An analysis of pashtun tribal codes (Pashtunwali) as seen in Khaled Hosseini`s The Kite Runner.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Student Number: 061214121
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Student Number: 061214121
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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big effort can make
dreams come true
This thesis is dedicated to
Bapak & Ibu
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
of parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, February 9, 2012
The Writer
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
061214121
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama
: Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 061214121
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikan di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 9 Februari 2012
Yang menyatakan,
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
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ABSTRACT
Putranti, Fransisca Ika Destia. 2012. An Analysis of Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali) As Seen In Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Yogyakarta:
Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training
and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis discusses the concept of Pashtunwali emerges in a novel
entitled The Kite Runner. This novel is a great novel which tells about the struggle
of Afghans in facing the sociopolitical crisis in Afghanistan. The major character,
Amir, is able to move to another country to avoid the war while other Afghans are
not able to escape from the country.
The objective of the study is to analyze one of Afghans traditions called
Pashtunwali. In order to achieve the objective of the study, there is a research
question analyzed. The question is how is Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)
described in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner?
The method of this study is library research. The primary source is the
novel entitled The Kite Runner. The secondary sources are taken from books,
researches, and articles which discuss sociocultural-historical approach theory,
review on Afghanistan sociopolitical condition, and review on Pashtunwali.
The results of this study reveal the concept of Pashtunwali, which would
be brought along the life of a Pashtun. In The Kite Runner, the characters, who are
Pashtuns, practice Pashtunwali in their daily life whenever and wherever they are.
There are three codes of Pashtuns that appear in the novel, those are ghayrat and
nang (chivalry/ bravery), melmastia (hospitality), and purdah and namus (gender
boundaries). This novel puts three different settings of time and place along the
story. The concept of Pashtunwali emerges in those three settings. The first setting
was in Afghanistan during the last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him where Amir and his father live happily in their
mansion. Amir shows his bravery by joining the kite battle. Amir’s father, Baba,
shows his hospitality by giving other people in need. The second setting happens
in United States of America during the political asylum during the Soviet
occupation of Afghanistan. At this period of time, Baba and Amir move to
Fremont, California, to avoid the war in Afghanistan. A Pashtun family helps
Baba when he is sick. Amir’s wife should struggle with the gender boundaries
among Pashtuns since she was blamed as a dishonorable woman. The third setting
happens in Afghanistan during the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. At this period
of time, Amir gets back to Afghanistan to redeem his past fault towards Hassan,
his half brother, by looking for Sohrab, Hassan’s son. Baba and Hassan show their
bravery in guarding Pashtun’s honor by sacrificing their own life. Some Pashtun
families show their hospitality by serving the best meals and protection toward
Amir while he is in his journey to save Sohrab.
Keywords: Pashtunwali, Afghanistan, The Kite Runner
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ABSTRAK
Putranti, Fransisca Ika Destia. 2012. An Analysis of Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali) as Seen in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Yogyakarta:
Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan
Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini mengulas tentang konsep Pashtunwali yang muncul dalam
novel berjudul The Kite Runner. Novel ini merupakan novel yang luar biasa yang
menceritakan perjuangan rakyat Afghanistan dalam menghadapi krisis politik di
negara tersebut. Tokoh utama dalam novel ini, Amir, mampu keluar dari
negaranya untuk menghindari perang, sementara lebih banyak orang yang tidak
mampu keluar dari negaranya.
Tujuan dari skripsi ini adalah untuk menganalisa salah satu tradisi di
negara Afghanistan, yaitu Pashtunwali. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, skripsi
ini membahas satu permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah bagaimana
Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) dimunculkan melalui karakter-karakter yang
ada dalam novel karya Khaled Hosseini yang berjudul The Kite Runner.
Metode yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah studi pustaka. Sumber
utamanya adalah novel The Kite Runner. Sumber-sumber pendukung lainnya
adalah buku, penelitian, dan artikel tentang teori pendekatan sosio-kultural,
tinjauan mengenai kondisi sosial politik di Afghanistan, dan tinjauan mengenai
Pashtunwali.
Hasil dari penelitian ini mengungkapkan konsep Pashtunwali yang terus
dibawa oleh orang-orang Pashtun selama hidup mereka. Tokoh-tokoh dalam The
Kite Runner mempraktekkan konsep Pashtunwali dimanapun dan kapanpun
mereka berada. Terdapat tiga kode Pashtun yang muncul dalam novel ini, yaitu
ghayrat dan nang (keberanian), melmastia (kemurahan), dan purdah dan namus
(perbedaan gender). Novel ini mengangkat tiga latar belakang tempat dan waktu
yang berbeda. Konsep Pashtunwali muncul dalam tiga latar belakang tersebut.
Latar belakang yang pertama adalah di Afghanistan ketika kekuasaan monarki
Afghanistan diruntuhkan. Amir dan ayahnya hidup bahagia di rumah mewah
mereka pada masa ini. Amir menunjukkan keberaniannya dengan mengikuti
kompetisi layang-layang. Ayah Amir, Baba, menunjukkan kemurahan hatinya
dengan membantu orang-orang yang membutuhkan. Latar belakang yang kedua
adalah di Amerika Serikat ketika rakyat Afghanistan berada di pengungsian. Pada
masa ini, Baba dan Amir mengungsi ke Fremont, California untuk menghindari
perang di Afghanistan. Sebuah keluarga Pashtun membantu Baba ketika dia
sedang sakit. Istri Amir juga harus berjuang menghadapi perbedaan gender dalam
masyarakat Pashtun karena dia dianggap sebagai wanita yang tidak hormat. Latar
belakang yang ketiga adalah di Afghanistan ketika rezim Taliban berkuasa. Amir
kembali ke Afghanistan untuk menebus kesalahan masa lalunya terhadap Hassan,
saudara tirinya, dengan mencari Sohrab, anak Hassan. Baba, Amir, dan Hassan
menunjukkan keberanian merekan dalam menjaga kehormatan seorang Pashtun
dengan mengorbankan nyawa mereka sendiri. Beberapa keluarga Pashtun
membantu dan menunjukkan kemurahan mereka dengan menjamu Amir dengan
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makanan terbaik dan melindungi Amir selama perjalanan Amir menyelamatkan
Sohrab.
Kata kunci : Pashtunwali, Afghanistan, The Kite Runner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to extend my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His
blessing during my thesis writing process. He gives me strength when I am down,
lazy, and confused. He gives me hope and spirit to keep moving on. I believe all
that happened in my life might only happen in His permission.
I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Henny
Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum., who has given me suggestions and carefully read my
thesis. Consequently, I am more careful to the small things which have big
influence in my thesis. I am so grateful for her patience, support, and advice from
the beginning until the end of my thesis accomplishment.
My next gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Bapak Paulus Tumin and
Ibu Theresia Mardiyati, for their greatest support, love, affection, and prayer
that they have poured me during these many years. My parents are my spirits that
always remind me to be strong. I beg forgiveness for making both of you worried
about my thesis and for spending long time to finish it.
My sincerely gratitude goes to Marselinus Yuni Fitriyadi, who gives me
advice, support, and care. He always reminds me to make up and finish my thesis.
He is willing to accompany me overcome my problems in writing this thesis. I
thank Vincentia Aurellea Christabel Putrianindhita for her smile which always
makes me strong in struggling my hard times.
My next gratitude is expressed to my beloved sisters and friends, Mbak
Nie, Mbak Phi, Mbak Dwi, Adria, Yuli, Om Eko, and Aunty Vena, who have
given their support. They always remind me to work on my thesis. They always
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entertain me when I am sad. I am happy and proud of having sisters and friends
like them.
The last but not least I would like to extend my gratitude to all PBI
lectures in Sanata Dharma University English Study Program for teaching
and sharing their knowledge. They have given big contribution for me to enrich
my knowledge in mastering English.
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE………………………………………………………….....
Page
i
APPROVAL PAGES………………………………………………….....
ii
DEDICATION PAGE………………………..………………………….
iv
STATEMENT OF WORKS ORIGINALITY ………………………...
v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI…………………………
vi
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………
vii
ABSTRAK………………………………………………………………...
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………...
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………….
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………...
xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION……………………………………….
1
A. Background of the Study……………………………………………..
1
B. Problem Formulation……………………………………………........
4
C. Objective of the Study……………………………………………......
4
D. Benefits of the Study…………………………………………………
5
E. Definitions of Terms…………………………………………………
5
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………
7
A. Sociocultural-historical Approach to Literature………………...........
7
B. Review on Afghanistan Culture…………………………………........
8
1. Afghanistan Sociopolitical Condition around 1963-2002………..
8
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978) ………………………………
8
b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ……………………………………………………
9
c. The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001) ………………..
10
2. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)………… …………………..
11
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a. Ghayrat and nang (chivalry)……………………………….......
12
b. Melmastia (hospitality)………………………………………...
13
c. Purdah and namus (gender boundaries)………………….........
14
d. Jirga (council)………………………………………………….
