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Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Contemporary Management and Operations
Research Graduate Programs: A Review,
Recommendations, and Integration
Joseph A. Petrick , George G. Polak , Robert F. Scherer & Carmen Gloria
Muñoz
To cite this article: Joseph A. Petrick , George G. Polak , Robert F. Scherer & Carmen Gloria
Muñoz (2001) Contemporary Management and Operations Research Graduate Programs: A
Review, Recommendations, and Integration, Journal of Education for Business, 77:1, 34-39,
DOI: 10.1080/08832320109599668
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08832320109599668

Published online: 31 Mar 2010.

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Contemporary Management
and Operations Research Graduate
Programs: A Review,
Recommendations, and Integration
JOSEPH A. PETRICK
GEORGE G. POLAK
ROBERT F. SCHERER
Wright State University
Dayton, Ohio

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CARMEN GLORIA MUNOZ
Lexis-Nexus
Dayton, Ohio

ABSTRACT. In the United States

D

uring the last 20 years, economic
and competitive environments for
businesses have changed very rapidly.
Nowadays, globalization and ecommerce are fundamental concepts in
the strategic plans of many companies.
Also, technology changes have been
dramatic during the last decades, and
today many new tools are available to
help managers in their daily tasks. All
these changes have generated pressures
for change in business schools,

necessitating a new evaluation of the
actual educational programs. In this
article, we discuss the main criticisms
and challenges facing the management
and operations management graduate
programs in the United States. We also
present possible alternatives to direct
future business education.

Henri Fayol developed in the first quarter
of the 20th century, focuses on internal
control and stresses the monitor and
coordinator role responsibilities of information management, documentation
control, efficient processing, and consolidated continuity by emphasizing
process measurement, smooth functioning of organizational operations, and
bureaucratic order. The human relations
theory, made famous by Elton Mayo and
the Hawthorne studies in the second
quarter of the 20th century, focuses on
internal flexibility and the facilitator and

mentor role responsibilities of fostering
openness, participation, team morale
building, and commitment by emphasizing involvement, humane conflict resolution, and consensus building. Finally, the
open systems theory, which was advocated by Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch in
the third quarter of the 20th century,
focuses on external flexibility and stresses the innovator and broker role responsibilities of cultivating organizational
learning capabilities and developing the
competitive power of continual creativity, political adaptation, and negotiated
external resource acquisition by emphasizing external trend scanning, creative
system change and technological development, and negotiated contractual
agreements and networking.
Overemphasis or underemphasis on
any one of these theories in manage-

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excellent managerial performance.These
role-playing competencies historically
have been best categorized as entailing
four types of management theories:

rational goal theory, internal process theory, human relations theory, and open
systems theory.
The rational goal theory, which Frederick Taylor introduced at the beginning
of the 20th century as a form of quantitative scientific management, focuses on
external control and stresses the director
and producer role responsibilities of setting goals, taking initiative, increasing
productivity, and maximizing output by
emphasizing goal clarification, rational
analysis, and action taking. The internal
process theory, which Max Weber and

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Graduate Business Management
Education
Trends and Challenges in Business
Management

With respect to 20th-century U.S.
business management trends and theories, researchers have found that decisionmaking through the playing of multiple, even competing, roles in a highly
balanced and complementary way
(Quinn, Faerman, Thompson, &
McGrath, 1996; Wren, 1994) results in

34

today there are over 1.000 graduate
programs offering master’s degrees in
management and operations research.
Many of these programs, including
those offered at 1st-tier schools, are
based on models developed in the
1960s and 1970s. Although they continue to attract a greater number of
students each year, industry professionals have been critical of such programs. In this article, the authors discuss
the
development
and

characteristics of graduate programs
in management and operations
research, critically assess them, and
offer recommendations for integrating
these 2 disciplines so that their continuous improvement and revision can
meet both student and business needs.

