CHAPTER II RIJAL AN NASHIR PBI'12

  5 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A.

   Definition of Grammar

  A grammar is a description of certain organized aspect of a particular language. It usually includes phonological (sound), morphological (word composition), and syntactic (sentence composition) points Hall (1993:3). As a complex system by which people speak and write it is not taught separately from the four language skills, listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

  Grammar is very ambiguous since it has several meaning. There is no fixed definition of grammar because many experts often define the term grammar differently. Grammar may mean an analytical and terminological study of sentence.

  Billow (1961:156), has two definitions of grammar. First, grammar is a description in word of verbal behavior; just a drill book is a description in word of parade behavior. Second, grammar is recognition of the pattern and unity underlying verbal experience.

  According to Hall (1993:3), studying grammar will help one to learn about language. It is better for all the language learners or users to have good knowledge of the language grammar, so that there will be no wrong implication in communication. Finally, the goal of communication can be achieved successfully because of used good language.

B. Definition of Relative Clause

  A relative clause is sub clause that is preceded by words like who, whom, whose, that, which or adverb’s connector like where, when, and why (Salim.1996: 1617). It describes, identifies, or gives information about noun.

  In “Guide to pattern and usage in English” :(Hornby, 1975: 154-163) categories relative clause as follows: defining relative clause and noun defining relative clause.

1. Defining Relative Clause

  A defining relative clause describes the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from other noun of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of nouns.

• an object and whose as possessive.

  For persons we can use who and that as subject, whom/ who and

  that as

• an object and whose of which as possessive.

  For things we can use which and that as subject, which and that as

  a.

  Who 1)

  Who as Subject is used with an antecedent that stands for a person if the

  Who

  antecedent is preceded by any or all (example: anyone, any man, all people, all those). The following relative clauses are never a non- defining clause.

  Example:

• The boy who broke the window is called Jim -

  Will all those who are in four of resolution please hold up their hands? Example:

• People who are in glass houses should not throw stones (Hornby, 1975: 156).

  2) Whom as Direct Object

  Whom

  as the object of a relative clause (in more formal English), thought it is increasingly common to replace it with who.

  Example:

• The lawyer (whom) I consulted gave me some useful advice.

  In colloquial styles, who or that may replace whom, though omission is more usual.

  Example:

• The lawyer (who, that) I consulted gave me some useful advice (Hornby, 1975: 158).

  3) Whom as Prepositional Object

  Whom

  , is usually omitted in a defining clause and the prepositional placed at the end of the clause. Example:

• That man you lent your dictionary seldom return the books he borrows That man to whom you lent your dictionary is formal (Hornby, 1975: 158).

  4) Whose as Possessive Form of Who

  Whose , is used to show possession. Whose connects to a noun

  be omitted.Whose usually modifies people, but it may also be used to modify things.

  Example:

• He is a novelist whose reputation has grown fast (Hornby, 1975:158-159).

  b.

  Which 1)

  Which as subject

  Which

  as subject in defining clause, is replaced by that and that is more usual.

  Example: The cinema which/ that used to stand corner was destroyed by bombing in 1940(Hornby, 1975: 159).

  2) Which as Direct object

  Which is replaceable by that is usually preferred. However,

  it is often omitted, if (which/ that) is omission, the personal pronoun object must not be included.

  Example: The books (which/ that) I lent you belong to my brothers

• (Hornby, 1975: 159-160).

  3) Which as Prepositional Object This may be omitted, with the prepositional at the end of the clause.

  Example: Are the pan in which you make your omelets / the pan you

• make your omelets in? (More usual: is this your omelet’s pan?) (Hornby, 1975: 161).

  c.

  That

  That is used for person or things as subject or objects and can be used to replace other relative clause.

  as Subject

  That

  Example: The crowds that/ which/ surrounded the film star were be

• having very childishly
• The relative pronoun (subject) and the finite of be (in one of the progressive tenses) may be or are often omitted.

  The boy that/ who broke the windows is called Tom as Object

  That

  Example: This is one the few really good books (that) this prolific author has written (Hornby, 1975: 161).

2. Non - Defining Clause

  Non defining clause is placed after noun which is definite already, they are compared with defining relative clause, non-defining relative clause have some characteristics namely: non defining relative clause are not essential in the sentences and can be omitted without causing confusion, they are separated from their noun by commas. The pronoun can never be omitted in a non-defining relative clause and more over. The construction is fairly formal and more common in written than is spoken English.

  a.

