A STUDY ON THE GRAMMATICAL COHESION IN MARK TWAIN’S NOVEL “THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN.

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A STUDY ON THE GRAMMATICAL COHESION IN

MARK TWAIN’S NOVEL “THE ADVENTURES OF

HUCKLEBERRY FINN”

THESIS

Submitted as Partical Fulfillment of The Requirements for The Sarjana Degree of English Department Faculty of Humanity UIN Sunan Ampel

Surabaya

By:

Yulizar Arafat

Reg. Number: A03211085

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND HUMANITIES

STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF SUNAN AMPEL

SURABAYA

2016

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ABSTRACT

Arafat, Yulizar. 2016. A Study on the Grammatical Cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Advisor: Endratno Pilih Swasono, M.Pd

Key Word: Grammatical Cohesion, Adult Literature, Novel.

Most of people in this world can receive information by reading. The entire books that have been read by human is a literary work. Literary work is divided into two kinds, children literature and adult literature. The writer chooses adult literature which is novel to be his object. This research focuses on the study of grammatical cohesion which is used in Mark Twain’s novel. Grammatical cohesion is one of the ways to analyze the story in novel, because grammatical cohesion is study for analyze the relation between structural units.

In this thesis, the writer proposes what kind of grammatical cohesion and the function that used in Mark Twain’s novel. The writer takes the data from Mark Twain’s novel which are Discover Moses and the Bulrushers, Our Gang’s Dark Oath, We Ambuscade the A-rabs, The Hair-ball Oracle, Pap Starts in on a New Life, Pap Struggles with the Death Angel, and I Fool Pap and Get Away.

In this thesis, the writer uses qualitative descriptive approach because the data collected are in the form of words. The writer uses theory from Halliday and Hasan (1976) for analyze the kind of grammatical cohesion function in the data. The data are taken in the form of a sentence in the plot. The discussion in this analysis includes reference, substitution and conjunction. Reference itself divided into: personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. Then, substitution divides into: nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clause substitution. And in conjunction itself are divided into: additive conjunction, adversative conjunction, causal conjunction and temporal conjunction.

Finally, the writer finds the unit of reference is balanced with the unit of conjunction. It means that there is no specific difference in grammatical cohesion unit that used by the author while he writes his literary work. So, the writer also finds many functions in each kinds of grammatical cohesion, such as are to shows the category of person or pronoun, to shows a scale of proximity or verbal pointing, to compares the identity or similarity, to substitute one item with another, the replacement of verb, the replacement in entire clause or whole clause, to gives a additive information, to gives a contrary expectation, to shows the result specific of reason information and to create a sequence in time

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ABSTRAK

Arafat, Yulizar. 2016. A Study on the Grammatical Cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Dosen Pembimbing: Endratno Pilih Swasono, M.Pd

Kata Kunci: Grammatical Cohesion, Adult Literature, Novel.

Sebagian besar orang di dunia ini dapat meneriman informasi dengan membaca. Seluruh buku yang telah dibaca oleh manusia adalah karya sastra. Karya sastra dibagi menjadi dua jenis, sastra anak-anak dan sastra dewasa. penulis memilih sastra dewasa dan mengambil novel sebagai objek penelitiannya. Penelitian ini berfokus pada A Study on the Grammatical Cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel. Grammatical cohesion adalah salah satu cara untuk menganalisa cerita dalam novel, karena Grammatical cohesion adalah studi untuk menganalisis hubungan antara kesatuan struktur.

Dalam skripsi ini, penulis mengankat macam-macam grammatical cohesion dan fungsi yang digunakan dalam Mark Twain’s Novel. Penulis mengambil data dari novel yang ditulis oleh Mark Twain yaitu Discover Moses and the Bulrushers, Our Gang’s Dark Oath, We Ambuscade the A-rabs, The Hair-ball Oracle, Pap Starts in on a New Life, Pap Struggles with the Death Angel, and I Fool Pap and Get Away.

Dalam skripsi ini, penulis menggunakan pendekatan deskriptif kualitatif karena data yang dikumpulkan dalam bentuk kata-kata. Penulis menggunakan teori dari Halliday dan Hasan (1976) untuk menganalisis jenis dan fungsi dalam data. Data yang diambil adalah dalam bentuk kalimat dalam plot. Pembahasan dalam analisis ini meliputi reference, substitution dan conjunction. Reference itu sendiri dibagi menjadi: personal reference, demonstrative reference dan comparative reference. Lalu, substitution dibagi menjadi: nominal substitution, verbal substitution dan clause substitution. Dan pada conjunction sendiri dibagi menjadi: additive conjunction, adversative conjunction, causal conjunction dan temporal conjunction.

Akhirnya, Penulis menemukan kesatuan dari reference seimbang dengan kesatuan pada conjunction. Ini berarti bahwa tidak ada perbedaan spesifik dalam kesatuan grammatical cohesion yang digunakan oleh penulis ketika ia menulis karya sastra. Jadi, penulis juga menemukan banyak fungsi dalam setiap jenis Grammatical Cohesion, yaitu untuk menunjukan kata ganti orang, menunjukan kata ganti keterangan, membandingkan identitas dan persamaan, penggantian kata nominal, penggantian kata kerja, penggantian dalam keseluruhan kalimat, memberikan informasi tambahan, memberikan harapan bertentangan, menunjukan hasil spesifik dari informasi alasan dan menciptakan kesambungan dalam waktu.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Inside Cover Page ………i

Inside Title Page ………...ii

Thesis Advisor’s Approval Page ………...iii

Thesis Examiner’s Approval Page ………...iv

Declaration Page ……….v

Motto ………...vi

Dedication Page ………vii

Acknowledgement ………...viii

Table of Content ………x

Abstract ………xii

Intisari ………..xiii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……….1

1.1 Background of the Study ………...1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ………..4

1.3 Objectives of the Study ……….5

1.4 Significance of the Study ………..5

1.5 Scope and Limitation ………5

1.6 Definition of Key Terms ………...5

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ………7

2.1 Theoretical Framework ……….7

2.1.1 Novel ………..7

2.1.2 Cohesion ……….7

2.1.2.1 Grammatical Cohesion ………8

2.1.2.2 Lexical Cohesion ………...14

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD………..18

3.1 Research Approach ……….18

3.2 Technique of Data Collection ……….18

3.3 Technique of Data Analysis ………19

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ……….21

4.1 Findings ………...21

4.1.1 Kinds of Grammatical Cohesion ………..21

4.1.2 The Function of Grammatical Cohesion ………..40

4.2 Discussions ………..54

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ………..57

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….60

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study

Every people in this world can receive information from their activity, whether it is from interaction, written, spoken, reading, etc. Most of people can receive information very comfortable from reading, especially from books, journal, tabloid, newspaper, etc. All the books have been read by humans is the term of literature. The term of literature is more focused and restricted to merely imaginative works, which comes up from the imaginative mind of the story writers. Klarer (2004: 1) said that in most of cases, literature is referred to as the entirety of written expression, with the restriction that not every written document can be categorized as literature in the more exact sense the word. Wellek and Warren (1963: 22) also said that the term of literature seems best if we limit it to the art of literature, that is, to imaginative literature. There are two types of literature work here, fiction and nonfiction (Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs, 1995: 2).

