Table 1. Types of Cohesion

From the description of the types of cohesion, the writer only focus on grammatical cohesion of this research, so the writer will describe the grammatical cohesion only to discuss and give the definition as linguists interpreted.

2.1.3. Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion refers to the linguistic structure. The highest structural unit in the grammar is the sentence (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 28). The structure determines the order in which grammatical elements occur and the way they are related within a sentence. Cohesive relationships with other sentences create a certain linguistic environment, and the meaning of each sentence depends

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on it. Various linguistic means to help identifying whether a text can function as a single meaningful unit or not.

Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976) illustrated the types of grammatical cohesion that will be discussed further:

Table II. Types of Grammatical Cohesion

The classification is taken from Halliday and Hasan (1976). It is not fully exemplified. For details see Halliday and Hasan (1976: 333-338).

Grammatical Cohesion

Reference

Substitution

Ellipsis

Conjunction

1. Personal 2. Demonstrative 3. Definite Article 4. Comparative

1. Nominal 2. Verbal 3. clausal

1. Nominal 2. Verbal 3. clausal

1. Additive 2. Adversative 3. Clausal 4. Temporal

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2.1.3.1. Reference

Reference is one of the kinds of grammatical cohesion, it is linguistic unit that refers to others linguistic which out run or come after. In other hand, some linguists said, the principle of reference is based on the exploration of the lexico-grammatical environment of a text to look elsewhere to get a full picture and to make complete sense of a word or structure (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 31). Referential cohesion plays a special role in creating cohesive ties between the elements that can be difficult or even impossible to interpret if a single sentence is taken out of context (Nunan, 1993: 21). Gillian Brown and Yule (1983:204) said, reference is one in which the relationship of reference is taken to hold between expressions in a text and entities in the world, and that of reference between expression in different part of text.

Reference is the specific nature of the information that signed from retrieval. In this case of reference the information to be retrieved is the referential meaning, the identity of the particular thing or class of things that is being referred to; and cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:32).

Based on Halliday and Hassan (1976:31) reference is divided into two parts, they are; (1) exophoric (situation) and (2) endophoric. Endophoric Reference is distinguished between two types;

a. Anaphoric : Anaphoric reference points listeners or readers backwards to what is previously mentioned.

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b. Cataphoric : Cataphoric reference looks forward in the text in order to identify the elements the reference items refer to.

So, that is meant that, anaphoric is the one instructing the hearer and the readers to look backward and in contrast, cataphoric look to forward. And to make clear this explanation, see the diagram below;

The kinds of Reference

Reference

Reference of exophoric is interpretation or pointing to word relation puts on and depends on situational context. Whether the interpretation is on the text its self, so the relation is called by endophoric reference. Reference of endophoric anaphoric the unit relation and other between text. This relation refers to something that is called before. Endophoric cataphoric reference refers to something that will be mentioned after it. For the example;

… Two eyes to which I clung with all my night Two eyes that alone seemed to hold me up. To

Exophoric (situation or kontextual)

Endophoric (textual)

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this very moment I do not know whether they

were wide or narrow, nor can I recall if they were surrounded by lashes or not. (p.17)

The word “they” as element of cohesion which indicate to “two eyes” as element of reference and the piece of sentence above is grammatical cohesion that refers to endophoric reference ( because, the reference is in the text ) and has anaphoric character (because the reference is called before or previously mentioned) by using the third person in plural free types.

The kinds of grammatical of references are classified into four types, they are: (1) Personal reference, (2) Demonstratives reference, (3) Definite article reference, and (4) Comparatives reference.

(1) Personal Reference

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 37) said that personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech of situation, through the category of person. So, personal reference is indication that refers to someone. All the types of pronoun, well it is singular or plural pronoun, they are included in personal reference. The pronoun “it” is also included in personal reference.

Based on the grammatical conception, the personal pronoun can be classified into three parts. They are; (1) speaker: I, We, (2) listener: You, (3) spoken: He, She, It, They. As semantic conception that the personal pronoun is the basic of communication role, Halliday

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and Hasan (1976:44) called as speech roles and other roles. Speech roles is speaker roles: ( I, we), addressee roles : (you). And, other roles are (he, she, it, they, and one).

Personal reference that form a cohesion is declared in personal pronoun as head (he/him, she/her, it, they/them), possessive determiners as deixis (his, her, its, their), and possessive pronouns as head (his, hers, its, theirs). For example:

1). One of my friends was called Day. She was a doctor.