Journal of Education for Business

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TABLE 1. Factor Structure

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Perceived challenge

Description of challenge

Education change responses

1. Inappropriateness for university education and later inappropriateness for
practitioner performance

Too vocational and insufficiently scholarly
and later too academic, too technically
narrow

Improvements in balance of academic and
business standards (MBA Enterprise

2. Inadequate strategic responsiveness to
changing forces

Strategic rigidity and unresponsiveness to
rapid economic, technological, demographic, and societal changes

Improvements in strategic leadership
(strategic partnerships)

3. Inadequate curriculum content

Lack of crossfunctional, interdisciplinary
curricula, integrated program emphases,
global perspectives, diversity concerns,
teamwork and enriched learning environments/technologies, and customer focus

Multiple improvements in curriculum

4.Inappropriate faculty performance

Structural incentives for rewarding
faculty only for disciplinary-related
research and department-based teaching
headcounts, thereby neglecting student
and employer performance expectations
of faculty

Improvements in faculty performance
incentives (expanded range of scholarship)

incentives

Corps)

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5. Unsatisfactory proficiencies of manage-

Graduates criticized for unrealistically
high job expectations and lackluster organizational leadership skills

Improvements in proficiencies of management school graduates (benchmarked role
competencies)

6. Inadequate relations with business community

Business school is out of touch with business community needs

Improvements in business community
relations (BACs at all levels)

7. Inadequate EEMD services

Uncompetitive EE/MD services provided
for business needs

Improvements in EEMD services (selective development)

ment school graduates

ment practice and education will distort
managerial judgment and prevent business managers from arriving at balanced
judgments that adequately address business complexity. Overemphasis, for
example, on the director and producer
roles-in line with the rational goal theory-will
offend individuals and
destroy cohesion, whereas overemphasis on the coordinator and monitor roles
stifles progress and neglects possibilities. Alternatively, underemphasis on
such things as effective outcomes, eficient processes, motivated people,
and/or innovative systems risks inadequate analyses and resolutions of business management problems. The quality
of U.S. graduate business management
education in the 20th century is largely
determined by the extent of integrated,
inclusive, and balanced emphases of
these four management theories.
There have been many criticisms of
U.S. graduate management education.
First, critics questioned whether management education belonged in a uni-

versity because the curriculum was
regarded as too vocational and insufficiently scholarly (Gordon & Howell,
1959; Piersen, 1959). Then, in responding to this vocational status criticism by
raising academic standards, producing
more scholarly faculty, requiring more
quantitatively rigorous coursework,
increasing graduate work, and reducing
the commercial specialization of undergraduate education, U.S. graduate management education later was criticized
for becoming too academic and technically narrow and for inadequately
preparing graduates to be leaders in the
current organizational environment
(Boyer, 1990; Louis, 1990; Porter &
McKibben, 1988).
More recently, criticism of U.S. graduate management education focused on
six major factors: (a) strategic leadership incompetency, (b) curriculum inadequacy, (c) structural defects in faculty
performance incentives, (d) unsatisfactory proficiencies in management school
graduates, (e) mixed management school

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stakeholder relations, and ( f ) uncompetitive executive education/management
development (EEMD) services (Keys &
Wolfe, 1988; Porter & McKibben, 1988).
Changes in Graduate Business
Management Education

In response to the criticisms of graduate business management education,
U.S. business schools have adopted a
number of changes. In Table 1 we summarize seven of these changes and the
challenges that led to them.

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Changes in the balance of academic
and business practitioner standards. In
partial response to the criticisms of
being too vocational and too narrowly
academic, business
management
schools are incorporating both academic and business outcomes into their
strategic and operational missions. One
best practice for balancing academic
and business practice skills in U.S.
graduate management education is the
SeptembedOctober 2001

35

Perceived challenge

Description of challenge

1. Overemphasis on abstract or theoretical

issues in quantitative courses

2. Inability to solve realistic instances of

many quantitative models

3. Lack of capacity in curriculum for

quantitative courses

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TABLE 2. Challenges to and Responses of U.S. Graduate Operations Research Education Programs

Education change responses

Employers of MBA graduates require
immediate applicability of quantitative and
other skills

Increased emphasis on OM topics, including forecasting, production and inventory
management, logistics, and scheduling

Many of the models studied (e.g., integer
programming problems) are computationally intractable

Employment of software that implements
state-of-the-art algorithms and heuristics
into master’s level courses

MBA programs are severely constrained
in terms of quantitative content because of
required content in other areas of business

tation to modeling and software use;

Shift in course focus from manual compudevelopment of separate “techno-MBA”
curricula

4. Lack of coherence in traditional “toolbox” methodology

Large multifaceted problems in business
and administration require concerted
approaches

