Staff Site Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta Issues in Madev
BY
ANITA TRIASTUTI, M. A.
Knowing
t he posit ion of mat erials
development in t he f ramework of language
course design.
Det ermining
t he relevant approach t o course
design on which t he nat ure of developing
mat erials will base.
Among
ot hers, one of t he commonly used
approach is learning-cent ered approach.
Identify
learners
Theoretical
views of learning
Analyse learning
situation
Identify attitudes/
wants/ potential of
learners
Analyse target
situation
Theoretical
view of lg
Identify skills and
knowledge needed
to function in the
target situation
dentify needs/
potential/ constraints
of learning/ teaching
situation
Evaluation
Write syllabus/ materials to exploit
the potential of the learning
situation in the acquisition of the
skills and knowledge required by
the target situation.
Evaluation
LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH
It is based on t he principle t hat learning is totally
determined by the learners even t hough Ts can inf luence
what is t aught
The learner is one factor t o consider in t he learning
process, but not the only one .
LEARNING-CENTERED APPROACH
It is seen as a process in which t he learners use what
knowledge or skills t hey have t o make sense of t he f low
of new inf ormat ion.
It is an internal process, which is crucially dependent
upon t he knowledge t he learners already have and t heir
abilit y and mot ivat ion t o use it .
It is a process of negotiation bet ween individuals and t he
societ y. Societ y set s t he t arget and t he individuals must do
t heir best t o get as close t o t hat t arget as is possible.
Knowing
t he st ages of developing mat erials
Import ant
st eps t o ponder:
1)
Mat erials Select ion
2)
Mat erials Evaluat ion
3)
Mat erials Adapt at ion
In
pract ice, t he select ed course design
approach must be in harmony wit h t he
relevant language t eaching underlying t he
nat ure of t asks-design and t he sequence of
t asks present at ion
The shif t in t he discussion about language t eaching f rom
met hods t o approaches seems t o ref lect a shif t in t he
perspect ives held by expert s in language t eaching,
language t eachers and pract it ioners. What becomes an
import ant issue is what should be t here in language
t eaching, not about how language t eaching should be
conduct ed t echnically. This shif t brings about more open
alt ernat ives f or t eachers and pract it ioners t o do t he
t eaching. This is because t eachers are becoming more
f lexible in planning, managing and execut ing t heir
t eaching. Met hods are not st rict ly demanded anymore, but
are opt ional. What is import ant is t he set of principles
governing t he pract ices in language t eaching. It is,
t heref ore, logical t hat t his post -met hods era is called t he
era of t eaching by principles, where t eaching is not a
mat t er of t echnical procedural st eps, but set s of act ivit ies
governed by cert ain principles.
Task-based
Inst ruct ion
Communicat ive
Genre-based
Language Teaching
Approach
Def init ions of t ask:
1) “ an act i vi t y whi ch l ear ner s car r y out usi ng t hei r
avai l abl e l anguage r esour ces and l eadi ng t o a r eal
out come” . (Richards, 2001)
2) “ a communicat ive event having a non-linguist ic
out come” (Nunan, 2004)
Task-based language t eaching: An approach t o
language t eaching organized around t asks rat her t han
language st ruct ures.
Syst emic–f unct ional linguist ics: A t heory of language
t hat at t empt s t o est ablish f ormal relat ionships
bet ween grammar, meaning and use.
Focus on f orm: An approach t o inst ruct ion which provides a
syst emat ic f ocus on language syst ems (principally, but not
exclusively, t he grammat ical syst em) wit hin a communicat ive
cont ext . Some researchers, f or example Long, argue t hat t his
f ocus should be incident al, and appropriat ely t imed.
Focused t asks: Tasks t hat are designed t o st imulat e t he
product ion of part icular linguist ic f orms.
Funct ions: The general purposes f or which people use language,
f or example socializing, asking f or direct ions, ret urning an
unsat isf act ory purchase.
Unf ocused t asks: Tasks t hat are not int ended t o elicit a part icular
grammat ical st ruct ure.
Genre: A st aged, goal-orient ed, socially const ruct ed writ t en or
communicat ive event .