2). He said these words, but his voice in my ear had a different

tone.

3). He thinks that I didn’t hear him.

In other words, other roles can include in personal reference of cohesion by note, the word “one” is as exophoric. Speech roles (I, you, we) deals with situational context, it is on speaker role or reference roles, although I, you, we are included in exophoric reference. And speech role can become endophoric reference if it is on quoted speech. It will be found in narrative text or novel. For example;

“Are you crying, Miss Iqbal?”

Ffrom the data above, it is so clear that this sentence contains cohesion that is characteristic of endophoric reference especially included in cataphoric part. It can be seen by the word “you” deals with “Miss Iqbal”.

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Personal pronoun “It”, it is not only thing or other object but also “it” can deal with process. As grammatical concept, “It” can deals with clause, as Halliday and Hassan said that “It” refers to extended reference, and text reference. (Halliday dan Hasan, 1976: 52). For example:

The next instant I was following him into the street, and the door had already closed behind us. But I continued to turn round and look back at it for quite a while as if it was about to swing open again, or as though I had a feeling of certainty that someone was standing behind it and getting ready to push it open at any moment.

The example above, there are three words “It”, all of them explain that the word “It” refers to the word “door”.

(2) Demonstrative Reference

Based on Halliday and Hassan (1976:57), Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. Demonstrative reference divided into two groups, they are nominal demonstrative that consist of (this, these, that, those), adverbial demonstrative (here, there, now, then).

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Nominal demonstrative reference is to indicate something that is near or not is (this/these and that/those). “This and that” deal with time. “This” refers to this time or future time. And the word “that” refers to time in the past. For example:

“Firdaus, I beg of you. Don’t cry” “Let me cry,” I said

“ But, Ive never seen you cry before. What’s happened?” “ Nothing…. Nothing at all.”

“That’s not possible. Something must have happened.”

“Nothing at all has happened,” I repeated.

Nominal demonstrative reference for singular type is this and that. This/that can refer to singular or plural thing. These or those refers to plural thing. As the example above, the underline word “that” refers to the word “nothing”.

Adverbial demonstrative reference, it is included in “there and here”. They deals with place that is previous mentioned. And the word “then and now” are also included in adverbial demonstrative reference, they deal with the time. For example;

The time had come for me to shed the last grain of virtue, the last drop of sanctity in my blood. Now I was aware of the reality, of the truth. Now I knew what I wanted. Now there was no room for

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Now I realized that the least delude of all woman was prostitute. That marriage was the system built on the most cruel suffering for women.

(3) Definite Article Reference

Definite article “the” is classified together with demonstratives and possessives. Historically, it is a reduced form of that (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 58). It serves to identify a particular individual or sub class within the class designed by the noun; but it does this only through dependence on something else (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 71). The definite article creates a cohesive link between the sentence in which it occurs and the referential information. It does not contain that information in itself, and it does not say where the information is located; its only function is to signal definiteness (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 74). So, “The” is used as a mark to show that the information necessary for identifying the element is recoverable.

(4) Comparatives Reference

Basically, the comparative is divided into two groups, they are general comparison and particular comparison. General comparative declares about similarity and dissimilarity between something that is compared. General comparative deals with the same thing; same, equal, identical, identically, or similar things; such, similar, so, similarly, likewise, and dissimilarity or dissimilar things, can use the word, other, different, else, differently, otherwise.

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Based on Nunan (1993: 24) Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity”. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 76) distinguished between the two sub-types of comparative reference: general and particular. General comparative reference expresses likeness between things, in the form of identity, similarity and unlikeness or difference. Halliday dan Hasan (1976: 80) ”particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of a particular property. The property in question may be a matter of quantity or of quality. It’s meant that particular reference expresses comparability between things. This is comparison in respect of quantity or quality. Particular comparison in terms of quantity is expressed by a comparative quantifier or an adverb of comparison sub-modifying a quantifier. Particular comparison in terms of quality is expressed by comparative adjectives or adverbs sub-modifying an adjective Halliday and Hasan (1976: 76-84).

To make clear, the example is provided in the table in the following below;

Comparative reference

General Particular

Identity The same shape, the same colour, in the same condition.

quantity/ numerative

My husband ate twice as much food as I did. (p.48)

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another?” “yes”, he said. (p.70)

epithet of the two. (p.59)

Difference “you’re prostitute, and it’s my duty to arrest you, and others of your kind.