16
C. Theoretical Framework………………………………………............
17
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY……………………………………..
18
A. Subject Matter of the Study…………………………………………..
18
B. Approach of the Study………………………………………………..
19
C. Method of the Study………………………………………………….
19
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS……………………………………………
21
A. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) Seen in the Novel……………...
21
1. Ghayrat and nang (chivalry/ bravery)…………………………….
22
a. Honorable action in battle…………………………………….
22
1) The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him (1963-1978)………………….
22
2) The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)……………
24
b. Proper defense of honor ………………………………….......
28
1) The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………..
28
2) The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)………........
30
2. Melmastia (hospitality)…………………………………………...
32
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………...................
33
b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ………………………………….........................
35
c. The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)……….............
37
3. Namus and purdah (gender boundaries)………………………….
40
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………...................
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b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ………………………………………………….
4. Jirga (council)………………………………………………….
42
45
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS……………...
46
A. Conclusion…………………………………………………………….
46
B. Suggestion……………………………………………………………..
50
1. Suggestion for Future Researchers………………………………...
50
2. Suggestion for the Implementation of Using the Novel in
Teaching English……………………………………………….....
51
REFERENCES………………………………………………………......
52
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………
54
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
APPENDIX 1 Summary of the Novel…………………………………….
54
APPENDIX 2 Biography…………………………………………………
59
APPENDIX 3 Syllabus of Basic Reading I…………………………..…..
65
APPENDIX 4 Lesson Plan………………………………………………..
68
APPENDIX 5 Material for Basic Reading I……………………………...
70
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of five elements. Those are background of the study,
problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition
of terms. The background of the study presents the reasons for choosing the topic
and the needs for analyzing it. The problem formulation formulates general
descriptions of question dealing with the major theme which would be analyzed in
this study. The objectives of the study state the purpose of the study undertaken in
relation to the problem formulation. The benefits of the study identify which
parties will benefit from the conducted study. The last element is definition of
terms. In this part, some key words used in this study are elaborated based on
valid references in order to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpreting.
A.
Background of the Study
Literature is a kind of art which deals with human experiences in life.
According to Hudson (1910), in his book An Introduction To The Study of
Literature, “Literature is a vital record of what men have seen in life, what they
have experience of it, what they have thought and felt about those aspect of it
which have the most immediate and enduring interest for all of us” (p. 10). Work
in literature is called literary work. Most of literary works represent the reality of
human life. Through a literary work, authors can manifest the situation around
them when they are writing it. One of the results of literary works is a novel.
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2
According to Bressler (1999), a novel as a work of literature is a text whose
certain qualities contain some elements, such as plot, character, tone, symbol,
conflict, that often represents the author’s life and has major action to teach good
values and clearly to entertain the readers (p. 10). The condition of the author and
society surrounds the author when a novel is written plays an important role in its
production. As Hudson (1910) says in his book An Introduction To The Study of
Literature, ”We are strongly impelled to confide to others what we think and feel;
hence the literature which directly expresses the thoughts and feelings of the
writer” (p. 11).
It can be seen also in Khaled Hosseini’s novel entitled The Kite Runner.
The Kite Runner is an international bestseller novel, published in forty countries.
It portrays Afghans and Afghan culture. Hosseini offers a lesson on his culture
and the history of his beloved homeland through this novel. The novel represents
the fragile relationship between fathers and sons, humans and their gods, and men
and their countries. It also explores the relationship between two young boys from
different ethnic group in Afghanistan, namely Pashtuns and Hazara, which bring
their own group’s characteristics and customs. However, the major character on
the novel is the Pashtuns. As Hosseini states in his novel The Kite Runner,
“Afghans cherish custom but abhor rules” (p. 56). Pashtuns also tie tightly to their
custom, namely Pashtunwali.
Kakar (2009) explained that Pashtunwali or ‘the way of Pashtuns’ deals
with honor which is really crucial to Pashtuns. Without honor, he or she is no
longer considered a Pashtun, and is not given the rights, protection, and support of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3
the Pashtuns community (p.3). Due to the customs, Pashtuns will always obey
Pashtunwali wherever and whenever they are. As the story goes, the major
characters will move to the United States after the Russian army invasion to
Afghanistan in 1981. However, the characters, who are Pashtuns, cherish
Pashtunwali in their new social life.
In brief, this novel is about a Pashtun named Amir and his childhood
choice which then affect his action in his adulthood. The story begins with Amir’s
close friendship with Hassan, the son of his father’s servant and his half-brother. It
is a story of betrayal and redemption which also portrays Afghans and
Afghanistan’s customs and traditions. The novel is set in Afghanistan from the
fall of Afghanistan's monarchy through the Soviet invasion (1970s to 1981), then
in the Afghan community in Fremont, California (1980s to the early 2000s), and
finally in Afghanistan during the Taliban regime.
This novel also tells about kite championship in Afghanistan. The kite
symbolizes a Pashtun’s honor which should always be placed in the highest
position. The boy whose kite successfully defeats other kites will not get any
money or prize. However, his name will be remembered by all boys in Kabul as
the kite championship’s winner. He will be called an honorable kite flyer among
Pashtun boys. His honor will also be raised, so that the other Pashtun boys will
respect him.
The story is interesting for the writer since she can learn one of
Afghanistan culture called kite championship. This culture then was disturbed
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4
when the Taliban regime came to Afghanistan. She also learn some of
Afghanistan’s customs and traditions from the novel.
The second reason is that this novel really reflects the frightening condition
during Taliban regime. This novel has opened people’s mind of war and its effect
for the civil people. The readers can see people’s sufferings because of the war.
However, Afghans still keep their customs and traditions in their mind although
they should move to another country to avoid the war. The last important point is
that Afghans described in the novel stay to keep in track with their tradition. They
do not forget it. That is why the writer wants to conduct this study in order to
convey the messages delivered by the author.
B.
Problem Formulation
There is one major question that the writer is going to deal with related to
the topic of the study. The question is:
How is Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) described in Khaled Hosseini’s The
Kite Runner?
C.
Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to analyze one of Afghans traditions called
Pashtunwali. Therefore, there is one question needs to be answered in this study.
The question is to describe various Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) that are
seen in the novel.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
D.
5
Benefits of the Study
The first benefit goes to the general readers. Hopefully, this study would
help the readers know the effect of war. This novel portrays situation beyond a
war which may influence the readers to avoid war.
The second benefit goes to English teacher candidates. There are many
interesting topics to discuss from this novel. It is hoped that this study will help
English teachers’ candidate especially from English Education Study Program in
Sanata Dharma University in formulating teaching materials for reading skills.
The third benefit is for other researchers who are planning to conduct other
studies on literary works. There are some theory and review about culture and
history of Afghanistan in this study. Hopefully, this study would be useful for
them in providing helpful and relevance resource for their researches.
Finally, for the writer, conducting this study and analyzing this novel teach
the writer to struggle with her life. It helps her to respect life better. It teaches her
that each country, even each ethnic group, has its own unique cultural
characteristic which can be extinct because of war.
E.
Definition of Terms
Clarifying the important terms related to the study is obviously needed in
order to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpreting. Some related terms used in
this study are Pashtun tribe, codes, and Pashtunwali. Those terms are defined and
presented as follows:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1.
6
Pashtun tribe
History of The Mohamedan Power in India explained Pashtun tribe as an
Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistic group with population primarily in Afghanistan
and in the North-West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. The Pashtuns are typically characterized
by their usage of the Pashto language and practice of Pashtunwali, which is an
ancient traditional code of conduct and honor. In this study, Pashtun tribe is
described as the biggest group of people in Afghanistan which have their own
laws and behaviors.
2.
Code
Referring to The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, code is described as a systematic collection of regulations and rules of
procedure or conduct. In this study, code can be defined as a set of rules that is
inherited and still exist nowadays.
3.
Pashtunwali
Based on the explanation given by Contemporary South Asia Journal,
Pashtunwali is a concept of living or philosophy for the Pashtun people and is
regarded as an honor code and a non-written law for the people. In this study,
Pashtunwali refers to an unwritten law and ideology of the Pashtun society
inherited from their forefathers that still influences most of Afghans.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter contains all review of related literature used in this thesis. It
consists of two parts, namely Review of Related Theories and Theoretical
Framework. Review of Related Theories presents the literature theories which
related with the problem formulation. They are Theory of Critical Approaches in
Literature and Review on Afghanistan’s Culture. Theoretical Framework explains
the contribution of the theories given and how to apply it in this study.
A.
Sociocultural-historical Approach to Literature
Knowing and understanding critical approaches are very important to give
responses to the literary work. Critical approach will help the writer to analyze the
literary work. This study is going to apply sociocultural-historical approach as the
best approach to conduct the study.
The sociocultural-historical approach is an approach which focuses on the
civilization and its effect to the society and culture. This approach asserts the
analysis of social, cultural, and historical background as references to the further
understanding of the story. The sociocultural-historical background where the
author lives influences his thinking and feeling in expressing his ideas in his
masterpiece.