A
t ask is a piece of classroom work t hat
allows learners t o comprehend, manipulat e,
produce, or int eract in t he t arget language
(Nunan, 2004).
A
t ask is viewed as an act ivit y, a work plan,
and a piece of classroom work which put s it s
primary at t ent ion on meaning rat her t han
f orm t o produce a real out come.
It
conveys several language act ivit ies which
allow st udent s t o comprehend, manipulat e,
produce or int eract in t he t arget language.
A t ask should deal wit h a number of dimensions: [ 1]
t he scope of a t ask, [ 2] t he perspect ive f rom which a
t ask is viewed, [ 3] t he aut hent icit y of a t ask, [ 4] t he
linguist ic skills required t o perf orm a t ask, [ 5] t he
psychological processes involved in t ask perf ormance,
and [ 6] t he out come of a t ask (Ellis, 2003: 2).
Thus,
Task-based
Language Inst ruct ion ref ers t o an
approach based on t he use of t ask as t he core unit of
planning and inst ruct ion in language t eaching which
views t he learning process as a set of communicat ive
t asks t hat are direct ly l inked t o t he curricular goals
t hey serve, t he purposes of which ext end beyond t he
pract ice of language f or it s own sake (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001, Brown, 2001).
Tasks provide bot h t he input and out put processing necessary f or
language acquisit ion
Tasks should be able t o generat e learners’ mot ivat ion and
promot e learning
Richards and Rodgers (2001) ment ion t hat t here are seven
reasons t hat t ask can improve t he learner mot ivat ion and
promot e learning; t hey are:
They
They
They
They
They
They
They
require learners t o use aut hent ic language;
have well-def ined dimensions and closure;
are varied in f ormat and operat ion;
t ypically include physical act ivit y;
involve part nership and collaborat ion;
may call on t he learners’ past experience, and
t olerat e and encourage a variet y of communicat ion st yles.
Learning
dif f icult y can be negot iat ed and
f ine-t uned f or part icular pedagogical purpose
Bef ore coming t o t he syllabus development , a
t eacher should consider t hese t hings in planning
inst ruct ional t asks:
1. t he subj ect mat t er t o be t aught
2. mat erials, i. e. t hose t hings t he learner will
observe/ manipulat e
3. t he act ivit ies t he t eacher and learners will be
carrying out
4. t he goals f or t he t ask
5. t he abilit ies, needs and int erest s of t he st udent s
6. t he social and cult ural cont ext of inst ruct ion.
The
process of syllabus development :
1. Conduct a needs analysis t o obt ain an
invent ory t arget t asks.
2. Classif y t he t arget t asks int o t ask t ypes.
3. From t he t ask t ypes, derive pedagogical
t asks.
4. Select and sequence t he pedagogical t asks
t o f orm a t ask syllabus.
(Long in Nunan, 2002)
Real-world/ t arget t asks
Pedagogical t asks
Enabling skills
Rehearsal Act ivat ion
Language
Communicat ive
t asks
exercises
act ivit ies
t asks
A framework for TBLI (Nunan, 2004: 25)
Nunan (2004: 41) st at es t hat a t ask can be
charact erized by it s: (a) goals, (b) input , (c)
procedures, (d) t eacher role, (e) learner role
and (f ) set t ings
Goals are “ t he vague general int ent ions behind
any given learning t ask which provide a point of
cont ract bet ween t he t ask and t he broader
curriculum” (Nunan, 2004: 41).
Input ref ers t o “ t he spoken, writ t en and visual
dat a t hat learners work wit h in t he course of
complet ing a t ask” (Nunan, 2004: 47).
Procedures “ specif y what learners will act ually
do wit h t he input which f orms t he point of
depart ure f or t he learning t ask” .
Roles ref er t o “ t he part t hat learners and
t eachers are expect ed t o play in carrying out t he
learning t asks as well as t he social and
int erpersonal
relat ionships
bet ween
t he
part icipant s” .
Set t ings ref er t o “ t he classroom arrangement s
specif ied or implied in t he t ask, and it also
requires considerat ions of whet her t he t ask is t o
be carried out wholly or part ly out side t he
classroom” .