Table III. Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is always described grammatically; it is included in categories of person, number, proximity, and degree comparison. The role of reference is to link an item of language to its environment. Personals, demonstratives and comparatives are text-forming devices which readers may understand the identity between languages.

2.1.3.2 Substitution

Substitution is replacement a word or a group of word with a words which have same meaning, in some case there are some word which can replace word. Halliday (1976:89) described substitution as a sort of counter which is used in a place of the repetition of the particular item. Halliday (1976:89) said that substitution is a relation between linguistics item such as word or phrase or a relation on the lexico grammatical level. For example;

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He said;

“Every prostitute has a pimp to protect her

from other pimps, and from the police. That’s what I’m going to do”.

The word “do” in second sentence of conversation replaces the word “protect”. So, the word “do” substitute the word “protect”.

In other hand, Halliday (1976:31) also distinguishes between substitution and reference, he said: “By contrast to substitution, which is a grammatical cohesion, reference is a semantic relation. One of the consequences of this distinction, as we shall see, is that substitution is subject to a very strong grammatical condition: the substitution must be of the same grammatical class as the item for which it substitutes. This restriction does not apply to reference. Since the relationship is on a semantic level, the reference item is in no way constrained to match the grammatical class of the item it refers to. What must macth are the semantic properties”.

From the explanation above the differences between substitution and reference is, for substitution, something which is substituted must be in same grammatical class while of reference, the grammatical class can distinguish by note the meaning which is referred is same.

In English, substitution has a function to replace noun or verb or clause. Halliday and Hassan (1976:89) defined the different types of substitution as a

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grammatical relation in the wording. They introduce three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal.

(1) Nominal substitution

Nominal substitution is one of kinds of substitution. The part which is substituted is nominal class. Substitute of this substitution is one/ones, same, and so. (Halliday, 1980: 112)

The function of substitution one/ones as head of a noun phrase and it will be able to substitute the part to head in noun phrase as Halliday (1976: 91) said that the substitution one/ones always functioned as head a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which it is Head of a nominal group.

I knew that all of them were cows which are sold by farmers at varying prices, and that an expensive cows was better than a cheap one.

From the example above explains that the word “one” always function as head, and it substitutes the word “cows” that function as a head in “expensive cows”. And the function of the word “one” is as head in a phrase “a cheap one”which substitutes the word “cow”.

it is not only “one/ones”, but “so” is also included in nominal substitution. It is not like substitute “one” that function as head of phrase, but substitute “so” always function to substitute all part of nominal phrase.

29 He asked in a quiet voice, “Firdaus, do you

remember the first time we met?” “yes”.

“Ever since that day I have been thinking about you.”

“ And I, too, have been thinking about you.” “I have been trying to hide my feelings, but

it’s no longer possible.” “Sohave I.”

For the example above, the function of the word “so” as mentioned above is as substitution that substitutes all nominal phrase “my feelings.”

(2) Verbal substitution

Nominal substitution is one kinds of substitution. The part which is substituted is verbal class. The substitutes is “do and do so” (Halliday, 1976:122).

Substitution “do” always function as head of verb phrase, and the position is always in the end of phrase. Based on Halliday (1980: 112) said that the verbal substitute in English is “do”. This operates as head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group.

Substitution “do so” is always used than substitution “do” if the point is focused on Head likewise a lexical verb, as Halliday said,

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wherever the focus of information is required to fall on the Head of the verbal group-the lexical verb its self, as opposed to an auxiliary in the substitute takes the form do so (1976: 122).

…

“what do you want of me?” I asked

“I want to protect you from other men.” He replied.

“but no one elsebesides you is menacing me.” “if it isn’t me, it will be someone else. There are pimps running around everywhere. If you

want me to marry you, I’m perfectly willing to

do so.”

“ I don’t see the need for you to marry me as well. It’s enough that you take what I earn. My body at least is mine.”

The function of the word “so” is a substitution. It substitutes the verb phrase “to protect you from other men”.

(3) Clausal substitution

Clausal substitution is the last types of substitution. The function of clausal substitution to substitute entire clause, it is not only on parts of elements of clause. The word which is used to substitute is “so and not”. There are three environments in which clausal substitution take place, they are; report, condition, and modality. In each environments, there are two forms; positive and negative. Positive form can be expressed by using

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substitution “so”, and negative form can be expressed by using substitution “not” (Halliday and Hassan: 130-131).