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8
B.
Review on Afghanistan’s Culture
1.
Afghanistan Sociopolitical Condition around 1963 - 2002
a.
The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that
overthrew him (1963-1978)
Shahrani (1996) has written the history of King Zahir Shah and his
monarchy government in Afghanistan. After nine month of rule by a non-Pashtun
(Emir Habibullah II), the member of the musahiban family of the Barakzai clan,
Muhammad Nadir (1929-1933), reclaimed the monarchy. Following Nadir’s
assassination, his son of nineteen, Muhammad Zahir (1933-1973), became king.
From 1933 to 1963, Zahir reigned while two of his uncles and a cousin
ruled as prime ministers. Concerned primarily with preserving their family’s
position, the musahiban adapted a cautious approach toward modernization, with
highly autocratic domestic and xenophobic foreign policies until about 1935.
During Sardar (Prince) Muhammad Daud’s term as prime minister (1953-1963),
with substantial military and economic aid, initially from the Soviet Union and
later from the West, a series of five-year modernization plans was begun, focusing
on the expansion of educational and communications systems. In 1963, Daud
resigned because of disagreements over his hostile policies toward Pakistan and
his favoring of greater dependant on the Soviet Union. King Zahir then appointed
Dr. Mohammad Yusuf, a commoner, as prime minister.
King Zahir’s last decade (1963-1973) was period of experimentation in
democracy, which failed - mostly due to his reluctance to sign legislation
legalizing political parties and his unwillingness to curb interference in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9
democratic processes by his family and friends. The Communist party and
Islamist opposition movement were formed during this period; they agitated
against both the government and each other. In July 1973, Daud, the former prime
minister (and king’s cousin and brother-in-law), overthrew the monarchy with
assistance from the pro-Soviet Parcham wing of the Communist party in a military
coup, to become the president of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973-1978). Daud
returned autocratic rule and persecuted his perceived enemies, especially members
of the Islamist movements. He relied heavily on his old networks and began to
distance himself from the pro-Soviet communists whom he had protected and
nurtured. In an environment of growing discontent, in April 1978, a communist
coup ousted and killed Daud (p. 44).
b.
Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (19812001)
Margesson (2007) has explained the reason behind Afghans’ political
asylum and its impact for the world. Afghans began fleeing their country in April
1978, when the Marxist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),
overthrew the government of Muhammad Daoud (who had himself seized power
from his cousin Afghan king Zahir Shah in a bloodless coup in 1973). The trickle
of refugees accelerated when the Soviet Union invaded in December 1979,
ostensibly to restore order to the country as the PDPA became increasingly
splintered. According to Kakar (1995), while political infighting was certainly a
problem, some observers also noted that Afghanistan’s leadership had begun
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10
irking Moscow by making decisions without Soviet approval. The Soviet attempt
to subjugate the Afghans was at times particularly brutal, including the alleged use
of torture and collective punishment (p. 1). Turton (2002) proved that by the
beginning of 1981, some 3.7 million refugees had fled to Iran and Pakistan (p.
11).
Smaller numbers of refugees continued to flee Afghanistan for the next
decade, as the Soviets fought an insurgency mounted by a loosely allied group of
mujahideen, or holy warriors. In 1988, the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw from
Afghanistan, and UNHCR and the international assistance community prepared
for the massive repatriation of the refugees. Large-scale returns did not begin until
1992, however, when the Soviet-installed leader Najibullah was finally forced
from power. No sooner had some million and a half refugees returned, however,
than Kabul descended into armed disorder as various mujahideen factions began
fighting for control of the capital and the surrounding area. A new wave of people
was displaced (possibly up to a million), a majority of whom remained within
Afghanistan’s borders as internally displaced people (IDPs) (p. 2).
c.
The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)
Katzman (2011) has written the history on Taliban Afghanistan and
governance system in his journal. It was said that in 1993-1994, Afghan Islamic
clerics and students, mostly of rural, Pashtun origin, formed the Taliban
movement. Many were former mujahideen who had become disillusioned with
conflict among mujahideen parties and had moved into Pakistan to study in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
11
Islamic seminaries (“madrassas”) mainly of the “Deobandi” school of Islam.
Taliban practices were also consonant with conservative Pashtun tribal traditions.
The Taliban viewed the Rabbani government as corrupt and anti-Pashtun,
and the four years of civil war (1992-1996) created popular support for the
Taliban as able to deliver stability. With the help of defections, the Taliban
peacefully took control of the southern city of Qandahar in November 1994. By
February 1995, it was approaching Kabul, after which an 18-month stalemate
ensued. In September 1995, the Taliban captured Herat province, bordering Iran,
and imprisoned its governor, Ismail Khan, ally of Rabbani and Masud, who later
escaped and took refugee in Iran. In September 1996, new Taliban victories near
Kabul led to the withdrawal of the Rabbani and Masud to the Panjshir Valley
north of Kabul with most of their heavy weapons; the Taliban took control of
Kabul on September 27, 1996. Taliban gunmen subsequently entered a U.N.
facility in Kabul to seize Najibullah, his brother, and aides, and then hanged them
(p. 5).
2.
Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)
According to Kakar (2009) on his research entitled Tribal Law of
Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority, Pashtunwali, “the way of the
Pashtuns,” is integral to Pashtun identity. By adhering to Pashtunwali a Pashtun
possesses honor (izzat); without honor s/he is no longer considered a Pashtun, and
is not given the rights, protection, and support of the Pashtun community.
Pashtunwali’s honor-based society is governed by the concepts of bravery or
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12
chivalry (ghayrat or nang), hospitality (melmastia), gender boundaries (purdah or
namus) and council (jirga).
a.
Ghayrat and Nang (chivalry)
Chivalry is defined by two sets of normative practices: honorable actions
in battle and proper defense of honor. Norms of battle include rules about who
may be attacked, e.g., not civilians, or the proper distribution of war spoils. Honor
is given to those who e.g. show fighting skills. It is not unusual for women to
engage in combat, although more often their role is to support the male fighters by
displaying their head shawl (poranai) to spur on the fight. They also spurn
dishonorable fighters and reward honorable fighters, which distinction is
determined differently depending on the community. The social organization of
nang and qalang creates, for example, different kinds of honorable fighters.
Among the former, where there is more social and economic equality, all warriors
who participate equally in the fighting are ipso facto honorable. Among the
qalang groups, on the other hand, being an honorable fighter depends on one’s
social and economic class: the khans are the warlords commanding the group and
are considered on a par with the nang warriors participating in raids.
The second form of chivalrous norms involves the defense of honor
against shame by another person. An accusatory insult, act, or condition that
offends the Pashtunwali norm and shames a Pashtun, requires a defense of honor.
This defense “requires a show of superior force by the insulted person.” The norm
of defense of honor is badal, or revenge, and as long as the revenge is not
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13
excessive the council does not interfere. Since “for every man killed the code
demands compensatory badal,” Ahmed suggests that badal may even be a
deterrent in homicidal tendencies.
b.
Melmastia (hospitality)
A Pashtun’s honor is buttressed by hospitality in that it increases the
number of social networks s/he has access to. The larger the social network, the
more legislative authority a Pashtun will have. Hospitality includes the feeding of
strangers and friends, both in guest house and in the home, gift-giving, and
defending the guest. In men’s social networks hospitality has become more
institutionalized among the qalang Pashtuns, where every village leader has a
men’s guest house (hujra) in which guests are entertained and housed and the men
of the village eat together. The defense of a guest comes under the norm of
nanawati (literally: to enter into the security of a house).
The guest is protected and his enemies repelled for as long as he stays.
Under the norm of nanawati the guest can also ask for a revenge-conflict to stop.
Women often will go to the house of their family’s feuding enemy and ask for the
conflict to stop, whereupon the host must accept. By the same token, a woman can
“call out” (nariqawal) the man she wants to marry, when she is being married to
another against her wishes, by presenting herself as a guest in the house of the
man she wishes to marry. He is obliged to marry her and settle the matter with her
father, though she loses face by resorting to this tactic. If her father disagrees, it
can lead to a revenge cycle.
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c.
14
Purdah and Namus (gender boundaries)
Namus can be defined as that which is defended for honor to be upheld,
instead of acted upon to achieve honor (such as hospitality). If someone offends
the rules of the gendered order, then there is reason to act in defense of one’s
namus. Namus is thus an important institution for maintaining the gender
segregated order of the society, which is often called purdah, Urdu for “veil,” the
veil or a curtain often being the boundary between men and women’s physical
space.
In Pashtu expressions it is recommended that both men and women
conceptually apply purdah, and doing so is a sign of dignity for both men and
women. Despite its applying to both genders, however, anthropologists have
found that Pashtuns commonly identify namus as “defense of the honor of
women,” and men often think of purdah as a way of controlling women, even
though it also controls men. In other words, men are as bound by the rules of
namus, and are thus as restricted from stepping into space reserved for women as
women are from entry into men’s space. For example, if a man who is unrelated to
any of the women present walks into a woman’s compound, especially among the
qalang landowning class, he will be beaten, accused of dishonor, and even
perhaps expelled from the community.