The first type of literature work is fiction. Originally, fiction meant anything made up or shaped, is literature work based on the author’s creation and imagination. It includes myths, drama, novel and short story. The second of literature work is nonfiction. Nonfiction meant describe or interpret facts, present judgments and opinions. It includes news reports, essays, magazines, newspaper, encyclopedia, etc. When we know two types of literature work, we will know

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about the genre from it. There are two types of literature here, children literature and young adult literature (Eagleton, 2008:4). When the reader read some children literature, there are several genres, such as: comic, short story, joke book, fairytale, etc. According to Anderson (2006: 2) children literature referred as “all books written for children”.

The second type of literature is young adult literature. Young adult literature can be dividing into several genres, such as: novel, poetry, short story, etc. According to Cambell (2010: 12) young adult literature has become a genre which covers various types of text including: novel, short stories and poetry.

By reading young adult literature such as novel or short story, it can make the young adult people more imaginative with the role of the story that did not really happens in the world. Novel or usually called by fiction story is a literary from that tells the story of a remarkable event deals imaginatively with human experience, usually through a connected sequence of events involving a group of persons or characters in specific setting. The genre of novel has encompassed an extensive range of types and styles: picaresque, epistolary, Gothic, romantic, realist, historical, etc.

From the description above, young adult literature is an interesting topic to discuss, because it contains of moral value or human experience with the culture of nation which different from one country and others. As character education concepts are taught within the context of literature, students realize traits such as

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respect, honesty, courage, and kindness are real and interesting aspect of the world around them (Almerico, 2014: 2).

To stimulate or reflect imaginatively, the reader must understand about the language from the novel. The languages of novel are not simple and complex. It should help the reader understand and flow of the plot from story well. In order to understand the story easily, there are several ways to identify a story, such as identify the grammatical and words that relate in each other.

In understanding about identify the grammatical in narrative or story, text indicated a discourse. Carter (1595: 39) said that discourse is used when talking about speech, whereas text is used when discussing writing. So the study of discourse is the study of language in interaction and speech is generally more interactive than writing. Brown and Yule (1983: 39) also said that discourse analysis is the analysis of language use.

In identifying the grammatical cohesion has several important functions in arranging the sentence, which are to epitomize an idea or though and to establish a variety of sentence structure and clarify the meaning of an idea (Widjone, 2007: 131). One of the ways is identifying the cohesion in novel. The concept of cohesion is semantic one, it refers to relation of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 4). Cohesion is classified into two types, which are grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4) said that grammatical cohesion which is based on structural

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content and lexical cohesion which is based on lexical content and background knowledge.

The writer uses grammatical cohesion to analyze the data. Grammatical cohesion is a part of cohesion device. Grammatical cohesion is one of the way to understand the meaning from the story. By using grammatical cohesion for discussing the data, the reader will understand well the story of novel, because it gives the knowledge about the relation between structural units in text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 274). Thus, the points which the writer wants to analyze are the kinds of grammatical cohesion and the function of grammatical cohesion that used in novel.

1.2 Statement of the Problems

Based on the background of the study above, the writer formulates the problem as follows:

1. What are the kinds of grammatical cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel

entitled “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”?

2. What are the functions of grammatical cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study is to answer the research question. The objectives are formulates as follows:

1. To find the kinds of grammatical cohesion which is used in Mark Twain’s

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2. To find the functions of grammatical cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study of grammatical cohesion gives some significant contributions to the readers in some aspects. The reader will be able to know about grammatical cohesion and the functions grammatical cohesion that used in Mark Twain’s novel. From this point, the writer express that his study is able to help the reader to understand the meaning and use grammatical cohesion in order to convey the message or idea. The writer hopes that this study encourages the reader to have deeper study about language.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

The study is limited on the kinds of grammatical cohesion and the function of grammatical cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel entitled “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”. The data taken from chapter 1 until 7 from 43 chapters written by Mark Twain’s Novel, they are: Discover Moses and the Bulrushers, Our Gang’s Dark Oath, We Ambuscade the A-rabs, The Hair-ball Oracle, Pap Starts in on a New Life, Pap Struggles with the Death Angel, and I Fool Pap and Get Away.

1.6 Definition of Key Terms

To give better information, the writer gives some operational definition of key terms as the following:

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1. Grammatical Cohesion: refers to the linguistic structure, structure

determiners the order in which grammatical elements occur and the way they are related within sentence (Halliday and Hasan, 1974: 274).

2. Young Adult Literature: young adult literature defines as a genre which

covers various types of text including: novel, short stories, graphic novel and poetry (Cambell, 2010: 12).

3. Novel: novel is normally a prose work of quite some length and

complexity which attempts to reflect and express something of the equality of human experience or conduct (Richard Taylor, 1981: 46).

4. Mark Twain: an American author, essayist, lecturer and humorist who

wrote a series of famous book including The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

(www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/mark-twain-64.php).

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses some theories, definitions, principles and some examples which are related to the research of this study, so those are presented in order to avoid some ambiguous explanation in the study afterwards.

2.1 Theoretical Framework. 2.1.1 Novel

The definition of novel is a fiction prose narrative of considerable length and complexity, portraying character and usually presenting a sequential organization of action and scenes. Novel or usually called by prose work is a literary from that tells some length and complexity which attempts to reflect and express something of the equality of human experience or conduct (Richard Taylor, 1981: 46).

2.1.2 Cohesion

Cohesion device is very important thing within text. The definition of text is any pieces of language that is operational, functioning as a unity in some context of situation. It may be spoken or written in any style or genre, and in involving any number of active participants (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 293).