2.1.3.3 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is omission of parts of sentences under the assumption which the context make the meaning clear, in some cases sometime we think that do not need some replacer to replace the word or phrases because without that phrase or word we can understood the meaning or mean or phrase or word, and then the word or phrase which already understood is omitted.

There are some definitions of ellipsis from some linguists. According Hoey (1983: 110) treats ellipsis as deletion that occurs “when the structure of one sentence is incomplete and the missing element(s) can be recovered from a previous sentence unambiguously”. Thompson (2004: 180) defines ellipsis as “the set of resources by which full repetition of a clause or clause element can be avoided”. He distinguishes between substitution and ellipsis. That ellipsis omits the last part of elements in sentence that has same meaning and clear understanding, and this element occurs with incomplete sentence but it can be understood, because the incomplete elements in the sentence has covered all of the elements in sentence from the previous message. For example:

“ Did life teachyou to kill?”

“Of course it did.”

From the example above, it can be understood that the short answer of this conversation has been understood. The sentence “it did” is the short answer

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because it is the result of omitting of the question “did life teach you to kill?”. “it did” shows that the answer has covered all the elements of sentence and has clear meaning. Like the last sentence that just with “I have” answer, all can use ellipsis theory if the purpose or mind is same.

Fawcett (2000: 190) introduced the definition of ellipsis as recoverability at the level of form. He also told about co-ordination that occurs when clauses form a single element of structure. Ellipsis often occurs in co-ordinative clauses when there are semantic and syntactic similarities between two units (Fawcett 2000: 264), for example;

She could not read or write and know nothing about psychology,

(She could not read or write and she could not know nothing about psychology)

If see from the differences of both of them, the first sentence is ellipsis sentence, because it has same point, it is “she could not”. And second sentence, there is no ellipsis. It’s only to give understanding about ellipsis. This ellipsis is only omitting subject and auxiliary.

Eggins (2004: 147) said about minor clauses and explores the connection between clause structure and contextual dimensions. She notes that in a dialogue there is a correlation between the different structure of an initiating move and the structure of a responding move (Eggins, 2004: 147). Minor clauses or ellipsis are typically involved in responding moves and therefore responses are

33 “And have you eaten yet?

“Yes, I have.”

“I have” is a ellipsis. The complete answer of this ellipsis is “yes, I have eaten yet”. The answer can use ellipsis by omitting all of elements after subject and auxiliary. Because of ellipsis (I have) has covered all the elements that same point.

As Halliday (1976:142), there are three types of ellipsis, they are; nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis, and clausal ellipsis.

(1).Nominal Ellipsis

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 148) said that: any nominal group having the function of head filled by a word that normally functions within the modifiers is an elliptical one.

It is meant that the omitting is one part in nominal phrase. This ellipsis is marked by omitting head of nominal phrase. The omitting head is replaced by a word that has a function as modifier in nominal phrase. In other words, nominal ellipsis is marked by shift modifier position to head position in nominal phrase.

(2). Verbal ellipsis

It is omitting a part of element in verbal group. It forms relation cohesion which deals with one word or more than it that has

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mentioned before. Halliday and Hasan (1976) distinguish two types of verbal ellipsis: lexical and operator ellipsis.

Lexical ellipsis is omitting verb in verbal group. The element of verbal group which is ellipted can be begun of right composing part to left. Although, the exist element is only operator element. This operator element can come from verbal group which is reference, or it is new operator, example;

“And have you eaten rice yet?

“Yes, I have.”

And have you eaten rice yet?.-. Yes, I have (eaten rice yet)

(3).Clausal ellipsis

Clausal ellipsis is always used for sentence question that is only need the answer yes/no. it is marked by the losing all the sentence that is referenced, for example:

“Do you want to eat?”

“Yes.”

From the example above, it can be mentioned that all the component of sentence is omitted except “yes”. the component of sentence that is replaced by the word “yes” is subject, verbal group, and the object of sentence. it is only covered by the word “yes”.

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2.1.3.4. Conjunction

Conjunction is a word which connecting word or phrases or clauses. But in our daily life we found conjunction also connecting two or more idea in a sentence. As Halliday (1976:226) said that conjunction can be classified into four parts, they consist of additive, adversative, clausal, and temporal.