The boundaries of purdah vary among the Pashtun, differing also between
the nang and qalang groups. There is a full spectrum of variance on where the
boundaries lie between men’s and women’s space. On one end are the Kuchi
nomads, where women do not veil in public and are often left to care for the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15
household while the men are out shepherding the flocks for days and weeks.
When a male guest comes, he often sits separately with the men, especially
separate from the young unmarried women of the family. In the middle of the
spectrum are the nang groups who are semi-pastoral and semi-agriculturist,
changing with the seasons. Women partially cover their faces when they leave the
house or out of respect for elders. They visit within the neighborhood, but men
and women have separate visiting quarters. Still, a male family friend might visit
with the married women and female heads of the household. On the extreme
opposite end are the qalang groups, where only elderly women and female
children are allowed to leave the household compound without being completely
veiled, especially among the large landowning classes of Khans. Physical space is
highly segregated compared to the other groups and only the elderly, men and
women, as well as male and female children are allowed to move freely between
the highly segregated spaces. A daughter-in-law must cover her face for her
father-in-law and brother-in-law and these men must be careful to give ample
warning when about to walk through the women’s space of their own compound.
Extreme purdah can lead to many restrictions for women but segregated spaces
also allow for freedom from male interference. The negative impact of extreme
purdah can lead, however, to women being barred from education and health care.
Purdah prevents women from going on journeys alone. Gender boundaries tend to
be much stricter when families live mostly among strangers rather than relatives,
as those who moved to the cities do. This can be observed most acutely in refugee
camps for the internally displaced as well as refugee camps in Pakistan and Iran,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16
where women who do not usually wear a boghra in their village will wear it in the
refugee setting. One such example, similar to Pashtunwali’s gender boundaries, is
the classical Greek period in Athens, where free women were “secluded” and only
men who were related to them could visit them. However, “some women were
even too modest to be seen by men who were relatives, and for a strange man to
intrude upon a free woman in the house of another man was tantamount to a
criminal act.” Urban and qalang practices of Pashtunwali could have been
influenced by the cultures in their region that had urbanized and become
agriculturalist before the Pashtuns.
d.
Jirga (council)
The council, organized by Pashtuns on the village and regional levels, is
the legislative authority in Pashtunwali. The councils decide matters by consensus
and their decisions are binding on the parties involved. Pashtuns who sit on the
council must be known for their honor, which means that they must practice
Pashtunwali to the letter. In the qalang areas, council members belong to the
landowning elite and must have wealth as well as a reputation of honor in order
for their decisions to be authoritative.
If the honor of the council members is not at stake, this can lead to an
imbalance of power and thus the abuse of power.
More often than not the
councils are composed exclusively of men, called “elders,” although women have
been known to participate. However, most decisions made by the council involve
arbitration of contracts concerning objects that are mainly owned by men, such as
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
17
money, water, and land. Rarely is a woman’s fate decided at a council unless her
marriage is made a part of the solution to a conflict. At this point the jirga usurps
the rights of the woman and the power of women’s networks and makes them a
component of solving a conflict among men.
C.
Theoretical Framework
This study focuses on the discussion on one of Afghanistan’s tradition
called Pashtunwali that appear in the novel. Pashtunwali deals with Pashtuns’
honor. Meanwhile, the evidences on this study will strengthen the idea that
Pashtuns always put their honor on the first line.
This study uses sociocultural-historical approach. The socioculturalhistorical approach is used as the best approach for this study since this approach
focuses on the civilization and its cultural background, such as the relation
between tradition and the people. In this study, this approach is chosen to
understand the relation between Pashtunwali and Pashtuns.
In order to analyze codes of Pashtunwali revealed in the novel, review on
Afghanistan’s sociopolitical condition and Pashtunwali are needed. The review on
Afghanistan’s sociopolitical condition comprises the last days of the monarchy of
Zahir Shah and the regime that overthrew him, political asylum during the Soviet
occupation of Afghanistan, and the Taliban Afghanistan regime. The review on
Pashtunwali includes ghayrat and nang (chivalry), melmastia (hospitality),
purdah and namus (gender boundaries), and jirga (council).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents methodology of this study, which can be divided into
three parts. The first part is subject matter of the study, which describes the novel
and the focus of the analysis in this study. The second part is approach of the
study; where the writer highlights the approach she is going to use in order to
analyze the problem formulation. The last part is the method of the study, which
explains the steps taken in analyzing the novel.
A.
Subject Matter of the Study
The subject matter of this study is a novel entitled The Kite Runner,
written by an Afghan author, Khaled Hosseini. This novel consists of 324 pages
and is divided into 25 chapters. Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner was first
published by Riverhead Books in 2003. The Kite Runner received the South
African Boeke Prize in 2004. It was the first best seller for 2005 in the United
States, according to Nielsen BookScan. It was also voted the Reading Group Book
of the Year for 2006 and 2007 and headed a list of 60 titles submitted by entrants
to the Penguin/ Orange Reading Group prize (UK).
This novel tells about Amir, a young Pashtun boy and his friend, Hasan,
who is a Hazara boy. The story takes place in Afghanistan and United States of
America during the fall of the monarchy in Afghanistan through the Soviet
invasion, the mass exodus of refugees to Pakistan and United States, and the rise
18
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
19
of Taliban regime. This novel also contains many Afghanistan’s cultures which
represent by the characters’ daily activities. One of the Afghanistan’s cultures that
can be seen along the story is the Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali). This
Pashtunwali is really respected by Pashtun people in the novel (Amir, his family,
and his colleagues) although they are moving to United States.
B.
Approach of the Study
In conducting the study, the writer uses the sociocultural-historical
approach to analyze the novel since this study is related social, cultural, and
historical aspects. The sociocultural-historical approach asserts the analysis of
social, cultural, and historical background as references to the further
understanding of the story. The writer uses the sociocultural-historical approach in
order to find out how Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) is revealed in Khaled
Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Rohrberger and Woods Jr. state that the
sociocultural-historical background where the author lives influences his thinking
and feeling in expressing his/ her ideas in his/ her masterpiece.
C.
Method of the Study
Method of study used is a library research. It includes books, references,
and articles to conduct the study. This study uses a novel entitled The Kite Runner
as the primary data. The secondary data are books, journals and researches that
could support in analyzing the novel. Some books, journals, and researches used
are M. Hasan Kakar’s Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
20
Palwasha Kakar’s Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority,
and Rohrberger and Woods’ Reading and Writing about Literature.
There are some steps used in analyzing the novel. The first step is
choosing the novel which would be the object of the study. Here, the novel chosen
was Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. During reading the novel, the writer
found important matters that were interesting to be discussed further. Then, the
writer tried to search about Afghanistan’s cultures and social relationship among
Afghanistan people. The writer focused the study on Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali).
The writer collected those important findings and formulates the problems
to be analyzed in the study. At the next step, the writer looked for the theory and
criticism related to the object of the study from some resources. After collecting
the data, the writer started to analyze the novel to answer the problem formulation.
The writer took some theories and criticism to strengthen the analysis.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter analyzes the answer of the problem formulated in chapter
one. The analysis is various Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) that are seen in
the novel. In answering the question, the writer uses the theories presented in
chapter two.
A. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) Seen in the Novel
This part presents Pashtun tribal codes revealed in the novel. The writer
found the evidences for three codes, which are chivalry, melmastia, and purdah
and namus. In presenting the analysis, the evidences of each code will be divided
into three sections since the story was set in three different socio-political
conditions. The first section comes to the first setting of the story that is the last
days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that overthrew him. The
setting was in Afghanistan during Muhammad Daud as the president. The second
section comes to the second setting of the story that is the political asylum during
the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The setting was in United States of
America in the area of Afghans’ refugees. The third section comes to the third
setting of the story that is the Taliban Afghanistan regime. The setting was in
Afghanistan during the war against communist.
21
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1.
22
Ghayrat and nang (Chivalry/ bravery)
Among Pasthuns, chivalry (bravery) is one of the concepts in governing
Pashtunwali’s honor-based society. Roy (1985) stated that Pashtunwali is seen as
a matter of honor (p. 52), which to a Pashtun is defined by a person’s integrity in
upholding and practicing the concepts that make up Pashtunwali. Without honor,
a Pashtun is no longer considered as a Pashtun, and not given the rights,
protection, and support of the Pashtun community. Honor is given to those who
e.g. show fighting skills. Chivalry (bravery) is defined by two sets of normative
practices, namely honorable action in battle and proper defense of honor.
a.