Inclusion of supply-chain management
and electronic commerce in curricula

5. Lack of connection between quantitative courses and burgeoning information

Pervasive role of information technology
and computer science in business and
administration demands attention in all
aspects of curriculum

Inclusion of object-oriented methodology
(e.g., the SCOR model)

technology fields

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MBA Enterprise Corps (Petrick & Russel-Robles, 1992). The Enterprise Corps
is to the 1990s and beyond what the
Peace Corps was to the 1960s. The
MBA Enterprise Corps’s consortium of
business, government, and education
institutions provides resources for the
awarding of graduate academic credit
for supervised management consulting
services provided to businesses, primarily in Eastern Europe. These resources
help command system organizations to
transition successfully to free-marketbased firms. This form of integration of
academic and business experience could
be adapted to other international or
domestic settings.

ously meet AACSB standards, but the
pace of innovation is sketchy and less
rapid than market forces.

Changes in curriculum. In partial
response to improved curricular
changes, islands of curricular revision
emerged but without any centralized
clearinghouse of curriculum best practices (Boyatzis et al., 1995; Zolner,
1996). Among the curricular improvements are the following: crossfunctional, interdisciplinary curricula; new graduate management program emphases;
global perspectives; increased student
and faculty diversity; teamwork and a
richer learning environment; greater use
of learning technologies; and more
applied learning with a quality customer
focus.

priorities of some faculty (Boyatzis et al.,
1995; Boyer, 1990). Furthermore, the
inclusion of educational institutions for
consideration for the prestigious U.S.
Baldrige Quality Awards for Organizational Excellence requires that they align
mission priorities and reward processes
to sustain eligibility.

Changes in unsatisfactory projkiencies
in management school graduates. Some
graduate schools are beginning to look
at outcome evaluations of managerial
proficiencies in formative and summative assessments of academic and work
competence (Prideaux & Ford, 1988;
Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Systematic
role competency assessment and benchmarking outcome evaluations with comparable institutions, domestically and
internationally, would begin the process
of determining world-class management education proficiency rather than
the current fragmentation of outcome
evaluation.

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Changes in strategic leadership. In partial response to the need for more
responsive and flexible strategic planning, graduate management education
has begun to factor change management
and strategic partnerships into mission
statements (Boyatzis, Cowen, & Kolb,
1995). The University of Florida and
Fordham University in New York, for
example, have formed strategic partnerships with AT&T and MCI, respectively, to offer customized programs for
their executives. Management graduate
schools are generating a range of context-specific directions that simultane-

36

Changes in structural defects in faculty
pefotmance incentives. This criticism
has not been fully addressed by most
management schools, so the strategic and
curricular cosmetic changes are not likely to be sustained if structural faculty
performance incentives remain discipline
oriented. Some departmental reorganization and reengineering have been implemented for alignment of mission and
reward systems, and the expansion of the
scope of scholarship has influenced the

Changes in relations with business community. Though some headway has been
made in improving business community
relations through business advisory
council (BAC) contributions in hiring
graduates and providing adjunct faculty,
the primary emphases remain with the

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academic community and the accrediting agency. As the domestic and international business communities begin to
coordinate their feedback to management educators through published
rankings or BACs at all levels of a
management school, the opportunity
for shared learning from the highest
ranking educational institutions with
other management schools is a promising best practice.

first era of education was an unprecedented decade of improved productivity
and economic growth.
Along with the success, however, has
come constructive criticism that the discipline could be improved. Woolsey and
Swanson (1975, p. xiii) stated that “our
profession is turning more and more
inward and is talking less and less to the
managers who have real problems. This
trend is exemplified by the appearance
of papers in the journals of the profession that seem to be cures searching for
a disease.” Meredith, Raturi, AmoakoGyampah, and Kaplan (1989) made a
strong case that OR/MS could be
applied better to discipline-specific
research. These observers proposed a
research methodology framework that
gave prominentce to cross-disciplinary
studies and empirical field work (see
Graman, 1994).

ascendance of operations management
(OM) in graduate business curricula.
OM combines the qualitative with the
quantitative analysis techniques and is
oriented toward the practical. Drawing
on analytical tools and models from
OR/MS and industrial engineering, OM
reintroduces some qualitative elements
of management that had largely vanished from these other areas. In addition, whereas much research in OR/MS
is devoted to algorithms for finding
optimal solutions to difficult mathematical models, OM instead emphasizes the
development of efficient but approximating heuristics. In some respects, this
ascendance is a direct response to the
criticisms of O M S .