Tasks Grading
and Sequencing
- Nunan (2004) proposes six st eps in which we
can use t o develop t asks int o sequences,
t hey are:
(1) St ep 1: Schema building
(2) St ep 2: Cont rolled pract ice
(3) St ep 3: Aut hent ic list ening pract ice
(4) St ep 4: Focus on linguist ic element s
(5) St ep 5: Provide f reer pract ice
(6) St ep 6: Int roduce t he pedagogical t ask
USERS
AUTHENTICITY
GENUINESS
SITUATION
TEXTS
Table 1: Facets of authenticity*
• Authenticity
of language
• Authenticity of text used as input
data for learners
• Authenticity of the learners’ own
interpretation of such texts
• Authenticity
• Authenticity of the tasks conducive
of task
to language learning
• Authenticity
• Authenticity of the actual social
of situation
situation of the language classroom
•Breen, M. P (1985). Aut hent icit y in t he language classroom. Appl i ed Li ngui st i cs, 6,
60-70.
• Tayl or, (1994). Inaut hent ic aut hent icit y or aut hent ic inaut hent icit y? TESL-EJ, I
(2) A-1, Ret r i eved Oct ober 1, 2006 f r om ht t p: / / www-wr i t i ng. ber kel ey. edu/ t esl ei / ej 02/ a. 1. ht ml
Levels of input authenticity:
1. genuine input authenticity”
2. altered input authenticity
3. adapted input authenticity
4. simulated input authenticity”
5. inauthenticity“
Brown, S. & Menasche, L. (2005). Def i ni ng Aut hent i ci t y. Accessed July 29, 2006 at
ht t p: / / www. as. ysu. edu/ ~english/ BrownMenasche. doc
Underst anding t ext t ypes
Knowing how t o int egrat e t ext t ypes in t asksdesign
Int egrat ing charact er educat ion in t asks-design
Developing t asks based on t he select ed st andard
of compet ence and basic compet ence
Mast ering relevant comput er programs in
book/ mat erials writ ing
Being rich wit h meaningf ul and int erest ing
pict ures, aut hent ic phot os, caricat ures, and clip
art s
Creat ing a suit able design and layout
ANITA TRIASTUTI, M. A.
Knowing
t he posit ion of mat erials
development in t he f ramework of language
course design.
Det ermining
t he relevant approach t o course
design on which t he nat ure of developing
mat erials will base.
Among
ot hers, one of t he commonly used
approach is learning-cent ered approach.
Identify
learners
Theoretical
views of learning
Analyse learning
situation
Identify attitudes/
wants/ potential of
learners
Analyse target
situation
Theoretical
view of lg
Identify skills and
knowledge needed
to function in the
target situation
dentify needs/
potential/ constraints
of learning/ teaching
situation
Evaluation
Write syllabus/ materials to exploit
the potential of the learning
situation in the acquisition of the
skills and knowledge required by
the target situation.
Evaluation
LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH
It is based on t he principle t hat learning is totally
determined by the learners even t hough Ts can inf luence
what is t aught
The learner is one factor t o consider in t he learning
process, but not the only one .
LEARNING-CENTERED APPROACH
It is seen as a process in which t he learners use what
knowledge or skills t hey have t o make sense of t he f low
of new inf ormat ion.
It is an internal process, which is crucially dependent
upon t he knowledge t he learners already have and t heir
abilit y and mot ivat ion t o use it .
It is a process of negotiation bet ween individuals and t he
societ y. Societ y set s t he t arget and t he individuals must do
t heir best t o get as close t o t hat t arget as is possible.
Knowing
t he st ages of developing mat erials
Import ant
st eps t o ponder:
1)
Mat erials Select ion
2)
Mat erials Evaluat ion
3)
Mat erials Adapt at ion
In
pract ice, t he select ed course design
approach must be in harmony wit h t he
relevant language t eaching underlying t he
nat ure of t asks-design and t he sequence of
t asks present at ion
The shif t in t he discussion about language t eaching f rom
met hods t o approaches seems t o ref lect a shif t in t he
perspect ives held by expert s in language t eaching,
language t eachers and pract it ioners. What becomes an
import ant issue is what should be t here in language
t eaching, not about how language t eaching should be
conduct ed t echnically. This shif t brings about more open
alt ernat ives f or t eachers and pract it ioners t o do t he
t eaching. This is because t eachers are becoming more
f lexible in planning, managing and execut ing t heir
t eaching. Met hods are not st rict ly demanded anymore, but
are opt ional. What is import ant is t he set of principles
governing t he pract ices in language t eaching. It is,
t heref ore, logical t hat t his post -met hods era is called t he
era of t eaching by principles, where t eaching is not a
mat t er of t echnical procedural st eps, but set s of act ivit ies
governed by cert ain principles.