(1). Additive

The coordination which is put in front of a new sentence is additive. The conjunction that is included in additive kinds is; and, and also, or, nor, furthermore, by the way, in other words, thus, likewise, on the other hand, else, etc. Example:

When I cooked fish I used to give it all to him, and just take the head or the tail for myself. Or if it was rabbit I cooked, I gave him the whole rabbit and nibbled at the head. (p. 48)

(2). Adversative

Adversative is the relation which abstain the perception before. As according Halliday and Hasan (1976: 250) said that: “The basic meaning of the adversative relation is ‘contrary of expectation’.” And the conjunction that is included in adversative is; yet, but, though, only, however, actually, on the contrary, instead, at least, anyhow, etc. Example:

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The same touch, the same consistency, the same naked cold. Yet the cold did not touch me, did not reach me. (p.7)

(3). Clausal

Clausal conjunction is consisted of; so, therefore, for, because, in that case, otherwise, under the circumstance, etc. Example:

I could not understand where this girl had sprung from, nor realize that she could only be me. For I was always dressed in a long gallabeya which trailed along the ground, and no matter where I went it was always barefoot. (p.20)

(4). Temporal

It explains about correlation that deals with time ordered. Temporal conjunction is consisted of; then, next, soon, at once, in the end, meanwhile, just then, etc. Example:

I could hear his bed creak as he lay down, followed after some time by the sound of his regular snoring. Then, only, was I assured that he had fallen asleep.

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2.2. Previous Studies

As the other writers have done in doing the research, having been aware of the previous studies is really important to get more qualify in research. There are some writers who writing in same field.

The first is according Ulfi Dina Hamida (2012), “Grammatical And Lexical Cohesion in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks”. In her study, the researcher conducts a research with qualitative research approach in content or document analysis method to analyze the speech. There are two result of study, they are findings of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices are used in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks. And her data analysis reveals that grammatical cohesive devices occurring in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech are conjunction, reference and substitution. In her findings, she also found grammatical cohesive devices which is often occur and rarely occur in translated text Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks, and she rank or staged from grammatical cohesive devices which frequently occur until grammatical cohesive devices which is rarely occur. First, the most frequently occurring cohesive devices is conjunction, in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks conjunction is grammatical cohesive devices which often occur. Second is references, in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks references is grammatical cohesive devices which frequently occur after conjunction and the last is substitution. she presented data based on the rank or stage from grammatical

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cohesive devices often occur and rarely occur in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech of Jakarta bomb attacks. lexical cohesive devices occurring in translated text of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s speech are repetition, hyponymy, metonymy and antonymy.

The second is Anik Suprianti (2013), “The Grammatical Cohesion and Context of Situation in the Articles of Hot English Magazine and Hello Bali Magazine”. In her thesis, she analyzed the types of grammatical cohesion and situational context which is found in Hot English and Hello Bali. She also used the context theory and cohesion as Halliday and Hasan (1985 and 1976). The method of this thesis is qualitative method. The data analysis that is used by the writer is, the writer read, understanding, give a mark and write it down as related to the topic. The result of this analyzis show that the article of this magazine which is used has 3 context situation types, they are field, tenor and mood. And found the types of grammatical chesion, they are reference, substitusion, and conjunction.

And the last is Jamilah (2009), “Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion of Jurnalistic Text and Fiction Text”. In her thesis, she explained that her thesis is about cohesion in jurnalistic and fiction texts. The main object of the research is to know the cohesion devices (grammatical and lexical cohesion) integrate the sentences in both jurnalist text and fiction text and also she want to know about the dominant cohesion devices which are used in both texts as distinguish between them. In her thesis, to analysis her study, she applied descriptive and comparative method. In discussing the research she used the cohesion devices theory by

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Halliday and Hasan. She also concluded that the dominant cohesion devices are more dominant in fiction text. However, although they have different intensity in using cohesion devices items, cohesion devices are the important role in integrating the texts although they occur in the different type of the text.

There are three previous studies in my thesis, the first previous study of its analysis used translated text of speech and the method is qualitative approach. This study of this previous study focus on grammatical and lexical cohesion in term of discourse analysis. While of second previous study is The Grammatical Cohesion And Context Of Situation In The Articles Of Hot English Magazine And Hello Bali Magazine. The method that is used is qualitative method. This analysis is studied by using discourse Analysis. And the third is Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion of Jurnalistic Text and Fiction Text by used the descriptive and comparative method and it used discourse analysis as its study.

From three previous studies above, the writer can make conclusion. There is similarity with my thesis. And, it uses discourse analysis as the study. And the differencess of this thesis is the focus of the study, they use grammatical and lexical cohesion in text but in my thesis only focus on grammatical cohesion and function of grammatical cohesion with descriptive qualitative method.