In understanding about cohesion, Halliday and Hasan (1976: 293) said that cohesion refers to the linguistic means whereby texture is achieved. In other word, cohesion in a text is used as a mean to relate one sentence to the semantically so that it is understood. Cohesion helps the reader to understand the meaning of the

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context. In this study, the writer applies the theory of cohesion by Halliday and Hasan who divided cohesion into grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. 2.1.2.1 Grammatical Cohesion

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 6) said that grammatical cohesion refers that some forms are realized through the grammar. There are four principal kinds of grammatical cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.

2.1.2.1.1. Reference

Reference is a specific nature of the information that signaled retrieval. In the case of reference, the information to be retrieved is the referential meaning. The identity of the particular thing of class that is being referred to and the cohesion lies in the continuity of reference (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 31). Reference divided into three types: personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference.

1) Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through the category of person. Nunan (1993: 23) said that personal reference items are expressed through pronouns and determiners. Pronoun contains personal pronouns (I, you, we, they, he, she, it) and possessive pronouns (me, you, us, him, her, them, it, one). Determiner contains determiner function as head (mine, yours, ours, his, hers, its, theirs) and modifier (my, your, our, his, her, its, their, one’s). For example:

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Look at the sun. It’s going down quickly.

The word it refers back to the sun in the preceding sentence.

2) Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 57). It is expressed through determiners and adverbs. This reference is achieved by means of location, on a scale of proximity. A scale of proximity means nearness in place, time, occurrence or relation. For example:

We went to the opera last night. That was our first outing for months. That refers to last night in preceding sentence.

3) Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity (Nunan, 1993: 24). For example:

We have received exactly the same report as was submitted two months

ago.

Here there is an identity of the word same.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 76) distinguish between two sub-types of comparative reference: general and particular. General comparative reference expresses likeness between things, in the form of identity, similarity, and unlikeness or difference. Particular comparative reference expresses

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comparability between things. This is comparison in respect of quantity or quality. For example:

We are demanding higher living standards.

The word higher refers to particular comparative reference in respect of

quality.

2.1.2.1.2 Substitution

Substitution is the replacement of one item with another (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 88). Substitution is the replacement of obvious in the content with a ‘filler’ word such as one, so, or do to avoid repetition. Substitution divided into three types: nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clause substitution. 1) Nominal Substitution

Nominal substitution is the most typical substitution that use words one and ones. For example:

There are some new tennis balls in the bag. These ones have lost their

bounce.

The word ones substitute to tennis balls.

2) Verbal Substitution

Verbal substitution is the most common substitution is the verb do which is sometimes used in conjunction with so as in do so. For example:

(A) Annie says you drink too much. (B) So do you!

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3) Clause Substitution

Clause substitution is substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. Clause substitution use words so and not. For example:

(A) Is it going to rain? (B) I think so.

The word so presupposes the whole clause it going to rain.

2.1.2.1.3. Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a series of dots that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning. According to Mc. Cartthy (1991: 43) ellipsis can also indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, a mysterious, echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence. Ellipsis divided into three types: nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clause ellipsis.

1) Nominal Ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis means the omission of a noun head. For example: Joni likes the green tiles, I prefer the blue (x)

2) Verbal Ellipsis

Verbal ellipsis involves the omission of the verb head while the auxiliary element remains explicit. For example:

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3) Clausal Ellipsis

Clausal ellipsis represents the omission of a part or whole clause. For example:

I don’t know how to work with this stools; I will have to learn how (x)

2.1.2.1.4. Conjunction

Conjunction is a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following part of the sentence (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 226). Conjunction divided into four types: additive conjunction, adversative conjunction, causal conjunction and temporal conjunction.

1) Additive Conjunction

Structurally coordinator or links on sentence to another sentence, one clause to another clause by adding to presupposed item and are signaled through and, also, too, furthermore, moreover, etc. It function is to add information. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 246) the additive conjunction or has the basic meaning of alternation, and it often occurs in questions, requests, permissions, predictions, opinions. For example:

I wanted to go and look at a place right about the middle of the island.

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2) Adversative Conjunction

Adversative conjunction is a contrary to expectation. The expectation may come from the content of what is being said. It is may come from the simple words such as yet, but, though, however, in other hand, etc. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 237) the basic meaning of the adversative but is to project the and-relation backwards. For example:

I looked over my shoulder every now and then, but I didn’t see anybody.

The word but presupposed to adversative conjunction. 3) Causal Conjunction

Causal conjunction is signaled by using words such as because, so, thus, hence, therefore, then, for this reason, etc. Causal conjunction has function to show a specific one of result, reason, purpose. For example:

My brother can’t go to the school. Because he is ill.

The word because presupposed to causal conjunction.

4) Temporal Conjunction

Temporal conjunction is link is established by means of the simplest form. Some temporal conjunction are signaled by using words such as then, next, after that, next day, until then, etc. For example:

He stayed there for three years. Then he went on to Brazil.

The word then presupposed to temporal conjunction or to create a

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2.1.2.2 Lexical Cohesion

According to Mc. Cartthy (1991: 65) lexical cohesion is related vocabulary items occurs across clause and sentence boundaries in written text and across act, move turn boundaries in speech and are major characteristic of coherent discourse. There are two parts in lexical cohesion which is going to explain, that are: reiteration and collocation.

Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of a lexical item, at one end of the scale: the use of general word to refer back to a lexical item, at the other end of the scale: and a number of things in between – the use of a synonym, near synonym, or superordinate (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 278). For example: Sue is in the race on Saturday. Everyone believes that Smith

will win the race. Here there is a repetition of the word race.

Collocation is cohesion that is achieved through the association of a lexical item that regularly co-occurs (Mc. Carthy, 1991: 65). It means that collocation is achieved through the relationship between one lexical item with other which exists many times not only in the previous but also in the preceding passage. For example: smile >< cry, wet >< dry and tall >< short is refers to antonym.

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2.2 Related Studies

In review of related studies, the writer found out a previous study about grammatical cohesion. First of all the thesis belongs to Primasia Kusuma Nariswari (2010) entitled “Cohesive Devices Used in Indonesia This Morning, A Metro TV English News Program”. She discussed the cohesive devices types in

terms grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. The writer discussed cohesive devices which are occurred in Indonesia This Morning, A Metro TV English News Program. The problems which the analyzed are the frequency of cohesive types which are often used and how well the cohesive devices are used in Indonesia This Morning, A Metro TV English News Program. Before analyzing the data, the writer was categorized or classified cohesive device types occurrence in data taken. In analyzing the data, the writer used Halliday and Hasan’s theory in “Cohesion in English”, the theory of Brown and Yule. The result of her research is the total occurrence of the use of cohesive devices in Indonesia This Morning is 1204 times. There are references is 595 times, substitution is 6 times, ellipsis is 2 times, conjunction is 211 times and lexical cohesion is 376 times.

