The word formation processes of Cockney English and Bahasa Binan - USD Repository
PLAGIAT
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MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana
Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2013
PLAGIAT
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MERUPAKANTINDAKAN
TINDAKANTIDAK
TIDAKTERPUJI
TERPUJI
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana
Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2013
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“Kasih itu sabar, murah hati, percaya, tak angkuh, dan tak dengki.
Kasih itu tak memegahkan diri. Kasih itu kekal serta abadi.”
(sebuah lagu yang tidak sengaja saya dengar di gereja)
Untuk kalian yang selalu menghidupi mimpi…
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 11 December 2013
The Writer
Wisnu Agung Pradana
091214067
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Wisnu Agung Pradana
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 091214067
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES OF
COCKNEY AND BAHASA BINAN
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai peneliti.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 11 Desember 2013
Yang Menyatakan
Wisnu Agung Pradana
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ABSTRACT
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Language is a useful means of communication. The speakers of a
language develop the language based on their needs and characteristics. Cockney
English and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of British English and
Bahasa Indonesia. The language variations are developed as secret languages and
embracing languages of the criminal community in London and transgender
community in Indonesia.
Recently, the lay people in London and Indonesia also use the language
variations. Meanwhile, the development of the language variations is not followed
back by the frequent research on their morphology. The writer conducted this
study in order to see the processes of word formation in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. This study aims at solving one research problem, namely “how do the
processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?”
To answer the research question, the writer employed the theories on
word formation that are suggested by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al.
(2001), namely affixation, coined words, acronyms, alphabetic abbreviations,
clippings, blends, generified words, proper nouns, borrowings, internal changes,
suppletions, reduplications, tone placements, clitizations, backformations,
onomatopoeias, conversions, metaphorical extension, broadenings, narrowings,
semantic drifts, and reversals. Besides, the writer also used some theories on
Cockney and Bahasa Binan proposed by Koudelkova (2012) and Oetomo (2001).
The writer followed the four processes of document analysis described
by Creswell (1998), namely organizing data, examining data, classifying and
analysing the data, and integrating and summarizing the data. The writer gained
the data from the dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, which were
compiled by Duncan Wherrett (2009) and Soedjono, et al. (1995). To analyse the
data, the writer created tables based on the theories of word formations by
O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001).
The writer found that the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan often
borrowed the words in their root languages. The writer also found that rhyming
sounds among words became the paramount thing to be considered by the
speakers in modifying the words. Therefore, many words in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan basically also existed in English and Bahasa Indonesia since the speakers
of Cockney and Bahasa Binan commonly shifted the meanings of the words in
their root languages to avoid the lay people to understand their speeches.
Keywords: Morphology, Word Formation, Cockney, Bahasa Binan
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ABSTRAK
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi yang sangat berguna. Penutur bahasa
mengembangkan bahasa berdasarkan kebutuhan dan karakteristik mereka.
Cockney English dan Bahasa Binan adalah beberapa variasi bahasa dari Bahasa
Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Awalnya, kedua bahasa tersebut dikembangkan
sebagai bahasa rahasia dan bahasa persatuan untuk para komunitas kriminal di
London dan komunitas transgender di Indonesia.
Selain digunakan oleh para kriminal dan transgender, saat ini kedua
bahasa tersebut kerap digunakan oleh orang awam di London dan di Indonesia.
Namun, perkembangan kedua bahasa tersebut tidak diikuti dengan banyaknya
jumlah penelitian morfologi bahasa-bahasa tersebut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk
menjawab satu pertanyaan, yaitu “bagaimanakah proses pembentukan kata dalam
Cockney dan Bahasa Binan terjadi?”
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan teori-teori
pembentukan kata oleh O’Grady, et al. (2010) dan Akmajian, et al. (2001), yaitu
afiksasi, penciptaan kata, akronim, singkatan, pemenggalan, kombinasi proses,
generified words, proper nouns, peminjaman kata, perubahan internal, perubahan
kata, pengulangan kata, letak nada, klitik, derivasi balik, onomatopoeia,
transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, penyempitan makna, semantic drifts, dan
perubahan makna. Selain itu, penulis juga menggunakan teori Cockney dan
Bahasa Binan menurut Koudelkova (2012) dan Oetomo (2001).
Penulis menganalisis data berdasarkan teori analisis dokumen menurut
Creswell (1998), yaitu pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan
analisis data, dan penyimpulan data. Data-data yang digunakan diperoleh penulis
dari kamus Cockney dan kamus Bahasa Binan yang disusun oleh Duncan
Wherrett (2009) dan Soedjono, et al. (1995). Penulis mengembangkan tabel dalam
proses analisis proses pembentukan kata berdasarkan teori-teori yang dipakai.
Penulis menemukan bahwa sering kali penutur Cockney dan Bahasa
Binan meminjam kata-kata yang ada di bahasa akar mereka, yakni Bahasa Inggris
dan Bahasa Indonesia. Penulis juga menemukan bahwa irama kata juga
berpengaruh besar dalam proses pembentukan kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan.
Oleh karena itu, banyak kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan juga dapat ditemukan
di Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia karena pada umumnya penutur Cockney
dan Bahasa Binan hanya mengubah arti kata-kata di bahasa akar mereka agar
orang-orang awam tidak memahami isi pembicaraan mereka.
Kata kunci: Morphology, Word Formation, Cockney, Bahasa Binan
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I could not bestow my greater gratitude to Allah SWT, to whom I firstly
fall in love and pledge my allegiance to be His humble servant, for His pampering
existence throughout my past life, present life and surely in my future life. I thank
Him also for allowing me to sip the love of my parents, E. Casmita and Aminah
as well as Y. Iswardani, who always supports me. I also thank my brothers and
sisters, Yudhi, Papir, Monica, and Lala, who always urge me to rely on myself.
I am eternally in debt to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., the one who
surely knows how bad I am in relative clause and international writing
conventions. I thank her so much for being so patient in reviewing my thesis. My
gratitude also goes to Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. and Simon
Arsa Manggala, S.S. for their humble hearts to read my workpiece.
I thank God for allowing me to meet Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.,
Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D., and all the lecturers that are always sincere to
give the guidance and knowledge. I also thank the helpful PBI secretaries who
always assist me in administration things. I also address my thanks to all my
friends and supervisors in LBUSD, such as Bu Retno, Bu Henny, Mas Endru,
Mas Adit, Mbak Ira, Mbak Dian, Mbak Ika, and all friends that show me the
precious things called togetherness and fun.
My thanks also go to the holy bachelors, Pungki and Titus. My partners
in crime, Jonetha, Cemara, Tiara, Rena, Dimas, Risa, Sandy, Angie, Sony,
Ajeng, Mbak Yie, Hani, Hana, the Aliens of The Alienated Play Performance,
Class B 2009, and all the inhabitants of PBI 2009 definitely also deserve my very
big thanks. I also bestow my gratitude to the person whose name is secretly
written on this page and who always considers that friendship is so vivid.
I would also like to give my thanks to everybody that already helped me in
writing this thesis. Finally, I thank all the people that have ever accompanied me
during my stay in Jogjakarta and made my days more colorful than my days in
Bekasi.