So, in this study, the writer focuses on sentences in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at point Zero that is included in grammatical cohesion and it will be described detail one by one the function based on the types of grammatical cohesion with Halliday’s theory.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter discusses the method that the researcher used in this research including research approach, data source, data research instruments, techniques of data collection and techniques of data analysis. They will be discussed below :

3.1 Research Approach

Research is any activities to collect the data, analyze it, and presents the result. It is done in systematic and scientific steps to answer a certain problem. The kind of research is descriptive qualitative research (Ary, 2006:32). This study is called descriptive because the data of this study are explained descriptively, the qualitative research is a research which is analyzed qualitatively, because the truth can be expressed with some ways without number. Qualitative have some types based on collecting data, one of them is descriptive qualitative approach in document or content analysis, this analysis focuses on analyzing grammatical cohesin and giving explanation in each point of grammatical cohesion that applied in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. In addition, Creswell (1994:1) stated that the qualitative research is an inquiring the process of understanding a social or a human problem based on the building a complex, holistic picture, formed of the words, reporting the detail view of informants and conducted in a natural setting. Bogdan and Biklen (1998:77) stated that in qualitative research, the human investigator is the primary instrument for the gathering and analyzing data.

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Therefore, the researcher used descriptive qualitative, because this method is suitable to analyze grammatical cohesion that applied in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. In this study, the researcher conducted a research with descriptive qualitative research in analyzing content of grammatical cohesion that applied in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. According to the researcher this method also simple and easy to use in some of reasons like in method of data collecting, data analysis. So the researcher used descriptive qualitative and content analysis to analyze grammatical cohesion that applied in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

And the researcher tried to describe every types of grammatical cohesion in the Novel that is included in; reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. And the analysis will be explained clearly in the paragraph form.

3.2 Data Source

The data sources of this research is the novel of Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

3.3 Data

The data of this research is focused on words, phrases, clauses, sentences used in the novel that shows reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction that is included in grammatical cohesion in the novel of Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

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3.4 Data Collections

To collect the data of data sources, there are several ways, the researcher has done these several ways on this study:

3.4.1 Research Instruments

Based on the early of this chapter, this study uses qualitative approach, the instrument of this study will be human. So, the main instrument is I as the reseacher who gathers and analyzes the data. the supporting instruments are like personal computer to download some sources of the research, it is to make an easier in analyzing the data of the research.

3.4.2 Data Collection Techniques

To collect the data from the data sources, the researcher has the steps as follows:

a. First, the researcher downloads a novel, Woman at Point Zero of Nawal El-Saadawi on computer and it is printed.

b. Second, the researcher reads the novel, Woman at Point Zero of Nawal El-Saadawi.

c. Third, the researcher identifies, underlines a word, phrase, clause, and coding some types of grammatical cohesion and function. The type of grammatical cohesion consists of reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

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3.5 Techniques of Data Analysis

Related to the statement of the problem, this study used descriptive qualitative method. The researcher analyzes the data based on types of grammatical cohesion in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero.

a. The researcher lists the data

b. The reseracher classifies the data into types of grammatical cohesion and function.

c. Describing data based on the types of grammatical cohesion and function. d. The last, the researcher conclude based on the finding.

CHAPTER IV

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the researcher analyzes the types of grammatical cohesion based on Halliday’s theory in Nawal El- Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. The structure of writing research is presented in two steps. First, in findings the researcher analyzes the data found based on the research problems. Second, in discussion section the researcher explains the result of finding.

4.1 Findings

4.1.1 Types of grammatical cohesion

4.1.1.1 Reference

Reference is one of the types of grammatical cohesion. It is expression of which the meaning refers to other word. In novel of Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero, there are sentences which contain personal reference, demonstrative reference, definite article reference, and comparative reference.

a. Personal Reference

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 37) said that personal reference is

reference by means of function in the speech of situation, through the category of person. So, personal reference is indication that refers to someone. All the types of pronoun, well it is singular or plural pronoun

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such as “I/me/mine, you/your/yours, he/his/him, she/her/hers, they/their/them, we/our/us, and it”, they are included in personal reference. The reseacher discovers two data that contains of personal reference type of grammatical cohesion. The data of personal reference is analyzed below:

Data 1

My father, a poor peasant farmer, who could neither read, nor write, knew very few things in life. How to grow crops, how to sell a buffalo poisoned by his enemy before it died, how to exchange his virgin daughter for a dowry when there was still a time, how to be quicker than his neighbor in stealing from the fields once the crop was ripe. How to bend over the headman’s hand and pretend to kiss it, how to beat his wife and make her bite the dust each night.