The second review was from Ririn Ekawati (2010) entitled “An Analysis of Non-Structural Cohesion In Now! BALI AND NOW! Jakarta Magazine Articles”. She found out the quality of either its text or its sentences. In other

words, she wanted to know whether In Now! BALI AND NOW! Jakarta Magazine Articles and the highest occurrence found in it. In this study, she applied the theory of cohesion by M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan. Its divide two main parts, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. She used qualitative

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approach to analyze the cohesive used in Jakarta Magazine Articles. The result of her research about highest frequency is placed by grammatical cohesive device, the second is logical cohesive devices and the last place is lexical cohesive devices found in Jakarta Magazine Article.

The third review was from Masitha Achmad Syukri (2012) entitled

“Cohesion and Coherence in the Descriptive and Narrative Writing of Hearing-Impaired Students”. She found out the quality of either its text or its sentences. In

other words, she wanted to know whether descriptive and narrative writing produced by 26 hearing-impaired students are cohesive and coherence or not. In this study, she applied the theory of cohesion by M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan. Its divide two main parts, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. In terms of grammatical cohesion, it is divided into reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction, while in terms of lexical cohesion; its divided into reiteration and collocation. The result of her research about the grammatical cohesive devices was very rarely used in both kinds of writing, except reference. Meanwhile, the use of lexical cohesive devices, repetition-including the repetition of names and noun-was used very frequently in both types of writing.

The fourth review was from Vany Tarsidasari Jambak (2014) entitled

“Cohesive Devices Used in the Headline News of the Jakarta Post”. She found

out the quality of either its text or its sentences. In other words, she wanted to know whether the headline news of the Jakarta Post is cohesive or not. Therefore, she tried to identify and to derive the types of cohesive devices dominantly used in headline news of the Jakarta Post. In this study, she applied the theory of

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cohesion by M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan. Its divide two main parts, grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. In terms of grammatical cohesion, it is divided into reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction, while in terms of lexical cohesion; it’s divided into reiteration and collocation. Her research is conducted by using descriptive method. The result of her research shows that there are grammatical cohesive and lexical cohesive device in headline news of the Jakarta Post. There are 162 references, 4 substitution, 34 ellipsis, 349 conjunction and 36 lexical cohesion. The most dominant type of cohesive devices is conjunction.

Based on previous study above, the writer took grammatical cohesion for his research, because he assumed that cohesion was still general, so he wanted to focus in grammatical cohesion only and in different case. The writer took Mark Twain’s Novel entitled The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn to be analyzed by using grammatical cohesion device. He took the theory from Halliday and Hasan for analyzing the data. The writer did not found about the research that took the data from novel by using grammatical cohesion before.

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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD

In this chapter, the writer discussed the research approach, the instrument of the research, the source of the data, procedure and data analysis.

3.1 Research Approach

This research used descriptive qualitative method which refers to a research procedure that produced descriptive data. Descriptive research meant that the research concerned with collecting data in attempt to describe a subject as accurately as possible. Qualitative research was descriptive for the reason that the data collected are in the form of words or pictures rather than number (Bodgan and Biklen, 1982: 28). The written resulted of the research contained quotation from the data to illustrate and substantiate the presentation.

3.2 Technique of Data Collection 3.2.1 Source of Data

The writer take the data from only focus seven chapters actually there are forty three chapters in Mark Twain’s novel entitled The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The seven chapters which are: Discover Moses and the Bulrushers, Our Gang’s Dark Oath, We Ambuscade the A-rabs, The Hair-ball Oracle, Pap Starts in on a New Life, Pap Struggles with the Death Angel, and I Fool Pap and Get Away. The data that he analyzed were in the form of words in sentences. The writer analyzed each sentence of the plot from stories.

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3.2.2 Instrument

The instrument of this research was the writer his self as a main participant. The observer was the research instrument, and hence great sensitivity and personal skills are necessary for worthwhile data. In doing his research, the writer also selected exact tools in elaborating his study in order to make the reader understand the topic when was presenting. The tools mean here are the books, data and theories that used as source of reference in the process of the analysis.

3.2.3 Procedure

The writer collects the data from five chapters in Mark Twain’s novel, so read them then identified the grammatical cohesion in each sentence and put it on the note which is grammatical string of each data. Next, the writer classifies in part of plot (exposition, complication, crisis, climax, resolution). And then put it on the table of each data and computes the occurrence of the grammatical items. Finally, he analyzes the data as accurately as possible.

3.3 Technique of Data Analysis

After collecting all data that needed, the writer begins to analyze them by some steps:

1. The writer identifies the grammatical cohesion in the stories and after reading the data, the writer recognized and identified the grammatical cohesion in each sentence.

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3. The writer classifies the sentences into part of plot (exposition, complication, crisis, climax, resolution).

4. The writer identifies the plot elements structure on each data.

5. The writer put it on the table on each data and combines with plot elements structure.

Table Kinds of Grammatical Cohesion in Mark Twain’s Novel Grammatical

Cohesion Chapters Total

Discove r Moses and the Bulrush ers Our Gang’s Dark Oath We Ambuscad

e the A-rabs The Hair-ball Oracl e Pap Starts in on a New Life Pap Struggl es with the Death Angel I Fool Pap and Get Awa y Reference Substitution Conjunction

6. The writer computes the re-occurrence of grammatical cohesion which is reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Then he computed the re-occurrence of grammatical cohesion from the whole data.

7. He analyzes the functions of grammatical cohesion in plot elements structure in novel. The last step, the writer analyzes what functions of grammatical cohesion in the novel.

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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter discusses the analysis of the collection data which answer the question in chapter one. It is the main objectives of the study. This chapter is the most significant part of the whole study. In data analysis, all questions are expected to be answered on the basis of grammatical cohesion theory by M.A.K Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan presented in chapter two.