Honorable action in battle
1)
The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that
ove
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Student Number: 061214121
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Student Number: 061214121
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
i
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
iii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
big effort can make
dreams come true
This thesis is dedicated to
Bapak & Ibu
iv
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
of parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, February 9, 2012
The Writer
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
061214121
v
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama
: Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 061214121
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
AN ANALYSIS OF PASHTUN TRIBAL CODES (PASHTUNWALI)
AS SEEN IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S THE KITE RUNNER
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikan di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 9 Februari 2012
Yang menyatakan,
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
vi
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRACT
Putranti, Fransisca Ika Destia. 2012. An Analysis of Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali) As Seen In Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Yogyakarta:
Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training
and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis discusses the concept of Pashtunwali emerges in a novel
entitled The Kite Runner. This novel is a great novel which tells about the struggle
of Afghans in facing the sociopolitical crisis in Afghanistan. The major character,
Amir, is able to move to another country to avoid the war while other Afghans are
not able to escape from the country.
The objective of the study is to analyze one of Afghans traditions called
Pashtunwali. In order to achieve the objective of the study, there is a research
question analyzed. The question is how is Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)
described in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner?
The method of this study is library research. The primary source is the
novel entitled The Kite Runner. The secondary sources are taken from books,
researches, and articles which discuss sociocultural-historical approach theory,
review on Afghanistan sociopolitical condition, and review on Pashtunwali.
The results of this study reveal the concept of Pashtunwali, which would
be brought along the life of a Pashtun. In The Kite Runner, the characters, who are
Pashtuns, practice Pashtunwali in their daily life whenever and wherever they are.
There are three codes of Pashtuns that appear in the novel, those are ghayrat and
nang (chivalry/ bravery), melmastia (hospitality), and purdah and namus (gender
boundaries). This novel puts three different settings of time and place along the
story. The concept of Pashtunwali emerges in those three settings. The first setting
was in Afghanistan during the last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him where Amir and his father live happily in their
mansion. Amir shows his bravery by joining the kite battle. Amir’s father, Baba,
shows his hospitality by giving other people in need. The second setting happens
in United States of America during the political asylum during the Soviet
occupation of Afghanistan. At this period of time, Baba and Amir move to
Fremont, California, to avoid the war in Afghanistan. A Pashtun family helps
Baba when he is sick. Amir’s wife should struggle with the gender boundaries
among Pashtuns since she was blamed as a dishonorable woman. The third setting
happens in Afghanistan during the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. At this period
of time, Amir gets back to Afghanistan to redeem his past fault towards Hassan,
his half brother, by looking for Sohrab, Hassan’s son. Baba and Hassan show their
bravery in guarding Pashtun’s honor by sacrificing their own life. Some Pashtun
families show their hospitality by serving the best meals and protection toward
Amir while he is in his journey to save Sohrab.
Keywords: Pashtunwali, Afghanistan, The Kite Runner
vii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRAK
Putranti, Fransisca Ika Destia. 2012. An Analysis of Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali) as Seen in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Yogyakarta:
Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan
Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini mengulas tentang konsep Pashtunwali yang muncul dalam
novel berjudul The Kite Runner. Novel ini merupakan novel yang luar biasa yang
menceritakan perjuangan rakyat Afghanistan dalam menghadapi krisis politik di
negara tersebut. Tokoh utama dalam novel ini, Amir, mampu keluar dari
negaranya untuk menghindari perang, sementara lebih banyak orang yang tidak
mampu keluar dari negaranya.
Tujuan dari skripsi ini adalah untuk menganalisa salah satu tradisi di
negara Afghanistan, yaitu Pashtunwali. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, skripsi
ini membahas satu permasalahan. Permasalahan tersebut adalah bagaimana
Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) dimunculkan melalui karakter-karakter yang
ada dalam novel karya Khaled Hosseini yang berjudul The Kite Runner.
Metode yang digunakan dalam studi ini adalah studi pustaka. Sumber
utamanya adalah novel The Kite Runner. Sumber-sumber pendukung lainnya
adalah buku, penelitian, dan artikel tentang teori pendekatan sosio-kultural,
tinjauan mengenai kondisi sosial politik di Afghanistan, dan tinjauan mengenai
Pashtunwali.
Hasil dari penelitian ini mengungkapkan konsep Pashtunwali yang terus
dibawa oleh orang-orang Pashtun selama hidup mereka. Tokoh-tokoh dalam The
Kite Runner mempraktekkan konsep Pashtunwali dimanapun dan kapanpun
mereka berada. Terdapat tiga kode Pashtun yang muncul dalam novel ini, yaitu
ghayrat dan nang (keberanian), melmastia (kemurahan), dan purdah dan namus
(perbedaan gender). Novel ini mengangkat tiga latar belakang tempat dan waktu
yang berbeda. Konsep Pashtunwali muncul dalam tiga latar belakang tersebut.
Latar belakang yang pertama adalah di Afghanistan ketika kekuasaan monarki
Afghanistan diruntuhkan. Amir dan ayahnya hidup bahagia di rumah mewah
mereka pada masa ini. Amir menunjukkan keberaniannya dengan mengikuti
kompetisi layang-layang. Ayah Amir, Baba, menunjukkan kemurahan hatinya
dengan membantu orang-orang yang membutuhkan. Latar belakang yang kedua
adalah di Amerika Serikat ketika rakyat Afghanistan berada di pengungsian. Pada
masa ini, Baba dan Amir mengungsi ke Fremont, California untuk menghindari
perang di Afghanistan. Sebuah keluarga Pashtun membantu Baba ketika dia
sedang sakit. Istri Amir juga harus berjuang menghadapi perbedaan gender dalam
masyarakat Pashtun karena dia dianggap sebagai wanita yang tidak hormat. Latar
belakang yang ketiga adalah di Afghanistan ketika rezim Taliban berkuasa. Amir
kembali ke Afghanistan untuk menebus kesalahan masa lalunya terhadap Hassan,
saudara tirinya, dengan mencari Sohrab, anak Hassan. Baba, Amir, dan Hassan
menunjukkan keberanian merekan dalam menjaga kehormatan seorang Pashtun
dengan mengorbankan nyawa mereka sendiri. Beberapa keluarga Pashtun
membantu dan menunjukkan kemurahan mereka dengan menjamu Amir dengan
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
makanan terbaik dan melindungi Amir selama perjalanan Amir menyelamatkan
Sohrab.
Kata kunci : Pashtunwali, Afghanistan, The Kite Runner
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to extend my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His
blessing during my thesis writing process. He gives me strength when I am down,
lazy, and confused. He gives me hope and spirit to keep moving on. I believe all
that happened in my life might only happen in His permission.
I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Henny
Herawati, S.Pd., M.Hum., who has given me suggestions and carefully read my
thesis. Consequently, I am more careful to the small things which have big
influence in my thesis. I am so grateful for her patience, support, and advice from
the beginning until the end of my thesis accomplishment.
My next gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Bapak Paulus Tumin and
Ibu Theresia Mardiyati, for their greatest support, love, affection, and prayer
that they have poured me during these many years. My parents are my spirits that
always remind me to be strong. I beg forgiveness for making both of you worried
about my thesis and for spending long time to finish it.
My sincerely gratitude goes to Marselinus Yuni Fitriyadi, who gives me
advice, support, and care. He always reminds me to make up and finish my thesis.
He is willing to accompany me overcome my problems in writing this thesis. I
thank Vincentia Aurellea Christabel Putrianindhita for her smile which always
makes me strong in struggling my hard times.
My next gratitude is expressed to my beloved sisters and friends, Mbak
Nie, Mbak Phi, Mbak Dwi, Adria, Yuli, Om Eko, and Aunty Vena, who have
given their support. They always remind me to work on my thesis. They always
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
entertain me when I am sad. I am happy and proud of having sisters and friends
like them.
The last but not least I would like to extend my gratitude to all PBI
lectures in Sanata Dharma University English Study Program for teaching
and sharing their knowledge. They have given big contribution for me to enrich
my knowledge in mastering English.
Fransisca Ika Destia Putranti
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE………………………………………………………….....
Page
i
APPROVAL PAGES………………………………………………….....
ii
DEDICATION PAGE………………………..………………………….
iv
STATEMENT OF WORKS ORIGINALITY ………………………...
v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI…………………………
vi
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………
vii
ABSTRAK………………………………………………………………...
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………...
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………….
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………...
xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION……………………………………….
1
A. Background of the Study……………………………………………..
1
B. Problem Formulation……………………………………………........
4
C. Objective of the Study……………………………………………......
4
D. Benefits of the Study…………………………………………………
5
E. Definitions of Terms…………………………………………………
5
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………
7
A. Sociocultural-historical Approach to Literature………………...........
7
B. Review on Afghanistan Culture…………………………………........
8
1. Afghanistan Sociopolitical Condition around 1963-2002………..
8
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978) ………………………………
8
b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ……………………………………………………
9
c. The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001) ………………..
10
2. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)………… …………………..
11
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
a. Ghayrat and nang (chivalry)……………………………….......
12
b. Melmastia (hospitality)………………………………………...
13
c. Purdah and namus (gender boundaries)………………….........
14
d. Jirga (council)………………………………………………….
16
C. Theoretical Framework………………………………………............
17
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY……………………………………..