Wisnu Agung Pradana
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGES .............................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION PAGE............................................................................................ iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................................... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................................................... vi
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRAK ............................................................................................................. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ x
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ..................................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
A. Research Background................................................................. 1
B. Research Problems ..................................................................... 4
C. Problem Limitation..................................................................... 5
D. Research Objectives ................................................................... 6
E. Research Benefits ....................................................................... 7
F. Definition of Terms..................................................................... 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................... 11
A. Theoretical Description ............................................................ 11
1. Word Formation ................................................................. 11
a. Affixation ...................................................................... 12
1) Derivational Morphology........................................... 13
a) Suffix Addition...................................................... 13
b) Prefix Addition...................................................... 16
c) Infix Addition........................................................ 18
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2) Inflectional Morphology ............................................ 20
2. Word Modification .......................................................... 22
a. Neologism.................................................................... 23
1) Coined Word........................................................... 23
2) Acronym ................................................................. 24
3) Alphabetic Abbreviation or Initialism .................... 24
4) Clipping................................................................... 25
5) Blend ...................................................................... 25
6) Generified Word ..................................................... 26
7) Proper Noun or Eponym ......................................... 26
8) Borrowing ............................................................... 27
9) Internal Change....................................................... 28
10) Suppletion ............................................................... 28
11) Reduplication .......................................................... 29
12) Tone Placement....................................................... 30
13) Cliticization............................................................. 31
14) Backformation......................................................... 31
15) Onomatopoeia ......................................................... 32
3. Changing the Meaning of Words .................................. 32
a. Change in Part of Speech (Conversion) .................... 32
b. Metaphorical Extension............................................. 33
c. Broadening ................................................................ 34
d. Narrowing.................................................................. 34
e. Semantic Drift ........................................................... 35
f. Reversal...................................................................... 35
4. Cockney......................................................................... 36
5. Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 38
a. Si- Variation............................................................... 39
b. -ong Variation ........................................................... 39
c. -es Variation .............................................................. 40
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d. -i Variation ................................................................ 40
e. -in- Variation ............................................................. 40
f. -se Variation............................................................... 41
g. Free Mixing ............................................................... 41
B. Theoretical Framework............................................................. 42
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY....................................................................... 45
A. Research Method ..................................................................... 45
B. Data Sources ............................................................................. 47
C. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ............................. 47
D. Data Analysis Technique.......................................................... 48
1. Organizing the Data .............................................................. 49
2. Examining the Data .............................................................. 49
3. Classifying and Analysing the Data ...................................... 50
4. Integrating and Summarizing the Data.................................. 60
E. Research Procedure................................................................... 60
1. Selecting the Problem........................................................... 61
2. Selecting the Reliable Dictionaries ...................................... 61
3. Designing Tables of Data Analysis...................................... 61
4. Analyzing the Word Formation Processes .......................... 62
5. Making Conclusion Based on the Findings.......................... 63
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION........................... 64
A. Word Formation Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....... 64
1. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........................... 65
a. Multiple Affixation in Bahasa Binan.............................. 65
1) -ong Variation ............................................................. 66
2) -es Variation................................................................ 67
3) -in- Variation............................................................... 68
4) -se Variation................................................................ 69
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5) -i Variation .................................................................. 69
6) -e Variation ................................................................. 70
b. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .................................................................. 70
c. Inflectional Morphology in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .................................................................. 73
2. Word Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............ 75
a. Coined Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ................ 75
b. Acronym in Cockney and Bahasa Binan....................... 77
c. Alphabetic Abbreviation in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 78
d. Clipping in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................... 80
e. Blend in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............................ 84
f. Generified Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........... 86
g. Proper Noun in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................. 89
h. Borrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................... 92
i. Internal Change in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............ 97
j. Suppletion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan..................... 99
k. Reduplication in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............. 100
l. Tone Placement in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......... 105
m. Cliticization in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............. 106
n. Backformation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........... 109
o. Onomatopoeia in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............ 111
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .... 114
a. Conversion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ................. 114
b. Metaphorical Extension in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .............................................................. 119
c. Broadening in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................. 121
d. Narrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................. 122
e. Semantic Drift in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............ 122
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f. Reversal in Cockney and Bahasa Binan...................... 123
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................ 127
A. Conclusions ............................................................................ 127
B. Implications ............................................................................ 129
C. Recommendations .................................................................. 130
1. For English Learners .......................................................... 130
2. For Other Researchers........................................................ 131
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 133
APPENDICES..................................................................................................... 136
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1 The Common Suffixes in English .................................................................. 14
2.2 The Common Prefixes in English ................................................................... 16
2.3 The Inflection in Bahasa Indonesia ................................................................ 22
2.4 The Common Rhyming Sound in Cockney .................................................... 37
3.1 The Blueprint of Coined Words in Language X ............................................. 50
3.2 The Blueprint of Acronyms, Alphabetic Abbreviations, Blends
in Language X ................................................................................................. 51
3.3 The Blueprint of Clippings and Cliticizations in Language X........................ 52
3.4 The Blueprint of Generified Words and Proper Nouns in Language X.......... 52
3.5 The Blueprint of Borrowings in Language X.................................................. 53
3.6 The Blueprint of Internal Changes and Suppletions in Language X............... 54
3.7 The Blueprint of Reduplications in Language X ............................................ 54
3.8 The Blueprint of Tone Placements in Language X ......................................... 55
3.9 The Blueprint of Backformations in Language X........................................... 55
3.10 The Blueprint of Onomatopoeias in Language X ......................................... 56
3.11 The Blueprint of Conversions in Language X .............................................. 56
3.12 The Blueprint of Metaphorical Extensions in Language X........................... 57
3.13 The Blueprint of Broadenings in Language X .............................................. 58
3.14 The Blueprint of Narrowings in Language X................................................ 58
3.15 The Blueprint of Semantic Drifts in Language X ......................................... 59
3.16 The Blueprint of Reversals in Language X................................................... 59
3.17 The Blueprint of Derivational and Inflectional Morphology
in Language X ................................................................................................ 60
4.1 Multiple Affixation ......................................................................................... 65
4.2 Derivational Morphology in Cockney............................................................. 71
4.3 Derivational Morphology in Bahasa Binan ................................................... 72
4.4 Inflection in Cockney ...................................................................................... 73
4.5 Inflection in Bahasa Binan.............................................................................. 74
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4.6 Coined Word in Cockney................................................................................ 76
4.7 Coined Word in Bahasa Binan........................................................................ 77
4.8 Clipping in Cockney........................................................................................ 80
4.9 Clipping in Bahasa Binan ............................................................................... 82
4.10 Blend in Bahasa Binan.................................................................................. 84
4.11 Generified Word in Cockney ........................................................................ 87
4.12 Generified Word in Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 88
4.13 Proper Noun in Cockney ............................................................................... 90
4.14 Proper Noun in Bahasa Binan....................................................................... 91
4.15 Borrowing in Cockney .................................................................................. 93
4.16 Borrowing in Bahasa Binan.......................................................................... 95
4.17 Internal Change in Bahasa Binan.................................................................. 98
4.18 Reduplication in Cockney ........................................................................... 102
4.19 Reduplication in Bahasa Binan................................................................... 103
4.20 Cliticization in Cockney.............................................................................. 106
4.21 Cliticization in Bahasa Binan ..................................................................... 108
4.22 Backformation in Cockney.......................................................................... 110
4.23 Onomatopoeia in Cockney .......................................................................... 112
4.24 Conversion in Cockney ............................................................................... 115
4.25 Conversion in Bahasa Binan....................................................................... 117
4.26 Reversal in Cockney.................................................................................... 123
4.27 Reversal in Bahasa Binan ........................................................................... 125
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
1. Word Modification Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ...................... 137
2. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................................................. 138
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................. 139
4. Coined Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................... 140
5. Alphabetic Abbreviations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................ 142
6. Clippings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................................................... 143
7. Blends in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................................................... 148
8. Generified Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ..................................... 149
9. Proper Nouns in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................... 154
10. Borrowings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............................................... 161
11. Internal Changes in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................................... 176
12. Suppletions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................................. 179
13. Reduplications in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......................................... 180
14. Cliticizations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............................................. 181
15. Backformations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................ 182
16. Onomatopoeias in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ......................................... 183
17. Conversions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................................. 184
18. Metaphorical Extensions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......................... 190
19. Reversals in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................................................... 191
20. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ......................... 193
21. Inflectional Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........................... 198
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This section examines the ground reasons, problems, objectives, and
benefits of the study. This chapter is divided into six parts: (1) the background of
this research, (2) problem formulation, (3) problem limitation, (4) research
objectives, (5) research benefits, and (6) definition of terms.