4.1 Finding

This section discusses about the data from Mark Twain’s novel. The writer takes seven data. They are: Discover Moses and the Bulrushers, Our Gang’s Dark Oath, We Ambuscade the A-rabs, The Hair-ball Oracle, Pap Starts in on a New Life, Pap Struggles with the Death Angel, and I Fool Pap and Get Away. The data are analyzes by using grammatical cohesion theory.

4.1.1 Kinds of Grammatical Cohesion

There are four principal kinds of grammatical cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Reference itself divided into three kinds: personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. Substitution divided into three kinds: nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clause substitution. While, conjunction divided into four kinds: additive conjunction, adversative conjunction, causal conjunction and temporal conjunction.

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4.1.1.1 Reference

Reference is the identity of the particular thing of class that is being referred to and the cohesion lies in the continuity of reference (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 31). Then, the writer finds the data of personal reference. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.1.1 Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through the category of person. Personal reference items are expressed through pronoun and determiners (Nunan, 1993: 23). The writer finds four data of personal reference. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

Now the way that the book winds up is this: Tom and me found the money that the robbers hid in the cave, and it made us rich. We got six thousand dollars apiece-all gold. It was an awful sight of money when it was piled up.

The first data from Discover Moses and the Bulrushers chapter. The writer finds the personal reference in data above. He finds the personal reference is showed by word “we, it” in the second sentence and the last sentence. The word “we, it” is personal pronoun. The word “we” refers to the first speaker and the other person. The word “we” refers back to Tom and me in the first sentence. While, the word “it” refers to the things or the objects. So, the word “it” refers back to six thousand dollars

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apiece-all gold in the second sentence. The author of this novel wants to identity the word “we” (Tom and me) as main character in this novel. Data 2:

When we was passing by the kitchen I fell over a root and made a noise. We scrouched down and laid still. Miss Watson’s big nigger, named Jim, was setting in the kitchen door; we could see him pretty clear, because there was a light behind him. He got up and stretched his neck out about a minute, listening.

The second data from Our Gang’s Dark Oath chapter. The writer finds the personal reference in data above. He finds the personal reference is showed by word “he” in the last sentence. The word “he” is personal pronoun. The word “he” refers to the other person (male). So, the word “he” refers back to Jim in the second sentence. The author of this novel wants to identity the word “he” (Jim) as another character in this novel. Data 3:

Well, I got a good going-over in the morning from old Miss Watson on account of my clothes; but the she didn’t scold, but only cleaned off the grease and clay, and looked so sorry that I thought I would behave awhile if I cloud. Then Miss Watson she took me in the closet and prayed, but nothing come of it. She told me to pray everyday, and whatever I asked for I would get it.

The third data from We Ambuscade the A-rabs chapter. The writer finds the personal reference in data above. He finds the personal reference is showed by word “she” in the last sentence. The word “she” is personal pronoun. The word “she” refers to the other person (female). So, the word “she” refers back to Miss Watson in the second sentence. The author of

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this novel wants to identity the word “she” (Miss Watson) as another female character in this novel.

Data 4:

Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome. I judged he had got drowned, and I wasn’t ever going to get out any more. I was scared. I made up my mind I would fix up some way to leave there.

The last data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the personal reference in data above. He finds the personal reference is showed by word “it” in the second sentence. The word “it” is personal pronoun refers to the things or the objects. So, the word “it” refers to three days in the first sentence. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the first speaker condition in this novel. The writer also finds other kind of reference, which is demonstrative reference. It is explained below.

4.1.1.1.2 Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 57). This reference is achieved by means of location, on a scale of proximity. The writer finds three data of demonstrative reference. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

I went down to the front garden and clumb over the stile where you go through the high board fence. There was an inch of new snow on the ground, and I seen somebody’s track. They had come up from the quarry and stood around the stile a while, and then went around the garden fence.

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The first data from The Hair-ball Oracle chapter. The writer finds the demonstrative reference in data above. He finds the demonstrative reference is showed by word “there” in the second sentence. The word “there” is a scale of proximity or nearness of place. The word “there” refers to adverb of place. So, the word “there” refers back to the stile in the first sentence. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the stile as the first speaker location in this novel.

Data 2:

The old man made me go to the skiff and fetch the things he had got. There was a fifty-pound sack of corn meal, and a side of bacon, ammunition, and a four-gallon jug of whisky, and an old book and two newspapers for wadding, besides some tow. I toted up a load, and went back and set down on the bow of the skiff to rest.

The second data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the demonstrative reference in data above. He finds the demonstrative reference is showed by word “there” in the second sentence. The word “there” is a scale of proximity or nearness of place. The word “there” refers to adverb of place. So, the word “there” refers back to the skiff in the first sentence. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the skiff as the first speaker and the other person location in this novel.

Data 3:

About twelve o’clock we turned out and went along up the bank. The river was coming up pretty fast, and lost of driftwood going by on the rise. By and by along comes part of a log raft-nine logs fast together. We went out with the skiff and towed it ashore. Then we had dinner.

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The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the demonstrative reference in data above. He finds the demonstrative reference is showed by word “then” in the last sentence. The word “then” is a scale of proximity or nearness of time. The word “then” refers to adverb of time in this novel. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the first speaker activity in this novel. After analyzing the data from demonstrative reference, the writer finds comparative reference. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.1.3 Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity (Nunan, 1993: 24). The writer finds three data of comparative reference. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

All I wanted was to go somewhere; all I wanted was a change, I warn’t particular. She said it was wicked to say what I said; said she wouldn’t say it for the whole world; she was going to live so as to go to the good place.

The first data from Discover Moses and the Bulrushers chapter. The writer finds the comparative reference in data above. He finds the comparative reference is showed by word “as” in the last sentence. The word “as” is general comparative. The word “as” refers to identity. The word “as” has a good meaning in give identity. The author of this novel

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wants to identity the word “as” between going to live with go to the good place in this novel.

Data 2:

Miss Watson’s nigger, Jim, had a hair-ball as big as your fist, which had been took out of the fourth stomach of an ox, and he used to do magic with it. He said there was a spirit inside of it, and it knowed everything.

The second data from The Hair-ball Oracle chapter. The writer finds the comparative reference in data above. He finds the comparative reference is showed by word “as big as” in the first sentence. The word “as big as” is general comparative. The word “as big as” refers to similarity between two things. So, the word “as big as” refers to similarity between the hair-ball with a fist in this novel. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the hair-ball size in this novel.

Data 3:

I begged, and told him I was only Huck; but he laughed such a screechy laugh, and roared and cussed, and kept on chasing me up. Once when I turned short and dodged under his arm he made a grab and got me by the jacket between my shoulders, and I thought I was gone; but I slid out of the jacket quick as lighting, and saved myself.