Task-based
Inst ruct ion
Communicat ive
Genre-based
Language Teaching
Approach
Def init ions of t ask:
1) “ an act i vi t y whi ch l ear ner s car r y out usi ng t hei r
avai l abl e l anguage r esour ces and l eadi ng t o a r eal
out come” . (Richards, 2001)
2) “ a communicat ive event having a non-linguist ic
out come” (Nunan, 2004)
Task-based language t eaching: An approach t o
language t eaching organized around t asks rat her t han
language st ruct ures.
Syst emic–f unct ional linguist ics: A t heory of language
t hat at t empt s t o est ablish f ormal relat ionships
bet ween grammar, meaning and use.
Focus on f orm: An approach t o inst ruct ion which provides a
syst emat ic f ocus on language syst ems (principally, but not
exclusively, t he grammat ical syst em) wit hin a communicat ive
cont ext . Some researchers, f or example Long, argue t hat t his
f ocus should be incident al, and appropriat ely t imed.
Focused t asks: Tasks t hat are designed t o st imulat e t he
product ion of part icular linguist ic f orms.
Funct ions: The general purposes f or which people use language,
f or example socializing, asking f or direct ions, ret urning an
unsat isf act ory purchase.
Unf ocused t asks: Tasks t hat are not int ended t o elicit a part icular
grammat ical st ruct ure.
Genre: A st aged, goal-orient ed, socially const ruct ed writ t en or
communicat ive event .
A
t ask is a piece of classroom work t hat
allows learners t o comprehend, manipulat e,
produce, or int eract in t he t arget language
(Nunan, 2004).
A
t ask is viewed as an act ivit y, a work plan,
and a piece of classroom work which put s it s
primary at t ent ion on meaning rat her t han
f orm t o produce a real out come.
It
conveys several language act ivit ies which
allow st udent s t o comprehend, manipulat e,
produce or int eract in t he t arget language.
A t ask should deal wit h a number of dimensions: [ 1]
t he scope of a t ask, [ 2] t he perspect ive f rom which a
t ask is viewed, [ 3] t he aut hent icit y of a t ask, [ 4] t he
linguist ic skills required t o perf orm a t ask, [ 5] t he
psychological processes involved in t ask perf ormance,
and [ 6] t he out come of a t ask (Ellis, 2003: 2).
Thus,
Task-based
Language Inst ruct ion ref ers t o an
approach based on t he use of t ask as t he core unit of
planning and inst ruct ion in language t eaching which
views t he learning process as a set of communicat ive
t asks t hat are direct ly l inked t o t he curricular goals
t hey serve, t he purposes of which ext end beyond t he
pract ice of language f or it s own sake (Richards and
Rodgers, 2001, Brown, 2001).
Tasks provide bot h t he input and out put processing necessary f or
language acquisit ion
Tasks should be able t o generat e learners’ mot ivat ion and
promot e learning
Richards and Rodgers (2001) ment ion t hat t here are seven
reasons t hat t ask can improve t he learner mot ivat ion and
promot e learning; t hey are:
They
They
They
They
They
They
They
require learners t o use aut hent ic language;
have well-def ined dimensions and closure;
are varied in f ormat and operat ion;
t ypically include physical act ivit y;
involve part nership and collaborat ion;
may call on t he learners’ past experience, and
t olerat e and encourage a variet y of communicat ion st yles.