A. Research Background
A language aims to close the gap in human communication. It embodies
the human thought through sounds, words, and gestures for human’s
communication. Once Payne (2006) states that language is “a tool to accomplish
communication job” (p. 9). As the results, there are many variations of languages,
such as aviation language, military language, and medical language that can only
be understood by those that are exposed by the fields. In fact, geographical
separations and social classes or socioeconomic dimensions also shape different
forms of communication. Therefore, there can be found language variations that
are mostly shaped by the geographical separation and slangs that mostly are
triggered by the different social classes.
The writer conducted the study on the language variations because it was
frequently found that the lay people used some words of the dialects or language
variations while using their official languages. The writer found this phenomenon
unique because essentially language variations had different levels or social
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classes from the official languages. A dialect or a language variation is a language
other than the official language that is commonly used by people in majority.
According to Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2001), the term dialect or
language variation refers to a language form that is regarded as substandard,
incorrect, or corrupt. In addition, Roach (2009) also says that a variety of a
particular language covers the differences on “vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation” (in Koudelkova, 2012, p. 12).
Cockney and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of English and
Bahasa Binan. This conclusion is drawn by considering that both language
variations are often regarded as substandard, incorrect, or corrupt in terms of their
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation by the majorities. Napoli (1996) says
that a dialect is a variety of speech that is processed through many factors, such as
geographical area and socioeconomic class. This signifies that the speakers’
relationship to their language variations is really close since their characteristics,
jobs, and social classes are reflected through the language they use. Therefore,
Cockney and Bahasa Binan also reflect the characteristics of the speakers. !
The common nature between the source languages and the language
variations triggers the writer to conduct an analysis of word formation processes
in Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Moreover, the writer also found the increasing
number of the speakers is not followed back by the increasing number of literature
and studies on both language variations. By conducting this study, the writer
hopes that this study would enrich source of literature on Cockney and Bahasa
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Binan in order to allow the people to have broad knowledge on the language
variations around them.
On the practical issue, there are many students at the English department
having difficulties in learning morphology of language. This phenomenon is most
of the time triggered by the materials of teaching morphology that are frequently
taken from the languages that the students are not familiar with, such as the
morphology of Swahili and Tagalog. Therefore, this study would provide another
choice for the students to have the materials of morphology of the languages that
they are familiar with.
This study essentially follows the classification of the word formation
processes described by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, W., J. Archibald, M.
Aronoff, & J. Ress-Miller. (2010). However, the writer attempts to give the
description of the word formation processes in the language variations of some
common source languages, namely English and Bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, this
study would basically also enrich the studies of English and Bahasa Indonesia
since this study evaluates the role of the source languages to the processes of
word formation in the language variations, namely Cockney and Bahasa Binan.
Koudelkova (2012) once conducted the study on Cockney and compared it
to Estuary English, which is another variation of English in Greater London. The
writer found some similarities and differences between the study conducted by
Koudelkova (2012) and this study. In fact both studies included the discussion of
forming words through rhyming sounds. However, Koudelkova (2012) does not
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include the discussion of word formation processes through affixation,
morphological modification, and meaning modification of Cockney.
In this study, the writer tries to see the processes of word formation by
studying the affixation, morphological modification, and meaning modification of
Cockney. Another difference between the studies is the scope of the study as
Koudelkova (2012) includes the description of Cockney in term of its phonology
and its syntax. In her study, she also makes an attempt to review the previous
social perception of Cockney and the current social perception of Cockney.
Therefore, most of time Koudelkova (2012) discusses the general nature of
Cockney.
The writer also found some similarities and differences between this study
and the study of Bahasa Binan that was conducted by Dede Oetomo (2001). In his
study, Oetomo (2001) discusses the nature of Bahasa Binan seen from the
perspective of sociolinguistics. In terms of word morphology, Oetomo (2001)
divides Bahasa Binan into seven categories. However, Oetomo (2001) does not
elaborate the description of word formation processes according to the types of
general word formation processes, namely affixation, word modification, and
meaning modification.
B. Research Problem
The limited source of information on Cockney and Bahasa Binan
encourages the writer to enrich the literature on the word formation of the
language variations. There is one research question in this study, i.e., “how do the
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processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?” Cockney
and Bahasa Binan are chosen because both language variations in fact share some
similarities in nature. The writer sees that basically Cockney and Bahasa Binan
essentially emerge as a medium of communication for specific users. Cockney
primarily performed as a secret language for criminal community in London while
Bahasa Binan performed as a secret language for transgender community in
Indonesia (Oetomo, 2001).
Both language variations then happen to be language variations that are
not specifically used by the initial speakers as nowadays many lay people are also
tempted to use the languages in their daily speech. The similarities on the initial
speakers and speakers’ shift of Cockney and Bahasa Binan encourage the writer
to conduct the analysis of word formation processes of both language variations.
The writer would like to see how the processes of word formation in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan basically happen so that it tempts the lay people to use the language
variations in their daily speech.
C. Problem Limitation
This research is limited to only focus on the morphological phenomenon
of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. In other words, it could be said that this study
does not cover the discussion of other linguistic branches, such as phonology and
syntax of both language variations. Therefore, this study does not elaborate the
language variations nature in term of their sounds and sentences or even the
languages use.
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This study only covers the morphology of both language variations that
focuses on the word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. The
writer divides the discussion of this study into three parts, namely affixation, word
modification, and meaning modification according to the theories of word
formation proposed by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, et al. (2010). The
writer uses the entries in dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan as the
primary data and analyzes some supporting documents, such as books, journals,
and theses on morphology, Bahasa Binan, and Cockney.
D. Research Objective
This study has two purposes to accomplish. The research objective is to
describe the processes of word formation happening in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. The study bases its data on the dictionary of Cockney by Wherrett (2010)
and the dictionary of Bahasa Binan by Soedjono, Ibhoed and Wahono (1995).
Therefore, the words analysed in the study are solely from the both dictionaries.
Another purpose of this study is to help the lay people to know some
language variations among them. By having adequate understanding on Cockney
and Bahasa Binan, the lay people could have another choice of using languages
besides the official languages or dialects and use the language variations in their
daily activities appropriately. Furthermore, this study also aims at enriching the
literature on both language variations.
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E. Research Benefits
This research is conducted to give some beneficial contributions to
English learners, linguists, and other researchers.
1. English Learners
The writer would like to firstly give the honor of the benefits of
conducting this study to the development of information on morphology to the
English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University,
Indonesia. The study aims to enrich the information on word formation processes
of some common language variations around the students, such as Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. This study also aims to give the alternative materials of word
formation processes as usually the learning materials are taken from Swahili,
Tagalog, and Arabic, which the students are not familiar with. By having Cockney
and Bahasa Binan as one of the learning sources, the students will find it easier to
have the essence of word formation processes in morphology since they have
been familiar with both language variations.