Every Friday morning he would put on a clean galabeya and head for the mosque to attend the weekly prayer. The prayer over, I would see him walking with the other men like himself as they commented on the Friday sermon, on how convincing and eloquent the imam had been to a degree that he had surpassed the unsurpassable. For was it not verily true that stealing was a sin, and killing was a sin, and beating another human being was…? Moreover, who could deny that to be obedient was a duty, and to love one’s country too. That love of the ruler and love of Allah were one and indivisible. Allah protects our ruler for many long years and may he remain a source of inspiration and strength to our country, the Arab Nation and all Mankind.

I could see them walking through the narrow winding lanes, nodding their heads in admiration, and in approval of everything his

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Holiness the Imam had said. I would watch them as they continued to nod their heads, rub

their hands one against the other, wipe their

brows while all the time in voking Allah’s name, calling upon his blessings, repeating His holy words in guttural, subdued tone, muttering and whispering without a moment’s respite. (p.12-13)

The underline words is personal reference type of grammatical cohesion. We can see from the word “he/his/him” in second sentences. It referes to “my father”. It can be said by personal reference because it is signed by the third person. In other hand, the author of this novel also used the words “they/their/them” that refer to “men”. The author of this novel used the pronoun “they/their/them” to replace “men”.

The function of pronoun “he” is as the third person or called by third speaker and pronoun “they” used as spoken and their position (he and they) is a subject. “His/their” is possessive pronoun that is implicated as data above. The used of possessive pronoun is found in phrase and the function is as modifier or to explain head. The function of pronoun “him/them is as object. It is usually found in sentence form. From the first data, the researcher also finds the second data in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero novel that contains personal reference type of grammatical cohesion. The data is explained below:

Data 2

... No body told me, and I was not really aware of the fact. I could just feel it deep

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down inside me. I did not whisper the secret to anyone but kept it to my self. Every time my uncle came back for the summer holidays. I would hang on to his gallabeya when the time came for him to leave, and ask that he take me with him. My uncle was closer to me than my father. He was not old, and he allowed me to sit beside him and look at his books. He taught me the alphabet, and after my father died he sent me to elementary school. Later, when my mother died, he took me with him to Cairo. (p.19)

From the data 2, the authour also uses personal reference type of grammatical cohesion. The pronoun that is presented is “it”. This pronoun have different reference. For the pronoun “it” refers to “ aware of the fact

and the secret ” as data above, the function of this pronoun is to replace

noun phrase and it has a position as an object in sentence.

After the finding the datum that containing personal reference of grammatical cohesion. The researcher finds the datum that is included in reference, it is demonstrative reference. Below, the reseacher explains more clearly about demonstrative reference.

b. Demonstrative Reference

The researcher presents one data that contains of five words of demonstratives reference. These words are categorized as demonstrative reference because based on Halliday and Hassan (1976:57), demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. Demonstrative reference divided into two groups, they are nominal demonstrative that consist of

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(this, these, that, those), adverbial demonstrative (here, there, now, then. The data is analyzed below.

Data 1

I walked with heavy steps behind my uncle, carrying the image of that closed door engraved in my mind. When I ate my meals, or drank, or lay down to steep it was there in front of me. I knew that I was now back in my

uncle’s house. The woman who lived with him

was his wife, and the children who ran around the house were their children. There was no place for me in this house except on the sofa, a small wooden couch placed in the dining room close up against the thin wall which separated it from the bedroom. And so ever night I could hear their subdued voices whispering on the other side of the partition.

‘It’s not easy to find work these days when all you have is a secondary school certificate.’ ‘What can she do then?’

‘Nothing. These secondary school don’t teach them anything. I should have sent her to a commercial training school.’

‘It’s no use talking of what you should have done. What are you going to do now?’

‘She can stay with us until I find her a job.’ ‘That could be for years. The house is small and life is expensive. She eats twice as much as any of our children.’

‘She helps you with the house and the children.’ ‘We have servant girl, and I cook. We don’t need her.’ ‘But she can make the work easier for you by helping with the cooking.’ (p.35)

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4.1.2.3 Ellipsis

The function of ellipsis is to simplify a sentence as substitution, but the rule of ellipsis is omitting word or clause.