  Who 1)

  Who as Subject The relative who, is not replace“define clause”.

  Example: Mr. Green, who gives me a piano lesson, has been ill recently

• (Hornby, 1975: 157).

  2) Whom as Direct object refer to person is not omitted from non-defining clauses.

  Whom

  Example: Anne whom Dick hopes to Marry is very attractive girl

• (Hornby, 1975: 158).

  3) Whom as Prepositional Object

  In Non-defining clause whomis not omitted and the preposition precedes it.

  Example: The man of the village, some, any, a few, of whom are refried

• business man (Hornby, 1975: 158).

  4) Whose, as possessive form of who

  Example: Nick whose wife teaches singing is himself a teacher of the

• piano Mozart whose music you have been listening to is my compose (Hornby, 1975: 159).

  b.

  Which 1)

  Which as Direct Object This is replaceable by that in non-defining clause.

  Example: He gave the girl a valuable diamond ring, which she pawned the very next day (Hornby, 1975: 160).

  2) Which as With preposition

  Example:

• This problem to which reference has ready been made has not yet solved
• This long road which poplar tresses were planted many years ago goes to Arras (Hornby, 1975: 160).

3. The Usage of Relative Clause a.

  Relative Clause ‘who’ and ‘whom’ 1)

  The relative clause ‘who’ is used for persons Example:

• The man who was kidnapped a week ago has been relieved
• The driver who was responsible for the accident has disappeared from his home
• The woman who was reported missing the papers has come back

  2) ‘Who’ is usually followed by verb

  Example:

• The lady who is the chief tailor on way at the moment.
• Have you written a letter of thanks to the man who found your dog for you

  3) ‘Whom’ is the objective form of ‘who’ usually followed by a noun or a clause.

  Example:

• This is the clerk whom they spoke rudely to yesterday
• The girl with whom she went to the cinema is her cousin
• The person whom we met there works at the general hospital.

  4) ‘Whom’ sometimes can be left out

  Example:

  a) The family with whom I’m living has gone to Boston for their holiday

• The family I’m living has gone to Boston for their holiday
• The man you want has just left
• Who did you give a lift this morning
• With is she going with? b.

  b) The man whom you want has just left

  5) In modern usage ‘who’ can sometimes replace ‘whom’

  Example:

  a) To whom you give a lift this morning

  b) With whom is she going?

   Relative clause ‘that’ 1) A the subject of a clause

  Example:

• The garden that is the back of the house has a badminton court

  2) As the subject of clause and relative that can be omitted

  Example:

  a) The fish that you brought yesterday was not fresh

• b)

  The fish you brought yesterday was not fresh

  The cake that she made just now smells good The cake she made just now smells good

• 3) After definite clause

  Example; There was not much that we could for him

• It was not about anything that would upset her
• She is wearing the some dress that she wore that last time I - saw her

  They did all that could be done for him

• 4) After superlative

  Example: This is first and the last time I going anything for you

• The say that this clock tower is one of the most beautiful
• that he has ever seen

  His essay was the best that I had ever read on the subject

• 5) After noun

  Example: It is the quality of the work, not the quantity that count

• What was is that you said just now?

  6) When the antecedent is both a person a thing or an animals

  Example: She saw the artist and the paintings that had aroused her

• interest
• rescued from the fire

  He gave shelter to the boy and his dog that have been

  7) When it replace

  Example: Those boys are the ones that I brought last year

• The types that give my work to everyday has resigned from
• her job

  8) But when preposition precedes the relative clause ‘that’ cannot replace ‘whom’

  Example: To whom did you give your money?

• With whom will you go the show tomorrow?
• c.

  Relative Clause “ which”

  1) Usually to refer to things / animals whether the subject or the

  subject of the sentences. Example:

  The dog which bit the boy belongs to my neighbor

• The freak corn which he has is worth $10

  2) To refer to collective noun denoting person, but used singularly

  Example: This is group which is going to sing ‘blowing with the wind’

• at the singing contest
• go on a tour of Europe

  The American team which has won the match in planning to

  3) Sometimes to refer whole sentences

  She finished the work in less than an hour

• The old man denoted a large sum of money to the old folks
• home which was very generous of her

  4) When it precedes a noun, a pronoun verb

  Example: We are discussing the plan which he suggested

• The lorry which carries this to the will be back next day
• He was reading the letter which the postman had just brought
• 5) After Preposition

  Example: This is the machine that broke down yesterday

• The bus that takes us to school comes at seven o’clock
• d.