2. Linguists
By conducting this study, the writer hopes that the results can enrich the
literature to help the linguists conducting their studies on Cockney and Bahasa
Binan especially on the word formation. The writer also hopes that the results can
deepen the knowledge of the speakers and the lay people about the language
variations around them. Hopefully, the results of the study also contribute to the
sustainable development of the languages and to develop the speakers’ sense of
language belonging higher.
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3. Other Researchers
The writer hopes that the results of the study could bridge other
researchers to conduct other depth studies on word formation. By having the
information on word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, the
writer hopes that the information would help other researchers to analyze other
fields in Cockney and Bahasa Binan, such as phonology and grammar as both
fields are closely related to morphology of the words.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to have the same basis of the study, the writer provides some
definitions of terms as described follows.
1. Morphological Process
Before defining clearly what morphological process is, the writer would
like to define the base word of “morphological,” which comes from the word
“morphology.” According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), morphology is the study
concerning in the structure of words. The definition above is also in par with the
meaning cited from the work of Fasold and Connor-Linton (eds) (2006) who
define morphology as the study of internal word structure analysis that includes
the process of producing and interpreting the words in a language.
From the definition above, it can be concluded that morphological process
is the process that deals with the structure and the form of words and phrases. In
this study, the writer focuses on the word formation of Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. Word formation commonly covers derivational morphology, inflectional
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morphology, and morphological modification (Akmajian et al., 2001). Therefore,
the study of the writer would discuss the derivational morphology, inflectional
morphology, as well as the morphological modification of Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. Beside the word formation, the writer also covers the discussion of
meaning modification of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This effort is taken by
considering that most of the time the processes of word formation do not always
deal with the visible structure of words but also the variation of meanings.
2. Bahasa Binan
According to Boellstorff (2004), the word Binan refers to “a nationwide
term for male-to-female transvestites” (p. 253). The definition above signifies that
the female-to-male transvestites or female transgender must have a different form
of language. This assumption is clearly seen as the word Binan is only referring to
the male or a community of male transvestites or male transgender.
Taking the definition of Bahasa and Binan, literally it can be concluded
that Bahasa Binan is a language that is used by male-to-female transvestites or
male transgender (from now on refers to transgender) in Indonesia. The definition
above is in line with the definition of Bahasa Binan cited from Oetomo’s (2001)
work. Oetomo (2001) states that Bahasa Binan is a language variation of Bahasa
Indonesia and is primarily used by the effeminate or transvestite and homosexual
community in Indonesia. Considering the uniqueness of this language, the writer
decides to study this language in the level of word formation as there are only
limited sources of literature that focus on Bahasa Binan word formation.
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3. Cockney English
Cockney English, which is from now on referring to “Cockney,” is a
variation of British English in the form of a class dialect. This language variation
is usually connected with the London’s working class (Koudelkova, 2012).
Cockney was seen as a less prestigious language variation than other language
variations or dialects. The bad impression of Cockney was triggered by the
location of the language dissemination area that was located near the London’s
high social class area in which the inhabitants were usually used the most standard
language. Thus, it made the gap between the language prestige even more
noticeable (Walker, 1791, as cited in Matthews, 1972 in Koudelkova, 2012).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses some theories that support the study. The chapter
comprises two major points, namely theoretical description and theoretical
framework. The theoretical description is aimed at giving the explanation and at
reviewing the supporting theories. The theoretical framework is aimed at framing the
explanation of this study into a manageable and systematic form.
A. Theoretical Description
This section aims to elaborate some theories used by the writer in the study.
Most of the theories elaborated in this section are the theories on morphology and
word formation. The theories on Cockney and Bahasa Binan are also reviewed in this
section in order to form the same understanding of the designated language
variations.
1.
Word Formation
Word formation is the main thing studied in the field of morphology. The
processes of word formation would be clearly seen by firstly defining the umbrella of
this concern, namely morphology. Akmajian, et al. (2001) define morphology as the
study of structure of words. The definition offered is in line with the definition of
morphology according to Napoli (1996). He suggests that morphology is a study that
concerns in the word formation processes. From the definitions above, it can be
11
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concluded that morphology is a linguistics study that focuses on the formation of
words in a certain language.
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), there are some processes of word
formation in morphology. Some of the word formation processes deal with the
attachment of affixes, namely the affixation process. Meanwhile, the other word
formation processes are merely on the level of word modifications and meaning
modifications. The affixation process of word formation is divided into two based on
the effects of the affix attachment to the meanings of the denoted words. The first
division of affixation is called derivational morphology and the second one is called
inflectional morphology. To base the understanding of the affixation process in
morphology, the writer provides the definitions as they are described below.
a.
Affixation
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), affix means “a bound morpheme
attached to a stem or a base word and it modifies the meaning in some way” (p. 517).
They also say that many times affix deals with the thing that indicates the person,
number, gender, or tense in a language. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are the kind of
affixes that are determined by the place of the affixes in the base words. From the
definition above, it can be concluded that the process of affixation must deal with the
affix attachment to a base word.
This conclusion is in par with the definition offered by O’Grady, et al. (2010).
They state that affixation is the process of attaching an affix that results in the
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changes of meaning. Therefore, once the base words are attached by affixes, the
meaning of the base words will change anyway.
1) Derivational Morphology
According to O’Grady, et al. (2010), derivation is “an affixational process that
forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base” (p. 122).
The theory above suggests that derivation is actually a process dealing with the
addition of the affixes that results in the changes of the meaning and or the category
of a base word attached. The explanation above is supported by Ralph W. Fasold and
Jeff Connor-Linton (Eds.) (2006) who provide a further definition of derivational
morphology. They claim that derivational morphology is a word formation process
that deals with the creation of new lexemes from the existing ones and it is often with
a change in meaning.
O’Grady, et al. (2010) state that the derivation process in English happens in
two ways, namely suffixes addition and prefixes addition although some linguists
recently also find that infix addition actually also happens in English. The same case
also happens to Bahasa Indonesia as it can also be found the same three types of affix
additions. The definitions below describe further about suffix addition, prefix
addition, and infix addition that happen in English and Bahasa Indonesia.
(a) Suffix Addition
Suffixation in English is a notable affixation process that always changes the
semantic feature of a word. Some of the suffixes are suffix -er, suffix -en, suffix -al,
suffix -ment, and suffix -ic, besides the suffix -able and suffix –ness, which are easily
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formed by speakers. Some of the common suffixes found in English are described in
Table 2.1 cited from O’Grady et al. (2010, p. 124).
Table 2.1: Common Suffixes in English
Suffix
-able
-ing1
-ive
-al
-ant
-(at)ion
-er
-ing2
-ment
-dom
-ful
-(i)al
-(i)an
-ic
-less
-ous
-ize1
-ish
-ate
-en
-ize2
-ly
-ity
-ness
Change
V!A
V!A
V!A
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
N!N
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!V
A!A
A!V
A!V
A!V
A ! Adv
A!N
A!N
Examples
do-able, fix-able
the sleep-ing giant, a blaz-ing fire
assert-ive, impress-ive
refus-al, dispos-al
claim-ant, defend-ant
realiz-ation, assert-ion
teach-er, work-er
the shoot-ing, the danc-ing
treat-ment, amaze-ment
king-dom, fi
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THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana
Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2013
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THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
OF COCKNEY ENGLISH AND BAHASA BINAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Wisnu Agung Pradana
Student Number: 09 1214 067
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2013
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i!
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!
ii
uOIWOnpa
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S■ SSttЭ Oud NoIェ vHuOI Cuo鳳 霞HIL
uo srser{J umlryryuad ouottog
y
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“Kasih itu sabar, murah hati, percaya, tak angkuh, dan tak dengki.
Kasih itu tak memegahkan diri. Kasih itu kekal serta abadi.”