18
A. Subject Matter of the Study…………………………………………..
18
B. Approach of the Study………………………………………………..
19
C. Method of the Study………………………………………………….
19
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS……………………………………………
21
A. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) Seen in the Novel……………...
21
1. Ghayrat and nang (chivalry/ bravery)…………………………….
22
a. Honorable action in battle…………………………………….
22
1) The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him (1963-1978)………………….
22
2) The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)……………
24
b. Proper defense of honor ………………………………….......
28
1) The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the
regime that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………..
28
2) The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)………........
30
2. Melmastia (hospitality)…………………………………………...
32
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………...................
33
b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ………………………………….........................
35
c. The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)……….............
37
3. Namus and purdah (gender boundaries)………………………….
40
a. The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime
that overthrew him (1963-1978)…………………...................
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
b. Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan
(1981-2001) ………………………………………………….
4. Jirga (council)………………………………………………….
42
45
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS……………...
46
A. Conclusion…………………………………………………………….
46
B. Suggestion……………………………………………………………..
50
1. Suggestion for Future Researchers………………………………...
50
2. Suggestion for the Implementation of Using the Novel in
Teaching English……………………………………………….....
51
REFERENCES………………………………………………………......
52
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………
54
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
APPENDIX 1 Summary of the Novel…………………………………….
54
APPENDIX 2 Biography…………………………………………………
59
APPENDIX 3 Syllabus of Basic Reading I…………………………..…..
65
APPENDIX 4 Lesson Plan………………………………………………..
68
APPENDIX 5 Material for Basic Reading I……………………………...
70
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of five elements. Those are background of the study,
problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition
of terms. The background of the study presents the reasons for choosing the topic
and the needs for analyzing it. The problem formulation formulates general
descriptions of question dealing with the major theme which would be analyzed in
this study. The objectives of the study state the purpose of the study undertaken in
relation to the problem formulation. The benefits of the study identify which
parties will benefit from the conducted study. The last element is definition of
terms. In this part, some key words used in this study are elaborated based on
valid references in order to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpreting.
A.
Background of the Study
Literature is a kind of art which deals with human experiences in life.
According to Hudson (1910), in his book An Introduction To The Study of
Literature, “Literature is a vital record of what men have seen in life, what they
have experience of it, what they have thought and felt about those aspect of it
which have the most immediate and enduring interest for all of us” (p. 10). Work
in literature is called literary work. Most of literary works represent the reality of
human life. Through a literary work, authors can manifest the situation around
them when they are writing it. One of the results of literary works is a novel.
1
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2
According to Bressler (1999), a novel as a work of literature is a text whose
certain qualities contain some elements, such as plot, character, tone, symbol,
conflict, that often represents the author’s life and has major action to teach good
values and clearly to entertain the readers (p. 10). The condition of the author and
society surrounds the author when a novel is written plays an important role in its
production. As Hudson (1910) says in his book An Introduction To The Study of
Literature, ”We are strongly impelled to confide to others what we think and feel;
hence the literature which directly expresses the thoughts and feelings of the
writer” (p. 11).
It can be seen also in Khaled Hosseini’s novel entitled The Kite Runner.
The Kite Runner is an international bestseller novel, published in forty countries.
It portrays Afghans and Afghan culture. Hosseini offers a lesson on his culture
and the history of his beloved homeland through this novel. The novel represents
the fragile relationship between fathers and sons, humans and their gods, and men
and their countries. It also explores the relationship between two young boys from
different ethnic group in Afghanistan, namely Pashtuns and Hazara, which bring
their own group’s characteristics and customs. However, the major character on
the novel is the Pashtuns. As Hosseini states in his novel The Kite Runner,
“Afghans cherish custom but abhor rules” (p. 56). Pashtuns also tie tightly to their
custom, namely Pashtunwali.
Kakar (2009) explained that Pashtunwali or ‘the way of Pashtuns’ deals
with honor which is really crucial to Pashtuns. Without honor, he or she is no
longer considered a Pashtun, and is not given the rights, protection, and support of
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3
the Pashtuns community (p.3). Due to the customs, Pashtuns will always obey
Pashtunwali wherever and whenever they are. As the story goes, the major
characters will move to the United States after the Russian army invasion to
Afghanistan in 1981. However, the characters, who are Pashtuns, cherish
Pashtunwali in their new social life.
In brief, this novel is about a Pashtun named Amir and his childhood
choice which then affect his action in his adulthood. The story begins with Amir’s
close friendship with Hassan, the son of his father’s servant and his half-brother. It
is a story of betrayal and redemption which also portrays Afghans and
Afghanistan’s customs and traditions. The novel is set in Afghanistan from the
fall of Afghanistan's monarchy through the Soviet invasion (1970s to 1981), then
in the Afghan community in Fremont, California (1980s to the early 2000s), and
finally in Afghanistan during the Taliban regime.
This novel also tells about kite championship in Afghanistan. The kite
symbolizes a Pashtun’s honor which should always be placed in the highest
position. The boy whose kite successfully defeats other kites will not get any
money or prize. However, his name will be remembered by all boys in Kabul as
the kite championship’s winner. He will be called an honorable kite flyer among
Pashtun boys. His honor will also be raised, so that the other Pashtun boys will
respect him.
The story is interesting for the writer since she can learn one of
Afghanistan culture called kite championship. This culture then was disturbed
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4
when the Taliban regime came to Afghanistan. She also learn some of
Afghanistan’s customs and traditions from the novel.
The second reason is that this novel really reflects the frightening condition
during Taliban regime. This novel has opened people’s mind of war and its effect
for the civil people. The readers can see people’s sufferings because of the war.
However, Afghans still keep their customs and traditions in their mind although
they should move to another country to avoid the war. The last important point is
that Afghans described in the novel stay to keep in track with their tradition. They
do not forget it. That is why the writer wants to conduct this study in order to
convey the messages delivered by the author.
B.
Problem Formulation
There is one major question that the writer is going to deal with related to
the topic of the study. The question is:
How is Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) described in Khaled Hosseini’s The
Kite Runner?
C.
Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to analyze one of Afghans traditions called
Pashtunwali. Therefore, there is one question needs to be answered in this study.
The question is to describe various Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) that are
seen in the novel.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
D.
5
Benefits of the Study
The first benefit goes to the general readers. Hopefully, this study would
help the readers know the effect of war. This novel portrays situation beyond a
war which may influence the readers to avoid war.
The second benefit goes to English teacher candidates. There are many
interesting topics to discuss from this novel. It is hoped that this study will help
English teachers’ candidate especially from English Education Study Program in
Sanata Dharma University in formulating teaching materials for reading skills.
The third benefit is for other researchers who are planning to conduct other
studies on literary works. There are some theory and review about culture and
history of Afghanistan in this study. Hopefully, this study would be useful for
them in providing helpful and relevance resource for their researches.
Finally, for the writer, conducting this study and analyzing this novel teach
the writer to struggle with her life. It helps her to respect life better. It teaches her
that each country, even each ethnic group, has its own unique cultural
characteristic which can be extinct because of war.
E.
Definition of Terms
Clarifying the important terms related to the study is obviously needed in
order to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpreting. Some related terms used in
this study are Pashtun tribe, codes, and Pashtunwali. Those terms are defined and
presented as follows:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
1.
6
Pashtun tribe
History of The Mohamedan Power in India explained Pashtun tribe as an
Eastern Iranian ethno-linguistic group with population primarily in Afghanistan
and in the North-West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas
and Balochistan provinces of Pakistan. The Pashtuns are typically characterized
by their usage of the Pashto language and practice of Pashtunwali, which is an
ancient traditional code of conduct and honor. In this study, Pashtun tribe is
described as the biggest group of people in Afghanistan which have their own
laws and behaviors.
2.
Code
Referring to The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English
Language, code is described as a systematic collection of regulations and rules of
procedure or conduct. In this study, code can be defined as a set of rules that is
inherited and still exist nowadays.
3.
Pashtunwali
Based on the explanation given by Contemporary South Asia Journal,
Pashtunwali is a concept of living or philosophy for the Pashtun people and is
regarded as an honor code and a non-written law for the people. In this study,
Pashtunwali refers to an unwritten law and ideology of the Pashtun society
inherited from their forefathers that still influences most of Afghans.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter contains all review of related literature used in this thesis. It
consists of two parts, namely Review of Related Theories and Theoretical
Framework. Review of Related Theories presents the literature theories which
related with the problem formulation. They are Theory of Critical Approaches in
Literature and Review on Afghanistan’s Culture. Theoretical Framework explains
the contribution of the theories given and how to apply it in this study.
A.
Sociocultural-historical Approach to Literature
Knowing and understanding critical approaches are very important to give
responses to the literary work. Critical approach will help the writer to analyze the
literary work. This study is going to apply sociocultural-historical approach as the
best approach to conduct the study.
The sociocultural-historical approach is an approach which focuses on the
civilization and its effect to the society and culture. This approach asserts the
analysis of social, cultural, and historical background as references to the further
understanding of the story. The sociocultural-historical background where the
author lives influences his thinking and feeling in expressing his ideas in his
masterpiece.