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Changes in uncompetitive executive
education/management development
(EE/MD) services. Though some of the
more prestigious management schools
are providing competitive EE/MD services, the majority are not; in-house and
third-party providers continue to expand
their marketplaces (Crainer & Dearlove,
1999). Opportunities for selectively
improving EE/MD services lie, however, in benchmarking for competitive
parity with best-of-class providers.

Quantitative Fields Face New
Challenges in a Second Era

The fields of operations management
(OM) and management science/poperations research (MYOR) are relative
newcomers to business education, dating to the 1950s. Throughout industry
and academia, operations research has
grown rapidly in acceptance since its
military origins during World War I1
(Kirby, 2000). Its counterpart in business and administration became known
as management science. Both disciplines represent applications of the scientific method, principally mathematics and statistics, to practical
decisionmaking problems (Hillier &
Lieberman, 1998). For all intents and
purposes, the twin disciplines had
merged into one, known as OWMS, by
the mid- 1990s.
A rapid pace of discovery and an
explosive growth of knowledge characterized these fields in the intervening
decades. As MS/OR students graduated
and became practitioners, they implemented applications that streamlined
production, broke bottlenecks, efficiently directed transportation and distribution, and even advanced national security objectives in the United States and
other nations. The culmination of this

Changes in Graduate OWMS Business
Education

Thus the groundwork was laid for a
second era of eduaction, in which
quantitative fields were faced by a reexamination of priorities and procedures. We discuss five principal challenges and educators’ responses to
them (see Table 2).

Changes in curricular emphasis. In the
first era, much of the master’s level
course work in MS/OR focused on
mathematical modeling, the development and implementation of algorithms,
and the implementation of simulation in
all-purpose computer languages. For
example, it was quite common to devote
many hours to implementation of the
simplex algorithm by hand. By the close
of that era, spectacular improvements in
computer hardware and software,
including optimization and simulation
software, shifted emphasis to taking
advantage of versatile and relatively
powerful solvers and add-ons that are
almost universally available to businesses in spreadsheet software. The text by
Camm and Evans ( 1 999) is a comprehensive treatment of this new approach.
Undergraduate antecedents of these
developments at the MBA level were
discussed by Gunawardane (1991).
Recent years have also witnessed an

Advances in optimization. Many of the
applications of mathematical modeling
that were proposed and studied during
the first era of quantitative education,
such as the celebrated “traveling salesman problem” and machine scheduling
problems, have the unfortunate property
of being computationally intractable.
Recent advances in solving hard problems in combinatorial optimization,
however, have changed the research
landscape. These have followed breakthroughs in integer programming (IP),
such as branch-and-cut and branch-andprice, and have become accessible to
advanced graduate students via specialized computer languages such as AMPL
(Fourer, Gay, & Kernighan, 1993).
Moreover, a newer, alternative approach
known as constraint programming (CP)
is becoming available to master’s level
students through software such as
ILOG’s OPL Studio (Van Hentenryck,
1999). The difference between IP and
CP can be summarized as follows: IP
offers the tried and true combination of
the simplex method and branch-andbound search but requires clever problem formulation for good advantage. CP
allows much more freedom in modeling
as well as formulation permitting logical and nonlinear constraints besides
linear constraints, but it requires implementation of advanced combinatorial
search strategies.
The techno-MBA. Although the academic discipline of OR/MS has grown
greatly in content, the curriculum of the
September/October 2001

37

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general MBA program is a “knapsack”
of limited capacity, to borrow an idiom
from optimization. In some institutions,
such as Indiana University, OR/MS is
primarily presented in combination with
other areas, such as financial engineering. At other universities, such as the
University of Cincinnati (see ), OR/MS has
become the focus of very successful
specialized master’s programs. Often
called a “techno-MBA,” such a program
prepares future managers to take advantages of all the new tools available to
problem solvers. At still other universities, OR/MS courses simply seem to be
losing their place in this knapsack to
other disciplines.

ning hierarchy. For each activity at
each level, there is an associated performance metric, such as the number of
“raw materials days of supply” in a job
shop. An entire supply chain is thus
mapped into this hierarchy and analyzed and re-engineered much like a
large software project. An illustration
is provided by Haughton, Grenoble,
Thomchick, and Young (1997) in an
application of SCOR analysis to
import-export businesses.