(sebuah lagu yang tidak sengaja saya dengar di gereja)
Untuk kalian yang selalu menghidupi mimpi…
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 11 December 2013
The Writer
Wisnu Agung Pradana
091214067
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Wisnu Agung Pradana
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 091214067
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
THE WORD FORMATION PROCESSES OF
COCKNEY AND BAHASA BINAN
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai peneliti.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 11 Desember 2013
Yang Menyatakan
Wisnu Agung Pradana
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ABSTRACT
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Language is a useful means of communication. The speakers of a
language develop the language based on their needs and characteristics. Cockney
English and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of British English and
Bahasa Indonesia. The language variations are developed as secret languages and
embracing languages of the criminal community in London and transgender
community in Indonesia.
Recently, the lay people in London and Indonesia also use the language
variations. Meanwhile, the development of the language variations is not followed
back by the frequent research on their morphology. The writer conducted this
study in order to see the processes of word formation in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. This study aims at solving one research problem, namely “how do the
processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?”
To answer the research question, the writer employed the theories on
word formation that are suggested by O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al.
(2001), namely affixation, coined words, acronyms, alphabetic abbreviations,
clippings, blends, generified words, proper nouns, borrowings, internal changes,
suppletions, reduplications, tone placements, clitizations, backformations,
onomatopoeias, conversions, metaphorical extension, broadenings, narrowings,
semantic drifts, and reversals. Besides, the writer also used some theories on
Cockney and Bahasa Binan proposed by Koudelkova (2012) and Oetomo (2001).
The writer followed the four processes of document analysis described
by Creswell (1998), namely organizing data, examining data, classifying and
analysing the data, and integrating and summarizing the data. The writer gained
the data from the dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, which were
compiled by Duncan Wherrett (2009) and Soedjono, et al. (1995). To analyse the
data, the writer created tables based on the theories of word formations by
O’Grady, et al. (2010) and Akmajian, et al. (2001).
The writer found that the speakers of Cockney and Bahasa Binan often
borrowed the words in their root languages. The writer also found that rhyming
sounds among words became the paramount thing to be considered by the
speakers in modifying the words. Therefore, many words in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan basically also existed in English and Bahasa Indonesia since the speakers
of Cockney and Bahasa Binan commonly shifted the meanings of the words in
their root languages to avoid the lay people to understand their speeches.
Keywords: Morphology, Word Formation, Cockney, Bahasa Binan
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ABSTRAK
Pradana, Wisnu Agung. 2013. The Word Formation Processes of Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi yang sangat berguna. Penutur bahasa
mengembangkan bahasa berdasarkan kebutuhan dan karakteristik mereka.
Cockney English dan Bahasa Binan adalah beberapa variasi bahasa dari Bahasa
Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia. Awalnya, kedua bahasa tersebut dikembangkan
sebagai bahasa rahasia dan bahasa persatuan untuk para komunitas kriminal di
London dan komunitas transgender di Indonesia.
Selain digunakan oleh para kriminal dan transgender, saat ini kedua
bahasa tersebut kerap digunakan oleh orang awam di London dan di Indonesia.
Namun, perkembangan kedua bahasa tersebut tidak diikuti dengan banyaknya
jumlah penelitian morfologi bahasa-bahasa tersebut. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk
menjawab satu pertanyaan, yaitu “bagaimanakah proses pembentukan kata dalam
Cockney dan Bahasa Binan terjadi?”
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan tersebut, penulis menggunakan teori-teori
pembentukan kata oleh O’Grady, et al. (2010) dan Akmajian, et al. (2001), yaitu
afiksasi, penciptaan kata, akronim, singkatan, pemenggalan, kombinasi proses,
generified words, proper nouns, peminjaman kata, perubahan internal, perubahan
kata, pengulangan kata, letak nada, klitik, derivasi balik, onomatopoeia,
transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, penyempitan makna, semantic drifts, dan
perubahan makna. Selain itu, penulis juga menggunakan teori Cockney dan
Bahasa Binan menurut Koudelkova (2012) dan Oetomo (2001).
Penulis menganalisis data berdasarkan teori analisis dokumen menurut
Creswell (1998), yaitu pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan
analisis data, dan penyimpulan data. Data-data yang digunakan diperoleh penulis
dari kamus Cockney dan kamus Bahasa Binan yang disusun oleh Duncan
Wherrett (2009) dan Soedjono, et al. (1995). Penulis mengembangkan tabel dalam
proses analisis proses pembentukan kata berdasarkan teori-teori yang dipakai.
Penulis menemukan bahwa sering kali penutur Cockney dan Bahasa
Binan meminjam kata-kata yang ada di bahasa akar mereka, yakni Bahasa Inggris
dan Bahasa Indonesia. Penulis juga menemukan bahwa irama kata juga
berpengaruh besar dalam proses pembentukan kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan.
Oleh karena itu, banyak kata di Cockney dan Bahasa Binan juga dapat ditemukan
di Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia karena pada umumnya penutur Cockney
dan Bahasa Binan hanya mengubah arti kata-kata di bahasa akar mereka agar
orang-orang awam tidak memahami isi pembicaraan mereka.
Kata kunci: Morphology, Word Formation, Cockney, Bahasa Binan
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I could not bestow my greater gratitude to Allah SWT, to whom I firstly
fall in love and pledge my allegiance to be His humble servant, for His pampering
existence throughout my past life, present life and surely in my future life. I thank
Him also for allowing me to sip the love of my parents, E. Casmita and Aminah
as well as Y. Iswardani, who always supports me. I also thank my brothers and
sisters, Yudhi, Papir, Monica, and Lala, who always urge me to rely on myself.
I am eternally in debt to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., the one who
surely knows how bad I am in relative clause and international writing
conventions. I thank her so much for being so patient in reviewing my thesis. My
gratitude also goes to Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. and Simon
Arsa Manggala, S.S. for their humble hearts to read my workpiece.
I thank God for allowing me to meet Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.,
Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D., and all the lecturers that are always sincere to
give the guidance and knowledge. I also thank the helpful PBI secretaries who
always assist me in administration things. I also address my thanks to all my
friends and supervisors in LBUSD, such as Bu Retno, Bu Henny, Mas Endru,
Mas Adit, Mbak Ira, Mbak Dian, Mbak Ika, and all friends that show me the
precious things called togetherness and fun.
My thanks also go to the holy bachelors, Pungki and Titus. My partners
in crime, Jonetha, Cemara, Tiara, Rena, Dimas, Risa, Sandy, Angie, Sony,
Ajeng, Mbak Yie, Hani, Hana, the Aliens of The Alienated Play Performance,
Class B 2009, and all the inhabitants of PBI 2009 definitely also deserve my very
big thanks. I also bestow my gratitude to the person whose name is secretly
written on this page and who always considers that friendship is so vivid.
I would also like to give my thanks to everybody that already helped me in
writing this thesis. Finally, I thank all the people that have ever accompanied me
during my stay in Jogjakarta and made my days more colorful than my days in
Bekasi.