The last data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the comparative reference in data above. He finds the comparative reference is showed by word “quick as”. The word “quick as” is general comparative. The word “quick as” refers to identity. The word “quick as” has a good meaning in give identity. The author of this novel wants to identity the word “quick as” between slid out of the jacket

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with lighting in this novel. After finding the kinds of reference, the writer finds other kinds of grammatical cohesion which is substitution. The substitution is explained below.

4.1.1.2 Substitution

Substitution is the replacement of one item with another (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 88). Substitution is the replacement of obvious in the content with a ‘filler’ word such as one, so, or do to avoid repetition. Then, the writer finds the data of nominal substitution. The data are explained bellow.

4.1.1.2.1 Nominal Substitution

Nominal substitution is the most typical substitution that use words one or ones. The writer finds three data of nominal substitution. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

So he set down on the ground betwixt me and Tom. He leaned his back up against a tree, and stretched his legs out till one of them most touched one of mine. My nose begun to itch. It itched till the tears come into my eyes.

The first data from Our Gang’s Dark Oath chapter. The writer finds the nominal substitution in data above. He finds the nominal substitution is showed by word “one”. The word “one” is a noun. The word “one” refers to a head of the nominal group. The word “one” substitutes to the legs in the second sentence. The author of this story wants to replace the word “one” substitutes to the legs in this novel.

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Data 2:

I don’t know how long I was asleep, but all of a sudden there was an awful scream and I was up. There was pap looking wild, and skipping around every which way and yelling about snakes. He said they was crawling up his legs; and then he would give a jump and scream, and say one had bit him on the check-but I couldn’t see no snakes.

The second data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the nominal substitution in data above. He finds the nominal substitution is showed by word “one” in the last sentence. The word “one” is a noun. The word “one” refers to a head of the nominal group. The word “one” substitutes to the snakes in the second sentence. The author of this story wants to replace the word “one” substitutes to the snakes in this novel.

Data 3:

I heard people talking at the ferry landing. I heard what they said, too-every word of it. One man said it was getting towards the long days and the short night now. T’other one said this warn’t one of the short ones, he reckoned-and then they laughed, and he said it over again, and they laughed again; then they waked up another fellow and told him, and laughed, but he didn’t laughed, he ripped out something brisk, and said let him alone.

The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the nominal substitution in data above. He finds the nominal substitution is showed by word “ones” in the third sentence. The word “ones” is a noun or plural. . The word “ones” refers to a head of the nominal group. The word “ones” substitutes to the nights in the second sentence. The author of this story wants to replace the word “one” substitutes to the nights in this novel. After finding and analyzing the data

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from nominal substitution, the writer finds verbal substitution. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.2.2 Verbal Substitution

Verbal substitution is the most common substitution is the verb do which is sometimes used in conjunction with so as in do so. The writer finds three data of verbal substitution. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

Everybody was willing. So Tom got out a sheet of paper that he had wrote the oath on, and read it. It swore every boy to stick to the band, and never tell any of the secrets; and if anybody done anything to any boy in the band, whichever boy was ordered to kill that person and his family must do it, and he mustn’t eat and he mustn’t sleep till he had killed them and hacked a cross in their breasts, which was the sign of the band.

The first data from Our Gang’s Dark Oath chapter. The writer finds the verbal substitution in data above. He finds the verbal substitution is showed by word “done” in the second sentence. The word “done” presupposes to the verb. The word “done” presuppose to tell any of the secrets. The author wants to illustrate the word “done” replace to tell any of the secrets in this novel.

Data 2:

He drank and drank, and tumbled down his blankets by and by; but luck didn’t run my way. He didn’t go sound asleep, but was uneasy. He groaned and moaned and thrashed around this way and that for long time. At last I got so sleepy I couldn’t keep my eyes open all I could do, so before I knowed what I was sound asleep, and the candle burning.

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The second data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the verbal substitution in data above. He finds the verbal substitution is showed by word “do” in the last sentence. The word “do” presupposes to the verb. The word “do” presuppose to keep my eyes in the last sentence. The author wants to illustrate the word “do” replace to keep my eyes in this novel.

Data 3:

I took the sack of corn meal and took it to where the canoe was hid and shoved the vines and branches apart and put it in; then I done the same wide the side of bacon; then the whisky-jug. I took all the coffee and sugar there was, and all the ammunition; I took the wadding; I took the bucket and ground; I took a dipper and tin cup; and my old saw and two blankets, and the skillet and the coffee-pot.

The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the verbal substitution in data above. He finds the verbal substitution is showed by word “done” in the first sentence. The word “done” presupposes to the verb. The word “done” presuppose to put it in. The author wants to illustrate the word “done” replace to put it in this novel. After analyzing the data from nominal substitution, the writer finds clause substitution. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.2.3 Clause Substitution

Clause substitution is substitution in which what is presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. This substitution use words so and not. The writer finds a data in clause substitution. The data are explained below.

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Data 1:

The Judge said he could hug him for them words; so he cried, and his wife she cried again; pap said he’d been a man that had always been misunderstood before, and the judge said he believed it. The old man said that what a man wanted that was sympathy, and the judge said it was so; so they cried again.

The first data from Pap Starts in on a New Life Chapter. The writer finds the clause substitution in data above. He finds the clause substitution is showed by word “so”. The word “so” in the last sentence presupposes to an entire clause within a text. The word “so” pointing to what a man wanted that was down was sympathy. The author of this story wants to illustrate the other person situation in this novel. After finding the kinds of substitution, the writer finds other kinds of grammatical cohesion which is conjunction. The conjunction is explained below.

4.1.1.4 Conjunction

Conjunction is a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following part of the sentence (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 226). Then, the writer finds data of additive conjunction. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.4.1 Additive Conjunction

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 246), the additive conjunction or has the basic meaning of alternation, and it often occurs in questions, requests, permissions, predictions, opinions. Additive conjunction items are signaled

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through and, also, too, furthermore, moreover, etc. The writer finds three data of additive conjunction. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

Miss Watson she kept pecking at me, and it got tiresome and lonesome. By and by they fetched the niggers in and had prayers, and then everybody was off to bed. I went up to my room with a piece of candle, and put it on the table.