Discussion

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Development of supp1.y chain management. Meredith et al. ( 1 989) called for a
new research agenda with an integrative
view. The premier example is the development and teaching of supply chain
management (Tayur, Ganeshan, & Magazine, 1998). Every business, whether
dealing with goods or services, belongs
to one or more supply chains stretching
from raw material suppliers to retail
outlets. Synthesized from elements of
multi-echelon inventory management,
logistics, information systems, and
strategic management, supply chain
management is an ambitious effort to
analyze and optimize entire networks of
production and transactions. In addition, SCM is at the forefront of the
world of e-commerce.
The not-for-profit Supply-Chain Council is actively promoting the use of the
Supply Chain Operations Reference
(SCOR) Model as a foundation for
graduate education on this topic (Supply-Chain Council, 2000). SCOR was
formulated to provide standard descriptions of management processes, standard metrics, and benchmarks to measure process performance as well as to
foster common terminology and communication across many industries,
including electronic, aerospace and
defense, chemicals, and utilities. All
relevant management processes are
classified as one of four types of activities (plan, make, source, or deliver) at
one of three levels (process, conjguration, and process element) of a plan-

38

Journal of Education for Business

The advent of object-oriented management. Information systems and computer
science loom ever larger in importance in
both OM and OR/MS and are likely to
play an important role in shaping quantitative education in the second era. The
SCOR model is significant in this regard
because, though not software, it strongly
suggests a computer science idiom or
paradigm. Indeed, we observe that it
embodies an object-oriented approach to
management, in homage to object-oriented programming (OOP), the prevailing paradigm in computer science today.
In OOP, data and functions are encapsulated in entities known as objects, which
can be nested one within another
(Brown, 1997).Analysts can use efficient
OOP to exploit commonality among programming tasks to define a minimal set
of objects. The SCOR building blocks
make, source, and deliver can be considered analogous to classes of objects in
which performance metrics are functions
defined on encapsulated data, whereas
plan can be interpreted as a management
shell containing instructions for manipulating objects in its domain. In this way,
plan is analogous to elements of a computer operating system.
Given the pre-eminent role of the
Internet and information systems in
today’s supply chains, this development
should not be surprising. Is object-oriented management then yet another scenario in which “computers take over the
world” and cause pessimists to learn
C++ and optimists to learn Java? For
perspective, let us note that OOP itself
represents sound management principles, such as logical organization and
system maintainability, as applied to
data and functions. So in some sense,
business education in OM and OR/MS
may merely be coming full circle.

The history and challenges to both
the management and OR disciplines
have targeted the way in which they
have developed separately, when in
reality they require integration (Porter
& McKibben, 1988). Thus, we propose
a holistic approach to the further
development of graduate management
and operations research programs. A
holistic approach provides for the integration of both disciplines and
addresses the increasingly complex
dimensions of problems whose solutions require consideration of human,
physical, and financial resources and
constraints.
As educators, we must focus on at
least three important factors that affect
the continuing evolution of our curricula. First and foremost, we must interact
with our business practitioner colleagues so that we understand the types
of skills that businesses need and the
problems that must be solved.This
ongoing dialogue will serve as the integrative lever to keep us connected with
the world of business and production.
Second, we must adapt our curricula
more rapidly so that we do not lag
behind business and industry, but rather
keep pace with it or stay ahead of it and
anticipate the required curricular
changes. This external and internal
scanning and forecasting exercise will
ensure development and adoption of
new pedagogical methods quickly; not
just in time, but ahead of time. Finally,
we must open the lines of communication between the management and operations research disciplines to provide
for sharing of knowledge and multidisciplinary problem solving.
In this review of graduate management and operations research education
in the United States, we focused on past
practices and the resultant reasons for
change. We have provided new themes
(“best practices”) for guiding development and implementation of classes,
curricula, and entire programs in the
discipline over the next 25 years. Graduate management education programs
that continuously and successfully keep
up with change will thrive during the
opening years of this century and
beyond.

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