7
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8
B.
Review on Afghanistan’s Culture
1.
Afghanistan Sociopolitical Condition around 1963 - 2002
a.
The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that
overthrew him (1963-1978)
Shahrani (1996) has written the history of King Zahir Shah and his
monarchy government in Afghanistan. After nine month of rule by a non-Pashtun
(Emir Habibullah II), the member of the musahiban family of the Barakzai clan,
Muhammad Nadir (1929-1933), reclaimed the monarchy. Following Nadir’s
assassination, his son of nineteen, Muhammad Zahir (1933-1973), became king.
From 1933 to 1963, Zahir reigned while two of his uncles and a cousin
ruled as prime ministers. Concerned primarily with preserving their family’s
position, the musahiban adapted a cautious approach toward modernization, with
highly autocratic domestic and xenophobic foreign policies until about 1935.
During Sardar (Prince) Muhammad Daud’s term as prime minister (1953-1963),
with substantial military and economic aid, initially from the Soviet Union and
later from the West, a series of five-year modernization plans was begun, focusing
on the expansion of educational and communications systems. In 1963, Daud
resigned because of disagreements over his hostile policies toward Pakistan and
his favoring of greater dependant on the Soviet Union. King Zahir then appointed
Dr. Mohammad Yusuf, a commoner, as prime minister.
King Zahir’s last decade (1963-1973) was period of experimentation in
democracy, which failed - mostly due to his reluctance to sign legislation
legalizing political parties and his unwillingness to curb interference in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9
democratic processes by his family and friends. The Communist party and
Islamist opposition movement were formed during this period; they agitated
against both the government and each other. In July 1973, Daud, the former prime
minister (and king’s cousin and brother-in-law), overthrew the monarchy with
assistance from the pro-Soviet Parcham wing of the Communist party in a military
coup, to become the president of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973-1978). Daud
returned autocratic rule and persecuted his perceived enemies, especially members
of the Islamist movements. He relied heavily on his old networks and began to
distance himself from the pro-Soviet communists whom he had protected and
nurtured. In an environment of growing discontent, in April 1978, a communist
coup ousted and killed Daud (p. 44).
b.
Political asylum during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (19812001)
Margesson (2007) has explained the reason behind Afghans’ political
asylum and its impact for the world. Afghans began fleeing their country in April
1978, when the Marxist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),
overthrew the government of Muhammad Daoud (who had himself seized power
from his cousin Afghan king Zahir Shah in a bloodless coup in 1973). The trickle
of refugees accelerated when the Soviet Union invaded in December 1979,
ostensibly to restore order to the country as the PDPA became increasingly
splintered. According to Kakar (1995), while political infighting was certainly a
problem, some observers also noted that Afghanistan’s leadership had begun
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10
irking Moscow by making decisions without Soviet approval. The Soviet attempt
to subjugate the Afghans was at times particularly brutal, including the alleged use
of torture and collective punishment (p. 1). Turton (2002) proved that by the
beginning of 1981, some 3.7 million refugees had fled to Iran and Pakistan (p.
11).
Smaller numbers of refugees continued to flee Afghanistan for the next
decade, as the Soviets fought an insurgency mounted by a loosely allied group of
mujahideen, or holy warriors. In 1988, the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw from
Afghanistan, and UNHCR and the international assistance community prepared
for the massive repatriation of the refugees. Large-scale returns did not begin until
1992, however, when the Soviet-installed leader Najibullah was finally forced
from power. No sooner had some million and a half refugees returned, however,
than Kabul descended into armed disorder as various mujahideen factions began
fighting for control of the capital and the surrounding area. A new wave of people
was displaced (possibly up to a million), a majority of whom remained within
Afghanistan’s borders as internally displaced people (IDPs) (p. 2).
c.
The Taliban Afghanistan regime (1996-2001)
Katzman (2011) has written the history on Taliban Afghanistan and
governance system in his journal. It was said that in 1993-1994, Afghan Islamic
clerics and students, mostly of rural, Pashtun origin, formed the Taliban
movement. Many were former mujahideen who had become disillusioned with
conflict among mujahideen parties and had moved into Pakistan to study in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
11
Islamic seminaries (“madrassas”) mainly of the “Deobandi” school of Islam.
Taliban practices were also consonant with conservative Pashtun tribal traditions.
The Taliban viewed the Rabbani government as corrupt and anti-Pashtun,
and the four years of civil war (1992-1996) created popular support for the
Taliban as able to deliver stability. With the help of defections, the Taliban
peacefully took control of the southern city of Qandahar in November 1994. By
February 1995, it was approaching Kabul, after which an 18-month stalemate
ensued. In September 1995, the Taliban captured Herat province, bordering Iran,
and imprisoned its governor, Ismail Khan, ally of Rabbani and Masud, who later
escaped and took refugee in Iran. In September 1996, new Taliban victories near
Kabul led to the withdrawal of the Rabbani and Masud to the Panjshir Valley
north of Kabul with most of their heavy weapons; the Taliban took control of
Kabul on September 27, 1996. Taliban gunmen subsequently entered a U.N.
facility in Kabul to seize Najibullah, his brother, and aides, and then hanged them
(p. 5).
2.
Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali)
According to Kakar (2009) on his research entitled Tribal Law of
Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority, Pashtunwali, “the way of the
Pashtuns,” is integral to Pashtun identity. By adhering to Pashtunwali a Pashtun
possesses honor (izzat); without honor s/he is no longer considered a Pashtun, and
is not given the rights, protection, and support of the Pashtun community.
Pashtunwali’s honor-based society is governed by the concepts of bravery or
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
12
chivalry (ghayrat or nang), hospitality (melmastia), gender boundaries (purdah or
namus) and council (jirga).
a.
Ghayrat and Nang (chivalry)
Chivalry is defined by two sets of normative practices: honorable actions
in battle and proper defense of honor. Norms of battle include rules about who
may be attacked, e.g., not civilians, or the proper distribution of war spoils. Honor
is given to those who e.g. show fighting skills. It is not unusual for women to
engage in combat, although more often their role is to support the male fighters by
displaying their head shawl (poranai) to spur on the fight. They also spurn
dishonorable fighters and reward honorable fighters, which distinction is
determined differently depending on the community. The social organization of
nang and qalang creates, for example, different kinds of honorable fighters.
Among the former, where there is more social and economic equality, all warriors
who participate equally in the fighting are ipso facto honorable. Among the
qalang groups, on the other hand, being an honorable fighter depends on one’s
social and economic class: the khans are the warlords commanding the group and
are considered on a par with the nang warriors participating in raids.
The second form of chivalrous norms involves the defense of honor
against shame by another person. An accusatory insult, act, or condition that
offends the Pashtunwali norm and shames a Pashtun, requires a defense of honor.
This defense “requires a show of superior force by the insulted person.” The norm
of defense of honor is badal, or revenge, and as long as the revenge is not
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13
excessive the council does not interfere. Since “for every man killed the code
demands compensatory badal,” Ahmed suggests that badal may even be a
deterrent in homicidal tendencies.
b.
Melmastia (hospitality)
A Pashtun’s honor is buttressed by hospitality in that it increases the
number of social networks s/he has access to. The larger the social network, the
more legislative authority a Pashtun will have. Hospitality includes the feeding of
strangers and friends, both in guest house and in the home, gift-giving, and
defending the guest. In men’s social networks hospitality has become more
institutionalized among the qalang Pashtuns, where every village leader has a
men’s guest house (hujra) in which guests are entertained and housed and the men
of the village eat together. The defense of a guest comes under the norm of
nanawati (literally: to enter into the security of a house).
The guest is protected and his enemies repelled for as long as he stays.
Under the norm of nanawati the guest can also ask for a revenge-conflict to stop.
Women often will go to the house of their family’s feuding enemy and ask for the
conflict to stop, whereupon the host must accept. By the same token, a woman can
“call out” (nariqawal) the man she wants to marry, when she is being married to
another against her wishes, by presenting herself as a guest in the house of the
man she wishes to marry. He is obliged to marry her and settle the matter with her
father, though she loses face by resorting to this tactic. If her father disagrees, it
can lead to a revenge cycle.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
c.
14
Purdah and Namus (gender boundaries)
Namus can be defined as that which is defended for honor to be upheld,
instead of acted upon to achieve honor (such as hospitality). If someone offends
the rules of the gendered order, then there is reason to act in defense of one’s
namus. Namus is thus an important institution for maintaining the gender
segregated order of the society, which is often called purdah, Urdu for “veil,” the
veil or a curtain often being the boundary between men and women’s physical
space.