Wisnu Agung Pradana
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGES .............................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION PAGE............................................................................................ iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ....................................................... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ....................................................... vi
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRAK ............................................................................................................. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ x
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ..................................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1
A. Research Background................................................................. 1
B. Research Problems ..................................................................... 4
C. Problem Limitation..................................................................... 5
D. Research Objectives ................................................................... 6
E. Research Benefits ....................................................................... 7
F. Definition of Terms..................................................................... 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................... 11
A. Theoretical Description ............................................................ 11
1. Word Formation ................................................................. 11
a. Affixation ...................................................................... 12
1) Derivational Morphology........................................... 13
a) Suffix Addition...................................................... 13
b) Prefix Addition...................................................... 16
c) Infix Addition........................................................ 18
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2) Inflectional Morphology ............................................ 20
2. Word Modification .......................................................... 22
a. Neologism.................................................................... 23
1) Coined Word........................................................... 23
2) Acronym ................................................................. 24
3) Alphabetic Abbreviation or Initialism .................... 24
4) Clipping................................................................... 25
5) Blend ...................................................................... 25
6) Generified Word ..................................................... 26
7) Proper Noun or Eponym ......................................... 26
8) Borrowing ............................................................... 27
9) Internal Change....................................................... 28
10) Suppletion ............................................................... 28
11) Reduplication .......................................................... 29
12) Tone Placement....................................................... 30
13) Cliticization............................................................. 31
14) Backformation......................................................... 31
15) Onomatopoeia ......................................................... 32
3. Changing the Meaning of Words .................................. 32
a. Change in Part of Speech (Conversion) .................... 32
b. Metaphorical Extension............................................. 33
c. Broadening ................................................................ 34
d. Narrowing.................................................................. 34
e. Semantic Drift ........................................................... 35
f. Reversal...................................................................... 35
4. Cockney......................................................................... 36
5. Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 38
a. Si- Variation............................................................... 39
b. -ong Variation ........................................................... 39
c. -es Variation .............................................................. 40
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d. -i Variation ................................................................ 40
e. -in- Variation ............................................................. 40
f. -se Variation............................................................... 41
g. Free Mixing ............................................................... 41
B. Theoretical Framework............................................................. 42
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY....................................................................... 45
A. Research Method ..................................................................... 45
B. Data Sources ............................................................................. 47
C. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ............................. 47
D. Data Analysis Technique.......................................................... 48
1. Organizing the Data .............................................................. 49
2. Examining the Data .............................................................. 49
3. Classifying and Analysing the Data ...................................... 50
4. Integrating and Summarizing the Data.................................. 60
E. Research Procedure................................................................... 60
1. Selecting the Problem........................................................... 61
2. Selecting the Reliable Dictionaries ...................................... 61
3. Designing Tables of Data Analysis...................................... 61
4. Analyzing the Word Formation Processes .......................... 62
5. Making Conclusion Based on the Findings.......................... 63
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION........................... 64
A. Word Formation Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....... 64
1. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........................... 65
a. Multiple Affixation in Bahasa Binan.............................. 65
1) -ong Variation ............................................................. 66
2) -es Variation................................................................ 67
3) -in- Variation............................................................... 68
4) -se Variation................................................................ 69
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5) -i Variation .................................................................. 69
6) -e Variation ................................................................. 70
b. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .................................................................. 70
c. Inflectional Morphology in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .................................................................. 73
2. Word Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............ 75
a. Coined Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ................ 75
b. Acronym in Cockney and Bahasa Binan....................... 77
c. Alphabetic Abbreviation in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 78
d. Clipping in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................... 80
e. Blend in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............................ 84
f. Generified Word in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........... 86
g. Proper Noun in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................. 89
h. Borrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................... 92
i. Internal Change in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............ 97
j. Suppletion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan..................... 99
k. Reduplication in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............. 100
l. Tone Placement in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......... 105
m. Cliticization in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............. 106
n. Backformation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........... 109
o. Onomatopoeia in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............ 111
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .... 114
a. Conversion in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ................. 114
b. Metaphorical Extension in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan .............................................................. 119
c. Broadening in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................. 121
d. Narrowing in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................. 122
e. Semantic Drift in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............ 122
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f. Reversal in Cockney and Bahasa Binan...................... 123
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................ 127
A. Conclusions ............................................................................ 127
B. Implications ............................................................................ 129
C. Recommendations .................................................................. 130
1. For English Learners .......................................................... 130
2. For Other Researchers........................................................ 131
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 133
APPENDICES..................................................................................................... 136
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1 The Common Suffixes in English .................................................................. 14
2.2 The Common Prefixes in English ................................................................... 16
2.3 The Inflection in Bahasa Indonesia ................................................................ 22
2.4 The Common Rhyming Sound in Cockney .................................................... 37
3.1 The Blueprint of Coined Words in Language X ............................................. 50
3.2 The Blueprint of Acronyms, Alphabetic Abbreviations, Blends
in Language X ................................................................................................. 51
3.3 The Blueprint of Clippings and Cliticizations in Language X........................ 52
3.4 The Blueprint of Generified Words and Proper Nouns in Language X.......... 52
3.5 The Blueprint of Borrowings in Language X.................................................. 53
3.6 The Blueprint of Internal Changes and Suppletions in Language X............... 54
3.7 The Blueprint of Reduplications in Language X ............................................ 54
3.8 The Blueprint of Tone Placements in Language X ......................................... 55
3.9 The Blueprint of Backformations in Language X........................................... 55
3.10 The Blueprint of Onomatopoeias in Language X ......................................... 56
3.11 The Blueprint of Conversions in Language X .............................................. 56
3.12 The Blueprint of Metaphorical Extensions in Language X........................... 57
3.13 The Blueprint of Broadenings in Language X .............................................. 58
3.14 The Blueprint of Narrowings in Language X................................................ 58
3.15 The Blueprint of Semantic Drifts in Language X ......................................... 59
3.16 The Blueprint of Reversals in Language X................................................... 59
3.17 The Blueprint of Derivational and Inflectional Morphology
in Language X ................................................................................................ 60
4.1 Multiple Affixation ......................................................................................... 65
4.2 Derivational Morphology in Cockney............................................................. 71
4.3 Derivational Morphology in Bahasa Binan ................................................... 72
4.4 Inflection in Cockney ...................................................................................... 73
4.5 Inflection in Bahasa Binan.............................................................................. 74
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4.6 Coined Word in Cockney................................................................................ 76
4.7 Coined Word in Bahasa Binan........................................................................ 77
4.8 Clipping in Cockney........................................................................................ 80
4.9 Clipping in Bahasa Binan ............................................................................... 82
4.10 Blend in Bahasa Binan.................................................................................. 84
4.11 Generified Word in Cockney ........................................................................ 87
4.12 Generified Word in Bahasa Binan ................................................................ 88
4.13 Proper Noun in Cockney ............................................................................... 90
4.14 Proper Noun in Bahasa Binan....................................................................... 91
4.15 Borrowing in Cockney .................................................................................. 93
4.16 Borrowing in Bahasa Binan.......................................................................... 95
4.17 Internal Change in Bahasa Binan.................................................................. 98
4.18 Reduplication in Cockney ........................................................................... 102
4.19 Reduplication in Bahasa Binan................................................................... 103
4.20 Cliticization in Cockney.............................................................................. 106
4.21 Cliticization in Bahasa Binan ..................................................................... 108
4.22 Backformation in Cockney.......................................................................... 110
4.23 Onomatopoeia in Cockney .......................................................................... 112
4.24 Conversion in Cockney ............................................................................... 115
4.25 Conversion in Bahasa Binan....................................................................... 117
4.26 Reversal in Cockney.................................................................................... 123
4.27 Reversal in Bahasa Binan ........................................................................... 125
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
1. Word Modification Process in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ...................... 137
2. Affixation in Cockney and Bahasa Binan.................................................. 138
3. Meaning Modification in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................. 139
4. Coined Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................... 140
5. Alphabetic Abbreviations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................ 142
6. Clippings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................................................... 143
7. Blends in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................................................... 148
8. Generified Words in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ..................................... 149
9. Proper Nouns in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................... 154
10. Borrowings in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ............................................... 161
11. Internal Changes in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ....................................... 176
12. Suppletions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................................. 179
13. Reduplications in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......................................... 180
14. Cliticizations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan............................................. 181
15. Backformations in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ........................................ 182
16. Onomatopoeias in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ......................................... 183
17. Conversions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .............................................. 184
18. Metaphorical Extensions in Cockney and Bahasa Binan .......................... 190
19. Reversals in Cockney and Bahasa Binan................................................... 191
20. Derivational Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan ......................... 193
21. Inflectional Morphology in Cockney and Bahasa Binan........................... 198
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This section examines the ground reasons, problems, objectives, and
benefits of the study. This chapter is divided into six parts: (1) the background of
this research, (2) problem formulation, (3) problem limitation, (4) research
objectives, (5) research benefits, and (6) definition of terms.