4.1.2.4 Conjunction

The basic function of conjunction is to correlate two word, phrase, clause, or sentence. In this study, the researcher finds the functions of conjunction. Those are, “to correlate the similar word”, “to coordinate sentence that have the same context”, “to support the previous sentence”, “to opposite the preceding statement”, “to connect between cause and effect in a sentence”, and “to connect the chronology”.

4.2Discussion

Based on the data analysis, the researcher finds the type of grammatical cohesion that used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero. There are four types of grammatical cohesion. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

a. Reference is divided into four parts; Personal, Demonstrative, Definite Article, and Comparative.

b. Substitution is divided into three parts; Nominal, Verbal, and clausal. c. Ellipsis is divided into three parts; Nominal, Verbal, and clausal.

d. Conjunction is divided into four parts: Additive, Adversative, Clausal, and Temporal.

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From four types of grammatical cohesion, there are two data that contain personal reference, one data contains demonstrative article and one data contains definite article, three data contain comparatives reference. There are two data that contain nominal substitution, two data contain verbal substitution. Then, there are three data contain nominal ellipsis, two data contain verbal ellipsis, and two data contain in clausal ellipsis. One data contains additive, one data contains adversative, and one data contains clausal conjunction, and three data contain temporal conjunction.

To answer the second research problems, the researcher finds the basic functions of types of grammatical cohesion. The function of reference is “to avoid repeating the same words”, “to point out a scale of proximity”, and “to compare something or situation”. The function of substitution is to change word or clause to simplify a sentence to be understood. The function of ellipsis is to simplify a sentence as substitution, but the rule of ellipsis is omitting word or clause. Then, the functions of conjunction are correlate two words, phrase, clause, or sentence. It means “to correlate the similar word”, “to coordinate sentence that have the same context”, “to support the previous sentence”, “to opposite the preceding statement”, “to connect between cause and effect in a sentence”, and “to connect the chronology”.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1Conclusion

This chapter presents the conclusion of the research based on the analysis and discussion explained in the previous chapter. It includes the kinds of the grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Sadaawi’s Woman at Point Zero novel. In the other hand, this chapter also presents the suggestion of the research. Both of them will be formulated below.

There are four types of grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero novel based on Halliday. From four types of grammatical cohesion are reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

Reference is divided into several types; Personal Reference, Demonstrative Reference, Definite Article Reference, and Comparative Reference. Substitution is divided into several types; Nominal Substitution, Verbal Substitution, and Clausal Substitution. Ellipsis is divided into several types; Nominal Ellipsis, Verbal Ellipsis, and Clausal Ellipsis. Conjunction is divided into several types; Additive Conjunction, Adversative Conjunction, Clausal Conjunction, and Temporal Conjunction.

Based on the analysis, the researcher finds two data that contain personal reference, one data contain demonstrative article and definite article, three data contain comparatives reference. There are two data that also contain nominal substitution, two data contain verbal substitution. Then, there are three data

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contain nominal ellipsis, two data contain verbal ellipsis, and two data contain clausal ellipsis. One data contains additive, adversative, and clausal conjunction, and three data contain in temporal conjunction.

After analysis the first problem of study, the researcher also gives the functional description for each types of grammatical cohesion used in Nawal El-Saadawi’s Woman at Point Zero novel. The researcher analyzes this study by using Halliday’s theory. The functions of reference are “to avoid repeating the same words”, “to point out a scale of proximity”, and “to compare something or situation”. The function of substitution is to change word or clause to simplify a sentence to be understood. The function of ellipsis is to simplify a sentence as substitution, but the rule of ellipsis is omitting word or clause. Then, the functions of conjunction are correlate two words, phrase, clause, or sentence. It means “to correlate the similar word”, “to coordinate sentence that have the same context”, “to support the previous sentence”, “to opposite the preceding statement”, “to connect between cause and effect in a sentence”, and “to connect the chronology”.

From previous study and this research, the researcher hopes this research can give constribution to develop our knowledge about linguistic, especially grammatical field. Afterward, the reseacher hopes that this research can enrich our knowledge about the types of grammatical cohesion where the people can develop their ability to concentrate in describing the word, phrase, and sentence to make a good interpretation.

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5.2. Suggestion

After conducting this research, the researcher offers some suggestions that may be useful for student of English Department other researchers who are interested to conduct an analysis of grammatical cohesion. This research uses Halliday’s theory and other theory to support this research. The researcher suggests to the reader to analyze other object more deeply in other object such as poem, song, drama or advertisement. The next research also can make this research as object to elaborate and compare the problem of study with other theory.

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