The first data from Discover Moses and the Bulrushers chapter. The writer finds the additive conjunction in data above. He finds the additive conjunction is showed word “and” in the first sentence. The word “and” is a linked the additive information. The word “and” has a relation meaning to linked one word to another word, such as tiresome and lonesome. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the first speaker and the other person (female) condition in this novel.

Data 2:

I thought it all over, and I reckoned I would walk off with the gun and some lines, and take to the woods when I run away. I guessed I wouldn’t stay in one place, but just tramp right across the country, mostly night times, and and hunt fish to keep alive, and so get so far way that the old man nor the widow couldn’t find me any more.

The second data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the additive conjunction in data above. He finds the additive conjunction is showed word “and, nor” in the last sentence. The word “and, nor” is a linked the additive information. The word “and, nor” has a relation meaning to linked one word to another word, such as the old man nor the widow. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the

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first speaker opinion wants to a run away from the old man nor the widow couldn’t finds him any more in this novel.

Data 3:

I opened my eyes and looked around, trying to make out where I was. It was after sun-up, and I had been sound asleep. Pap was standing over me looking sour and sick, too.

The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the additive conjunction in data above. He finds the additive conjunction is showed word “and” in the last sentence. The word “and” is a linked the additive information. The word “and” has a relation meaning to linked one word to another word, such as sour and sick. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the other person (male) condition in this novel. After finding and analyzing the data from additive conjunction, the writer also finds adversative conjunction. The data are explained below. 4.1.1.4.2 Adversative Conjunction

Adversative conjunction is a contrary to expectation. The expectation may come from the content of what is being said. It may come from the simple words such as yet, but, though, however, in other hand, etc. The writer finds three data of adversative conjunction. The data are explained below.

Data 1:

Sometimes the widow would take me one side and talk about Providence in a way to make a body’s mouth water; but maybe next day Miss Watson would take hold and knock it all down again.

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The first data form We Ambuscade the A-rabs chapter. The writer finds the adversative conjunction in data above. He finds the adversative conjunction is showed by word “but”. The word “but” is a linked contrary information. The word “but” has a contrary content meaning to linked one sentence to another sentence, such as there are a contrary expectation between the widow with Miss Watson. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the contrary expectation between the widow and Miss Watson as important female character in this novel.

Data 2:

Pap was pretty careful not to leave a knife or anything in the cabin when he was away; I reckon I had hunted the place over as much as a hundred times; well I was most all the time at it, because it was about the only way to put in the time. But this time I found something at last; I found an old rusty wood-saw without any handle; it was laid in between a rafter and the clapboards of the roof.

The second data form Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the adversative conjunction in data above. He finds the adversative conjunction is showed by word “but” in the last sentence. The word “but” is a linked contrary information. The word “but” has a contrary content meaning to linked one sentence to another sentence, such as there are a contrary expectation between the past event and now. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the contrary expectation to the first speaker time or event in this novel.

Data 3:

There, now-that’s a specimen. They call that a govment that can’t sell a free nigger till he’s been in the State six months. Here’s a govment that

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calss itself a govment, and lets on to be a govment and thinks it is a govment, and yet got to set stock-still for six whole months before it can take a hold of prowling, thieving, infernal white-shirted free nigger, and –“ The last data above, the writer finds the adversative conjunction. He finds the adversative conjunction is showed by word “yet” in the last sentence. The word “yet” is a linked contrary information. The word “yet” has a contrary content meaning to linked one sentence to another sentence, such as there are a contrary expectation between the first sentence and the last sentence. The author of this novel wants to illustrate the contrary expectation to the six months events about the specimen that calls a govment in this novel. After analyzing the data from adversative conjunction, the writer also finds causal conjunction. The data are explained below.

4.1.1.4.3 Causal Conjunction

Data 1:

After supper she got out her book and learned me about Moses and the Bulrushers, and I was in a sweat to find out all about him; but by and by she let it out that Moses had been dead a considerable long time; so then I didn’t care no more about him, because I don’t take no stock in dead people.

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The first data from Discover Moses and the Bulrushers chapter. The writer finds the causal conjunction in data above. He finds the causal conjunction is showed by word “because”. The word “because” is reason information. The word “because” has a function to show specific on of reason. The word “because” refers to reason content from the first speaker to the object or Moses and the Bulrushers. The author of this story wants to illustrate the first speaker reason in this novel.

Data 2:

I didn’t want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn’t like it; but now I took it again because pap hadn’t no objections. It was pretty good times up in the woods there, take it all around.

The second data from Pap Struggles with the Death Angel chapter. The writer finds the causal conjunction in data above. He finds the causal conjunction is showed by word “because”. The word “because” is reason information. The word “because” has a function to show specific on of reason. The word “because” refers to reason content from the first speaker to the other person (female). The author of this story wants to illustrate the first speaker reason to the widow prohibition in this novel.

Data 3:

He unlocked the door, and I cleared out up the river-bank. I noticed some pieces of limbs and such things floating down, and a sprinkling of bark; so I knowed the river had begun to rise.

The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the causal conjunction in data above. He finds the causal conjunction

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is showed by word “so”. The word “so” is reason information. The word “so” has a function to show specific on of reason. The word “so” refers to reason content from the first speaker activity. The author of this story wants to illustrate the first speaker reason to the river had begun to rise in this novel. After finding and analyzing the data from causal conjunction, the writer also finds temporal conjunction. The data are explained below. 4.1.1.4.4 Temporal Conjunction

Data 1:

Tom said he slipped Jim’s hat off of his head and hung it on a limb right over him, and Jim stirred a little, but he didn’t wake. Afterwards Jim said the witches be witched him and put him in a trance, and hungs his hat on a limb to show who done it.

The first data from Our Gang’s Dark Oath chapter. The writer finds the temporal conjunction in data above. He finds the temporal conjunction is showed by word “afterwards” in the last sentence. The word “afterwards” refers to create a sequence in time. The word “afterwards” is a linked one sentence with another sentence bases on the event. The author of this story wants to illustrate the other person (male) event activity in this novel.

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Data 2:

I had wore the ground a good deal crawling out of the hole and dragging out so many things. so I fixed that as good as I could from the outside by scattering dust on the place, which covered up the smoothness and the sawdust. Then I fixed the piece of log back into its place, and put two rocks under it and one against it to hold it there, for it was bent up at that place and didn’t quite touch ground.

The second data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the temporal conjunction in data above. He finds the temporal conjunction is showed by word “then” in the last sentence. The word “then” refers to create a sequence in time. The word “then” is a linked one sentence with another sentence bases on the event. The author of this story wants to illustrate the other person (male) activity in this novel.