  Relative Pronoun ‘Whose’ and ‘Which’ is used for person and sometimes thought rarely for things

  Whose ‘of which’ is used with things.

  1) To show possession or ownership

  Example: This is lady whose car was damaged in the accident

• The man whose shop was raided by the police last week has
• to Hong Kong 2)

  To show a personal characteristic Example:

• player

  Yesterday a met boy whose brother was chosen to be a state

• 3)

  This the girl whose won in Dag Hammer scholarship

  To show a personal characteristic Example:

• more important than anything else

  She seems to be a person who obedience to her parents is

• 4)

  He is a man shoes is good as his bond

  We used ‘of which’ in the following ways She away the mirror, the side of which was chipped

• Mr. Hans brought a big basket a plums of which half were
• given to our neighbor
• the shop.

  He has returned the book. The cover of which was torn to

C. The Function of Relative Clause

  The function of relative clause is to give information or give characteristic to noun or noun phrase, and it is placed before or after noun.

  Some relative clause (defining relative clause) is used specify which person or things we mean, or which type of person or thing we mean.

  The couples who live next to us have ten children

• - Alvega stopped the police car that was driving past.
• - When we use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be

  the subject or the object of the clause. In the following sentence the relative pronoun is the subject.

  We have friend who plays the piano.

• - That’s the man who I met at Rizal’s party.
• - We can’t add a subject to the relative clause in addition to the relative pronoun.

  The man who gave me the book was the librarian.

• - (Not the man who gave me……)

  Notice also that adding a pronoun to the main clause in addition to the relative clause is unnecessary, although it is found in speech.

  A friend of mine who is a solicitor helped me. (Or, in speech a friend mine whois solicitor-she helped me)

D. Form and Meaning

  Relative Clause has two following patterns: 1.

  Relative Clause pattern without subject.

  This is a relative clause pattern there relative pronoun is followed by verb directly. The form of the verb can be simple present, present continuous, simple past, passive verb, etc.

  Relative Form of Verb Noun

  VERB Pronouns

  Simple present the plant Which is dead (be) Simple present the people Who work here (V1) Simple past (be) the people Who were sick Simple past (V2) the man Who discovered the gold mine Present the students Who are reading in the library continuous (be + Ving) Present perfect all the drivers who have enrolled for the (has/have+ V3) driving competition Modals a secretary who can speak two foreign

  It’s above the patterns according to Suroso.

  The Usage relative clause

  a. Who : to refer to person Pattern : person who verb

  b. Whom : to refer to person Pattern : person whom person c. That for both people and things.

  d. Whose : to replace a possessive adjective Pattern : noun whose noun

  e. Which : to refer to thing Pattern : thing which verb 2. Relative Clause Pattern with subject.

  Relative Clause with subject is relative clause pattern there is a subject after relative pronoun.

  Noun Relative Prounoun Subject Verb The book that I am reading The magazine that my father Brought

  The boy whom you Saw The system which we should use 3.

  Relative Clause with whose

  Whose

  used in relative clause is to state that which behind whose is property noun that be in front of whose, so this relative clause can be translate with “yang…..nya”. With this whose can be possessed subject or not possessed subject.

  a.

  Without subject Noun Whose Noun Verb The people Whose house was damage by the flood The woman Whose Bag was seized by the police A mother Whose child died in the accident b.

  With subject Noun Whose Noun Subject Verb The man Whose House You saw last night The secretary Whose Office We will visit The farmers Whose Land The government took to build airport

E. Relative Clause Position in Sentence

  Relative clause always attributed to the noun because the function is giving adds information for noun. But relative clause itself not completed the word. It is only noun phrase. Noun phrase itself can be got position as subject, object, complement and etc.

  Look, as follows: 1.

  The man who stolen the bicycle has surrendered to the police.

  (Subject) 2. I want to know the man who has this brilliant idea. ( object) 3.