In Pashtu expressions it is recommended that both men and women
conceptually apply purdah, and doing so is a sign of dignity for both men and
women. Despite its applying to both genders, however, anthropologists have
found that Pashtuns commonly identify namus as “defense of the honor of
women,” and men often think of purdah as a way of controlling women, even
though it also controls men. In other words, men are as bound by the rules of
namus, and are thus as restricted from stepping into space reserved for women as
women are from entry into men’s space. For example, if a man who is unrelated to
any of the women present walks into a woman’s compound, especially among the
qalang landowning class, he will be beaten, accused of dishonor, and even
perhaps expelled from the community.
The boundaries of purdah vary among the Pashtun, differing also between
the nang and qalang groups. There is a full spectrum of variance on where the
boundaries lie between men’s and women’s space. On one end are the Kuchi
nomads, where women do not veil in public and are often left to care for the
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household while the men are out shepherding the flocks for days and weeks.
When a male guest comes, he often sits separately with the men, especially
separate from the young unmarried women of the family. In the middle of the
spectrum are the nang groups who are semi-pastoral and semi-agriculturist,
changing with the seasons. Women partially cover their faces when they leave the
house or out of respect for elders. They visit within the neighborhood, but men
and women have separate visiting quarters. Still, a male family friend might visit
with the married women and female heads of the household. On the extreme
opposite end are the qalang groups, where only elderly women and female
children are allowed to leave the household compound without being completely
veiled, especially among the large landowning classes of Khans. Physical space is
highly segregated compared to the other groups and only the elderly, men and
women, as well as male and female children are allowed to move freely between
the highly segregated spaces. A daughter-in-law must cover her face for her
father-in-law and brother-in-law and these men must be careful to give ample
warning when about to walk through the women’s space of their own compound.
Extreme purdah can lead to many restrictions for women but segregated spaces
also allow for freedom from male interference. The negative impact of extreme
purdah can lead, however, to women being barred from education and health care.
Purdah prevents women from going on journeys alone. Gender boundaries tend to
be much stricter when families live mostly among strangers rather than relatives,
as those who moved to the cities do. This can be observed most acutely in refugee
camps for the internally displaced as well as refugee camps in Pakistan and Iran,
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16
where women who do not usually wear a boghra in their village will wear it in the
refugee setting. One such example, similar to Pashtunwali’s gender boundaries, is
the classical Greek period in Athens, where free women were “secluded” and only
men who were related to them could visit them. However, “some women were
even too modest to be seen by men who were relatives, and for a strange man to
intrude upon a free woman in the house of another man was tantamount to a
criminal act.” Urban and qalang practices of Pashtunwali could have been
influenced by the cultures in their region that had urbanized and become
agriculturalist before the Pashtuns.
d.
Jirga (council)
The council, organized by Pashtuns on the village and regional levels, is
the legislative authority in Pashtunwali. The councils decide matters by consensus
and their decisions are binding on the parties involved. Pashtuns who sit on the
council must be known for their honor, which means that they must practice
Pashtunwali to the letter. In the qalang areas, council members belong to the
landowning elite and must have wealth as well as a reputation of honor in order
for their decisions to be authoritative.
If the honor of the council members is not at stake, this can lead to an
imbalance of power and thus the abuse of power.
More often than not the
councils are composed exclusively of men, called “elders,” although women have
been known to participate. However, most decisions made by the council involve
arbitration of contracts concerning objects that are mainly owned by men, such as
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17
money, water, and land. Rarely is a woman’s fate decided at a council unless her
marriage is made a part of the solution to a conflict. At this point the jirga usurps
the rights of the woman and the power of women’s networks and makes them a
component of solving a conflict among men.
C.
Theoretical Framework
This study focuses on the discussion on one of Afghanistan’s tradition
called Pashtunwali that appear in the novel. Pashtunwali deals with Pashtuns’
honor. Meanwhile, the evidences on this study will strengthen the idea that
Pashtuns always put their honor on the first line.
This study uses sociocultural-historical approach. The socioculturalhistorical approach is used as the best approach for this study since this approach
focuses on the civilization and its cultural background, such as the relation
between tradition and the people. In this study, this approach is chosen to
understand the relation between Pashtunwali and Pashtuns.
In order to analyze codes of Pashtunwali revealed in the novel, review on
Afghanistan’s sociopolitical condition and Pashtunwali are needed. The review on
Afghanistan’s sociopolitical condition comprises the last days of the monarchy of
Zahir Shah and the regime that overthrew him, political asylum during the Soviet
occupation of Afghanistan, and the Taliban Afghanistan regime. The review on
Pashtunwali includes ghayrat and nang (chivalry), melmastia (hospitality),
purdah and namus (gender boundaries), and jirga (council).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents methodology of this study, which can be divided into
three parts. The first part is subject matter of the study, which describes the novel
and the focus of the analysis in this study. The second part is approach of the
study; where the writer highlights the approach she is going to use in order to
analyze the problem formulation. The last part is the method of the study, which
explains the steps taken in analyzing the novel.
A.
Subject Matter of the Study
The subject matter of this study is a novel entitled The Kite Runner,
written by an Afghan author, Khaled Hosseini. This novel consists of 324 pages
and is divided into 25 chapters. Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner was first
published by Riverhead Books in 2003. The Kite Runner received the South
African Boeke Prize in 2004. It was the first best seller for 2005 in the United
States, according to Nielsen BookScan. It was also voted the Reading Group Book
of the Year for 2006 and 2007 and headed a list of 60 titles submitted by entrants
to the Penguin/ Orange Reading Group prize (UK).
This novel tells about Amir, a young Pashtun boy and his friend, Hasan,
who is a Hazara boy. The story takes place in Afghanistan and United States of
America during the fall of the monarchy in Afghanistan through the Soviet
invasion, the mass exodus of refugees to Pakistan and United States, and the rise
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19
of Taliban regime. This novel also contains many Afghanistan’s cultures which
represent by the characters’ daily activities. One of the Afghanistan’s cultures that
can be seen along the story is the Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali). This
Pashtunwali is really respected by Pashtun people in the novel (Amir, his family,
and his colleagues) although they are moving to United States.
B.
Approach of the Study
In conducting the study, the writer uses the sociocultural-historical
approach to analyze the novel since this study is related social, cultural, and
historical aspects. The sociocultural-historical approach asserts the analysis of
social, cultural, and historical background as references to the further
understanding of the story. The writer uses the sociocultural-historical approach in
order to find out how Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) is revealed in Khaled
Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. Rohrberger and Woods Jr. state that the
sociocultural-historical background where the author lives influences his thinking
and feeling in expressing his/ her ideas in his/ her masterpiece.
C.
Method of the Study
Method of study used is a library research. It includes books, references,
and articles to conduct the study. This study uses a novel entitled The Kite Runner
as the primary data. The secondary data are books, journals and researches that
could support in analyzing the novel. Some books, journals, and researches used
are M. Hasan Kakar’s Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response,
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Palwasha Kakar’s Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority,
and Rohrberger and Woods’ Reading and Writing about Literature.
There are some steps used in analyzing the novel. The first step is
choosing the novel which would be the object of the study. Here, the novel chosen
was Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. During reading the novel, the writer
found important matters that were interesting to be discussed further. Then, the
writer tried to search about Afghanistan’s cultures and social relationship among
Afghanistan people. The writer focused the study on Pashtun Tribal Codes
(Pashtunwali).
The writer collected those important findings and formulates the problems
to be analyzed in the study. At the next step, the writer looked for the theory and
criticism related to the object of the study from some resources. After collecting
the data, the writer started to analyze the novel to answer the problem formulation.
The writer took some theories and criticism to strengthen the analysis.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This chapter analyzes the answer of the problem formulated in chapter
one. The analysis is various Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) that are seen in
the novel. In answering the question, the writer uses the theories presented in
chapter two.
A. Pashtun Tribal Codes (Pashtunwali) Seen in the Novel
This part presents Pashtun tribal codes revealed in the novel. The writer
found the evidences for three codes, which are chivalry, melmastia, and purdah
and namus. In presenting the analysis, the evidences of each code will be divided
into three sections since the story was set in three different socio-political
conditions. The first section comes to the first setting of the story that is the last
days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that overthrew him. The
setting was in Afghanistan during Muhammad Daud as the president. The second
section comes to the second setting of the story that is the political asylum during
the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The setting was in United States of
America in the area of Afghans’ refugees. The third section comes to the third
setting of the story that is the Taliban Afghanistan regime. The setting was in
Afghanistan during the war against communist.
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1.
22
Ghayrat and nang (Chivalry/ bravery)
Among Pasthuns, chivalry (bravery) is one of the concepts in governing
Pashtunwali’s honor-based society. Roy (1985) stated that Pashtunwali is seen as
a matter of honor (p. 52), which to a Pashtun is defined by a person’s integrity in
upholding and practicing the concepts that make up Pashtunwali. Without honor,
a Pashtun is no longer considered as a Pashtun, and not given the rights,
protection, and support of the Pashtun community. Honor is given to those who
e.g. show fighting skills. Chivalry (bravery) is defined by two sets of normative
practices, namely honorable action in battle and proper defense of honor.
a.
Honorable action in battle
1)
The last days of the monarchy of Zahir Shah and the regime that
ove