A. Research Background
A language aims to close the gap in human communication. It embodies
the human thought through sounds, words, and gestures for human’s
communication. Once Payne (2006) states that language is “a tool to accomplish
communication job” (p. 9). As the results, there are many variations of languages,
such as aviation language, military language, and medical language that can only
be understood by those that are exposed by the fields. In fact, geographical
separations and social classes or socioeconomic dimensions also shape different
forms of communication. Therefore, there can be found language variations that
are mostly shaped by the geographical separation and slangs that mostly are
triggered by the different social classes.
The writer conducted the study on the language variations because it was
frequently found that the lay people used some words of the dialects or language
variations while using their official languages. The writer found this phenomenon
unique because essentially language variations had different levels or social
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classes from the official languages. A dialect or a language variation is a language
other than the official language that is commonly used by people in majority.
According to Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2001), the term dialect or
language variation refers to a language form that is regarded as substandard,
incorrect, or corrupt. In addition, Roach (2009) also says that a variety of a
particular language covers the differences on “vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation” (in Koudelkova, 2012, p. 12).
Cockney and Bahasa Binan are the language variations of English and
Bahasa Binan. This conclusion is drawn by considering that both language
variations are often regarded as substandard, incorrect, or corrupt in terms of their
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation by the majorities. Napoli (1996) says
that a dialect is a variety of speech that is processed through many factors, such as
geographical area and socioeconomic class. This signifies that the speakers’
relationship to their language variations is really close since their characteristics,
jobs, and social classes are reflected through the language they use. Therefore,
Cockney and Bahasa Binan also reflect the characteristics of the speakers. !
The common nature between the source languages and the language
variations triggers the writer to conduct an analysis of word formation processes
in Cockney and Bahasa Binan. Moreover, the writer also found the increasing
number of the speakers is not followed back by the increasing number of literature
and studies on both language variations. By conducting this study, the writer
hopes that this study would enrich source of literature on Cockney and Bahasa
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Binan in order to allow the people to have broad knowledge on the language
variations around them.
On the practical issue, there are many students at the English department
having difficulties in learning morphology of language. This phenomenon is most
of the time triggered by the materials of teaching morphology that are frequently
taken from the languages that the students are not familiar with, such as the
morphology of Swahili and Tagalog. Therefore, this study would provide another
choice for the students to have the materials of morphology of the languages that
they are familiar with.
This study essentially follows the classification of the word formation
processes described by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, W., J. Archibald, M.
Aronoff, & J. Ress-Miller. (2010). However, the writer attempts to give the
description of the word formation processes in the language variations of some
common source languages, namely English and Bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, this
study would basically also enrich the studies of English and Bahasa Indonesia
since this study evaluates the role of the source languages to the processes of
word formation in the language variations, namely Cockney and Bahasa Binan.
Koudelkova (2012) once conducted the study on Cockney and compared it
to Estuary English, which is another variation of English in Greater London. The
writer found some similarities and differences between the study conducted by
Koudelkova (2012) and this study. In fact both studies included the discussion of
forming words through rhyming sounds. However, Koudelkova (2012) does not
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include the discussion of word formation processes through affixation,
morphological modification, and meaning modification of Cockney.
In this study, the writer tries to see the processes of word formation by
studying the affixation, morphological modification, and meaning modification of
Cockney. Another difference between the studies is the scope of the study as
Koudelkova (2012) includes the description of Cockney in term of its phonology
and its syntax. In her study, she also makes an attempt to review the previous
social perception of Cockney and the current social perception of Cockney.
Therefore, most of time Koudelkova (2012) discusses the general nature of
Cockney.
The writer also found some similarities and differences between this study
and the study of Bahasa Binan that was conducted by Dede Oetomo (2001). In his
study, Oetomo (2001) discusses the nature of Bahasa Binan seen from the
perspective of sociolinguistics. In terms of word morphology, Oetomo (2001)
divides Bahasa Binan into seven categories. However, Oetomo (2001) does not
elaborate the description of word formation processes according to the types of
general word formation processes, namely affixation, word modification, and
meaning modification.
B. Research Problem
The limited source of information on Cockney and Bahasa Binan
encourages the writer to enrich the literature on the word formation of the
language variations. There is one research question in this study, i.e., “how do the
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processes of word formation happen in Cockney and Bahasa Binan?” Cockney
and Bahasa Binan are chosen because both language variations in fact share some
similarities in nature. The writer sees that basically Cockney and Bahasa Binan
essentially emerge as a medium of communication for specific users. Cockney
primarily performed as a secret language for criminal community in London while
Bahasa Binan performed as a secret language for transgender community in
Indonesia (Oetomo, 2001).
Both language variations then happen to be language variations that are
not specifically used by the initial speakers as nowadays many lay people are also
tempted to use the languages in their daily speech. The similarities on the initial
speakers and speakers’ shift of Cockney and Bahasa Binan encourage the writer
to conduct the analysis of word formation processes of both language variations.
The writer would like to see how the processes of word formation in Cockney and
Bahasa Binan basically happen so that it tempts the lay people to use the language
variations in their daily speech.
C. Problem Limitation
This research is limited to only focus on the morphological phenomenon
of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. In other words, it could be said that this study
does not cover the discussion of other linguistic branches, such as phonology and
syntax of both language variations. Therefore, this study does not elaborate the
language variations nature in term of their sounds and sentences or even the
languages use.
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This study only covers the morphology of both language variations that
focuses on the word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. The
writer divides the discussion of this study into three parts, namely affixation, word
modification, and meaning modification according to the theories of word
formation proposed by Akmajian, et al. (2001) and O’Grady, et al. (2010). The
writer uses the entries in dictionaries of Cockney and Bahasa Binan as the
primary data and analyzes some supporting documents, such as books, journals,
and theses on morphology, Bahasa Binan, and Cockney.
D. Research Objective
This study has two purposes to accomplish. The research objective is to
describe the processes of word formation happening in Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. The study bases its data on the dictionary of Cockney by Wherrett (2010)
and the dictionary of Bahasa Binan by Soedjono, Ibhoed and Wahono (1995).
Therefore, the words analysed in the study are solely from the both dictionaries.
Another purpose of this study is to help the lay people to know some
language variations among them. By having adequate understanding on Cockney
and Bahasa Binan, the lay people could have another choice of using languages
besides the official languages or dialects and use the language variations in their
daily activities appropriately. Furthermore, this study also aims at enriching the
literature on both language variations.
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E. Research Benefits
This research is conducted to give some beneficial contributions to
English learners, linguists, and other researchers.
1. English Learners
The writer would like to firstly give the honor of the benefits of
conducting this study to the development of information on morphology to the
English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University,
Indonesia. The study aims to enrich the information on word formation processes
of some common language variations around the students, such as Cockney and
Bahasa Binan. This study also aims to give the alternative materials of word
formation processes as usually the learning materials are taken from Swahili,
Tagalog, and Arabic, which the students are not familiar with. By having Cockney
and Bahasa Binan as one of the learning sources, the students will find it easier to
have the essence of word formation processes in morphology since they have
been familiar with both language variations.