  This is the house I want to buy. (complement) 4. The man whose husband died in the car crash could not claim the insurance company. (subject)

F. Learning Error analysis

  1. The Definition of Error The relation between language teaching and error cannot be separated. If the learner study about something, it is possible to make an error. Error is defined by Subyakto-Nababan (1993: 132), as deviations of grammatical which reflect the level of ability. In another description, an ‘error' is a systematic deviation from the accepted ‘code” (Norrish, 1995: 127). Code in this respect includes grammar, meaning, and sound.

  Based on explanations above, it is concluded that error is the deviations of grammatical, meaning and sound which reflects the level of ability.

2. Type of Error

  There are two kinds of casual factor of error: a.

   Interlingual Error

  Interlingua error is error that caused by interference of the mother tongue (L1) to target language (L2). They are also known as the contrastive analysis concept of Li dependent errors. They deal with the negative interference between L1 and L2 including phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and culture.

b. Intralingual Errors

  Intralingua errors are the direct result of the learners attempt to create language based on is his hypothesis about the language system he is learning. In his house of errors, there is nothing to do with interference of mother tongue. It is caused by the target language itself so it is said as developments errors (Richard, 1985).

  According to (Richard, 1985), ignorance of the systematic intralingua errors involves overgeneralization, ignorance of the rules and false concept hypnotized or semantic errors.

  a.

  Overgeneralization is a device used when the items do not carry any obvious contrast for the learner.

  Example: I see girl who Abu gives a bag instead of I see girl whom Abu gives a bag.

  Bejo who I saw yesterday will go to Bandung instead of Rizal who I saw yesterday go to Bandung.

  b.

  Ignorance of rules restrictions is error that occurs when rules are extended to contexts where in target language usage does not apply. Example: Luningwhosehis father died last week is my friend instead of Luningwhose father died last week is my friend.

  That is the man whose his wife was on TV today instead of that is the man whose wife was on TV today.

  c.

  Incomplete applications of rules, the students do not apply the complete norm of the target language.

  Example: There is man wait for you instead of there is a man who waits for you.

  d.

  False concept hypothesized, the students have the wrong concepts of language system.

  Example: The form whoin English is interpreted has a meaning “siapa” and the form thatwill be understood has a meaning “itu”

  3. The Differences between Error and Mistake In our life, many people give opinion that error and mistake as synonym which have the same meaning. Sometime we are confused to compare between error and mistake. Related to Tarigan (1995: 74-75) error and mistake are defined as follow: a. Error is caused by the competence factor.

  It means the students do not know the linguistic system which is used. It happens systematically and will be durable. Correcting can be done by teacher through remedial, practices, and training, etc. But, error cannot be corrected soon. b. Mistake is caused by performance factor.

  Restrictiveness in remembering something (forgetfulness) causes mistake in pronouncing a certain sound, word, spelling, or stress of word or sentence, etc. those are unsystematically and a little while. In this case, the learner knows about the linguistic system basically and can be corrected so on.

  The table below shows the differences and similarities between mistake and error.

  Table 2.1 The Differences and Similarities between Mistake and Error

  CATEGOR Y ERROR MISTAKE

  Source Competence Performance Characteristic It is systematic Unsystematic Duration Permanent Temporary Linguistic system The learner has not The learner has understood system. understood system.

  Result Derivation Derivation Correction Correction by Correction by teacher’s help. learner himself.

  Besides that, Harmer (2001: 99) suggests that mistakes are divided into three broad categories: “Slips” (that is mistakes which students can correct themselves once the mistake has been pointed out to them), “Errors” (mistake which they cannot correct themselves and which therefore need explanation), and “attempts” (that is when a student tries to say something but does not yet know the correct way of saying it).

  4. Procedure of Error Analysis According to Tarigan (1995: 67-68), there are five steps or procedures which cover error analysis. First is sample collection. The researcher collect sample. Second is error identification. Having collected the sample, the researcher identifies the errors in sample collection. Third is error explanation.

  The researcher explains the errors which are made by students. The fourth is error classification. The researcher classifies the errors based on causes. And the last is evaluation. The researcher evaluates the level of error. Based on procedures above, it is concluded that error analysis is a working procedure which is used by researcher and language teacher; it covers sample collection, error identification, error explanation, error classification and evaluation. Below is a diagram of error analysis procedure.

  Figure 2.1

  Procedure of Error Analysis Sample Collection Error Evaluation Procedure of Identification Error Analysis Error Error Explanation Classification