Learning
dif f icult y can be negot iat ed and
f ine-t uned f or part icular pedagogical purpose
Bef ore coming t o t he syllabus development , a
t eacher should consider t hese t hings in planning
inst ruct ional t asks:
1. t he subj ect mat t er t o be t aught
2. mat erials, i. e. t hose t hings t he learner will
observe/ manipulat e
3. t he act ivit ies t he t eacher and learners will be
carrying out
4. t he goals f or t he t ask
5. t he abilit ies, needs and int erest s of t he st udent s
6. t he social and cult ural cont ext of inst ruct ion.
The
process of syllabus development :
1. Conduct a needs analysis t o obt ain an
invent ory t arget t asks.
2. Classif y t he t arget t asks int o t ask t ypes.
3. From t he t ask t ypes, derive pedagogical
t asks.
4. Select and sequence t he pedagogical t asks
t o f orm a t ask syllabus.
(Long in Nunan, 2002)
Real-world/ t arget t asks
Pedagogical t asks
Enabling skills
Rehearsal Act ivat ion
Language
Communicat ive
t asks
exercises
act ivit ies
t asks
A framework for TBLI (Nunan, 2004: 25)
Nunan (2004: 41) st at es t hat a t ask can be
charact erized by it s: (a) goals, (b) input , (c)
procedures, (d) t eacher role, (e) learner role
and (f ) set t ings
Goals are “ t he vague general int ent ions behind
any given learning t ask which provide a point of
cont ract bet ween t he t ask and t he broader
curriculum” (Nunan, 2004: 41).
Input ref ers t o “ t he spoken, writ t en and visual
dat a t hat learners work wit h in t he course of
complet ing a t ask” (Nunan, 2004: 47).
Procedures “ specif y what learners will act ually
do wit h t he input which f orms t he point of
depart ure f or t he learning t ask” .
Roles ref er t o “ t he part t hat learners and
t eachers are expect ed t o play in carrying out t he
learning t asks as well as t he social and
int erpersonal
relat ionships
bet ween
t he
part icipant s” .
Set t ings ref er t o “ t he classroom arrangement s
specif ied or implied in t he t ask, and it also
requires considerat ions of whet her t he t ask is t o
be carried out wholly or part ly out side t he
classroom” .
Tasks Grading
and Sequencing
- Nunan (2004) proposes six st eps in which we
can use t o develop t asks int o sequences,
t hey are:
(1) St ep 1: Schema building
(2) St ep 2: Cont rolled pract ice
(3) St ep 3: Aut hent ic list ening pract ice
(4) St ep 4: Focus on linguist ic element s
(5) St ep 5: Provide f reer pract ice
(6) St ep 6: Int roduce t he pedagogical t ask
USERS
AUTHENTICITY
GENUINESS
SITUATION
TEXTS
Table 1: Facets of authenticity*
• Authenticity
of language
• Authenticity of text used as input
data for learners
• Authenticity of the learners’ own
interpretation of such texts
• Authenticity
• Authenticity of the tasks conducive
of task
to language learning
• Authenticity
• Authenticity of the actual social
of situation
situation of the language classroom
•Breen, M. P (1985). Aut hent icit y in t he language classroom. Appl i ed Li ngui st i cs, 6,
60-70.
• Tayl or, (1994). Inaut hent ic aut hent icit y or aut hent ic inaut hent icit y? TESL-EJ, I
(2) A-1, Ret r i eved Oct ober 1, 2006 f r om ht t p: / / www-wr i t i ng. ber kel ey. edu/ t esl ei / ej 02/ a. 1. ht ml
Levels of input authenticity:
1. genuine input authenticity”
2. altered input authenticity
3. adapted input authenticity
4. simulated input authenticity”
5. inauthenticity“
Brown, S. & Menasche, L. (2005). Def i ni ng Aut hent i ci t y. Accessed July 29, 2006 at
ht t p: / / www. as. ysu. edu/ ~english/ BrownMenasche. doc
Underst anding t ext t ypes
Knowing how t o int egrat e t ext t ypes in t asksdesign
Int egrat ing charact er educat ion in t asks-design
Developing t asks based on t he select ed st andard
of compet ence and basic compet ence
Mast ering relevant comput er programs in
book/ mat erials writ ing
Being rich wit h meaningf ul and int erest ing
pict ures, aut hent ic phot os, caricat ures, and clip
art s
Creat ing a suit able design and layout