2. Linguists
By conducting this study, the writer hopes that the results can enrich the
literature to help the linguists conducting their studies on Cockney and Bahasa
Binan especially on the word formation. The writer also hopes that the results can
deepen the knowledge of the speakers and the lay people about the language
variations around them. Hopefully, the results of the study also contribute to the
sustainable development of the languages and to develop the speakers’ sense of
language belonging higher.
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3. Other Researchers
The writer hopes that the results of the study could bridge other
researchers to conduct other depth studies on word formation. By having the
information on word formation processes of Cockney and Bahasa Binan, the
writer hopes that the information would help other researchers to analyze other
fields in Cockney and Bahasa Binan, such as phonology and grammar as both
fields are closely related to morphology of the words.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to have the same basis of the study, the writer provides some
definitions of terms as described follows.
1. Morphological Process
Before defining clearly what morphological process is, the writer would
like to define the base word of “morphological,” which comes from the word
“morphology.” According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), morphology is the study
concerning in the structure of words. The definition above is also in par with the
meaning cited from the work of Fasold and Connor-Linton (eds) (2006) who
define morphology as the study of internal word structure analysis that includes
the process of producing and interpreting the words in a language.
From the definition above, it can be concluded that morphological process
is the process that deals with the structure and the form of words and phrases. In
this study, the writer focuses on the word formation of Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. Word formation commonly covers derivational morphology, inflectional
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morphology, and morphological modification (Akmajian et al., 2001). Therefore,
the study of the writer would discuss the derivational morphology, inflectional
morphology, as well as the morphological modification of Cockney and Bahasa
Binan. Beside the word formation, the writer also covers the discussion of
meaning modification of Cockney and Bahasa Binan. This effort is taken by
considering that most of the time the processes of word formation do not always
deal with the visible structure of words but also the variation of meanings.
2. Bahasa Binan
According to Boellstorff (2004), the word Binan refers to “a nationwide
term for male-to-female transvestites” (p. 253). The definition above signifies that
the female-to-male transvestites or female transgender must have a different form
of language. This assumption is clearly seen as the word Binan is only referring to
the male or a community of male transvestites or male transgender.
Taking the definition of Bahasa and Binan, literally it can be concluded
that Bahasa Binan is a language that is used by male-to-female transvestites or
male transgender (from now on refers to transgender) in Indonesia. The definition
above is in line with the definition of Bahasa Binan cited from Oetomo’s (2001)
work. Oetomo (2001) states that Bahasa Binan is a language variation of Bahasa
Indonesia and is primarily used by the effeminate or transvestite and homosexual
community in Indonesia. Considering the uniqueness of this language, the writer
decides to study this language in the level of word formation as there are only
limited sources of literature that focus on Bahasa Binan word formation.
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3. Cockney English
Cockney English, which is from now on referring to “Cockney,” is a
variation of British English in the form of a class dialect. This language variation
is usually connected with the London’s working class (Koudelkova, 2012).
Cockney was seen as a less prestigious language variation than other language
variations or dialects. The bad impression of Cockney was triggered by the
location of the language dissemination area that was located near the London’s
high social class area in which the inhabitants were usually used the most standard
language. Thus, it made the gap between the language prestige even more
noticeable (Walker, 1791, as cited in Matthews, 1972 in Koudelkova, 2012).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses some theories that support the study. The chapter
comprises two major points, namely theoretical description and theoretical
framework. The theoretical description is aimed at giving the explanation and at
reviewing the supporting theories. The theoretical framework is aimed at framing the
explanation of this study into a manageable and systematic form.
A. Theoretical Description
This section aims to elaborate some theories used by the writer in the study.
Most of the theories elaborated in this section are the theories on morphology and
word formation. The theories on Cockney and Bahasa Binan are also reviewed in this
section in order to form the same understanding of the designated language
variations.
1.
Word Formation
Word formation is the main thing studied in the field of morphology. The
processes of word formation would be clearly seen by firstly defining the umbrella of
this concern, namely morphology. Akmajian, et al. (2001) define morphology as the
study of structure of words. The definition offered is in line with the definition of
morphology according to Napoli (1996). He suggests that morphology is a study that
concerns in the word formation processes. From the definitions above, it can be
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concluded that morphology is a linguistics study that focuses on the formation of
words in a certain language.
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), there are some processes of word
formation in morphology. Some of the word formation processes deal with the
attachment of affixes, namely the affixation process. Meanwhile, the other word
formation processes are merely on the level of word modifications and meaning
modifications. The affixation process of word formation is divided into two based on
the effects of the affix attachment to the meanings of the denoted words. The first
division of affixation is called derivational morphology and the second one is called
inflectional morphology. To base the understanding of the affixation process in
morphology, the writer provides the definitions as they are described below.
a.
Affixation
According to Akmajian, et al. (2001), affix means “a bound morpheme
attached to a stem or a base word and it modifies the meaning in some way” (p. 517).
They also say that many times affix deals with the thing that indicates the person,
number, gender, or tense in a language. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are the kind of
affixes that are determined by the place of the affixes in the base words. From the
definition above, it can be concluded that the process of affixation must deal with the
affix attachment to a base word.
This conclusion is in par with the definition offered by O’Grady, et al. (2010).
They state that affixation is the process of attaching an affix that results in the
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changes of meaning. Therefore, once the base words are attached by affixes, the
meaning of the base words will change anyway.
1) Derivational Morphology
According to O’Grady, et al. (2010), derivation is “an affixational process that
forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base” (p. 122).
The theory above suggests that derivation is actually a process dealing with the
addition of the affixes that results in the changes of the meaning and or the category
of a base word attached. The explanation above is supported by Ralph W. Fasold and
Jeff Connor-Linton (Eds.) (2006) who provide a further definition of derivational
morphology. They claim that derivational morphology is a word formation process
that deals with the creation of new lexemes from the existing ones and it is often with
a change in meaning.
O’Grady, et al. (2010) state that the derivation process in English happens in
two ways, namely suffixes addition and prefixes addition although some linguists
recently also find that infix addition actually also happens in English. The same case
also happens to Bahasa Indonesia as it can also be found the same three types of affix
additions. The definitions below describe further about suffix addition, prefix
addition, and infix addition that happen in English and Bahasa Indonesia.
(a) Suffix Addition
Suffixation in English is a notable affixation process that always changes the
semantic feature of a word. Some of the suffixes are suffix -er, suffix -en, suffix -al,
suffix -ment, and suffix -ic, besides the suffix -able and suffix –ness, which are easily
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formed by speakers. Some of the common suffixes found in English are described in
Table 2.1 cited from O’Grady et al. (2010, p. 124).
Table 2.1: Common Suffixes in English
Suffix
-able
-ing1
-ive
-al
-ant
-(at)ion
-er
-ing2
-ment
-dom
-ful
-(i)al
-(i)an
-ic
-less
-ous
-ize1
-ish
-ate
-en
-ize2
-ly
-ity
-ness
Change
V!A
V!A
V!A
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
V!N
N!N
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!A
N!V
A!A
A!V
A!V
A!V
A ! Adv
A!N
A!N
Examples
do-able, fix-able
the sleep-ing giant, a blaz-ing fire
assert-ive, impress-ive
refus-al, dispos-al
claim-ant, defend-ant
realiz-ation, assert-ion
teach-er, work-er
the shoot-ing, the danc-ing
treat-ment, amaze-ment
king-dom, fi