Data 3:

I took the axe and smashed in the door. I beat it and hacked it considerable a doing it. I fetched the pig in, and took him back nearly to the table and hacked into his throat with the axe, and laid him down on the ground to bleed; I say ground because it was ground-hard packed, and no boards. Well, next I took an old sack and put a lot of big rocks in it-all I could drag and I started it from the pig, and dragged it to the door and through the wood down to the river and dumped it in, and down it sunk, out of sight.

The last data from I Fool Pap and Get Away chapter. The writer finds the temporal conjunction in data above. He finds the temporal conjunction is showed by word “next” in the last sentence. The word “next” refers to create a sequence in time. The word “next” is a linked one sentence with another sentence bases on the event. The author of this story wants to illustrate the other person (male) event activity in this novel.

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4.1.2 The Function of Grammatical Cohesion

After finding the kinds of grammatical cohesion, the writer begins to find the function of grammatical cohesion. Grammatical cohesion deals with the structure in text. Grammatical cohesion refers that some forms are realized through the grammar (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:6). The structure determines the order in which grammatical elements occur and the way they are related within a sentence. By using grammatical cohesion device for analyzing the data, the writer finds the function in each kind of grammatical cohesion.

Grammatical cohesion itself has four kinds, which are reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Reference divides into three kinds, which are personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. The writer finds the function of personal reference which takes from the data 4.1.1.1.1. The function of personal reference is explained below.

4.1.2.1.1 Personal Reference Data 1:

From the first data above, the writer knows about personal reference has a function to shows the category of person. The writer concludes that the word “we” in the second sentence is personal pronoun because that the word “we” refers back to Tom and me in the preceding

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sentence. While, the word “it” in the last sentence is personal pronoun because that the word “it” refers back to six thousand dollars in the second sentence. The writer also concludes the first speaker and the other person activities are very significant event in this novel.

Data 2:

From the second data, the writer finds the function as to emphasize the pronoun. The word “he” in the last sentence is personal pronoun because that the word “he” refers back to Jim in the preceding sentence. So, the writer concludes that the word “he” has a function to remember the character. The word “he” (Jim) refers to the male of main character in this novel.

Data 3:

From the third data above, the writer finds the function of personal reference. The writer concludes that the word “she” in the last sentence is personal pronoun because that the “she” refers to the female person or

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pointing back to Miss Watson in the preceding sentence. The word “she” refers to the protagonist of main character in this novel.

Data 4:

From the last data, the word “it” in the second sentence is personal pronoun or refers to a thing or object because that the word “it” refers back to three days in the first sentence. The writer concludes the word “it” as to emphasize the first speaker situation in the story happens. The next function is from demonstrative reference which has the point 4.1.1.1.2. The function is explained below.

4.1.2.1.2 Demonstrative Reference Data 1:

From the first data, the writer knows about demonstrative reference has a function to shows the verbal pointing. The writer concludes that the word “there” in the second sentence is verbal pointing or refers to means of location because that the word “there” pointing back to the stile in the preceding sentence. So, the writer concludes that the word “there” as the first speaker and other person location in this novel.

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Data 2:

From the second data above, the writer concludes that the word “there” in the second sentence is verbal pointing or refers to means of location because that the word “there” refers back to the skiff in the first sentence. So, the writer concludes the skiff in data above as the first speaker and other person location event in this novel.

Data 3:

From the last data, the word “then” in the last sentence has a function to shows the verbal pointing or refers to means of event. The writer concludes that the word “then” refers to adverb of time because that the word “then” has a function as illustrate the first speaker and the other person continue event in this novel. The next function is from comparative reference that in the point 4.1.1.1.3. The function is explained below.

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4.1.2.1.3 Comparative Reference Data 1:

From the first data, the writer knows about comparative reference has a function to compare items within a text. The writer concludes that the word “as” is general comparative or refers to identity because that the word “as” is identity items between going to live and to go to the good place. Here, the writer concludes the word “as” has a function to compare identity in this novel. The next data is explained below.

Data 2:

From the next data above, the writer concludes the word “as big as” in the first sentence is general comparative or refers to similarity because that the word “as big as” similarity items between a hair ball size and a fist size. Here, the writer concludes the word “as big as” has a function to similarity items in this novel.

Data 3:

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jacket between my shoulders, and I thought I was gone; but I slid out of the jacket quick as lighting, and saved myself.

From the last data, the writer concludes that the word “quick as” is general comparative or refers to identity because that the word “quick as” is identity items between slid out of the jacket and the lighting in this story happens. So, the writer concludes the word “quick as” has a function to compares identity items in this novel.

After finding the function in each kind of reference, the writer continues to finding the function in each kind of substitution which are relate to the data. Substitution divides into three kinds, which are nominal substitution, verbal substitution and clause substitution. It is explained below.

4.1.2.2.1 Nominal Substitution Data 1:

From the first data, the writer knows about nominal substitution has a function to substitute one item with another in the content. The writer concludes the word “one” has a function as a head of the nominal group because that the word “one” refers to a noun. The word “one” substitutes the legs in this novel.

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Data 2:

From the second data above, the writer concludes the word “one” has a function to substitute one word with another within the content. The writer concludes the word “one” has a function as head of the nominal group because that the word “one” refers to a noun. The word “one” substitutes to the snakes in this novel. The next data is explained below. Data 3:

From the last data, the writer finds the function of nominal substitution. The writer concludes the word “ones” in the third sentence has a function as head of the nominal group because that word “ones” refers to a plural noun. So, the writer concludes the word “ones” substitutes to the night in the preceding sentence. The next function is from verbal substitution which has the point 4.1.1.2.2. The function is explained below.

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The writer finds 4 data of personal reference. Personal reference has a function to show the category of person or pronoun. Personal reference emphasizes a personal pronoun or possessive pronoun and determiner in a text. Then, the writer finds 3 data of demonstrative reference. The function of demonstrative reference is a scale of proximity or verbal pointing. A scale of proximity means a nearness of place or location and nearness of time or event. The writer finds 3 data of comparative reference. Here, comparative reference has a function to compares similarity and identity an object or things.

Next, the writer finds 3 data of nominal substitution. Nominal substitution has a function to substitute one item with another in the content, such as eyes substitute to one. Then, the writer finds 3 data of verbal substitution. The function of verbal substitution is the replacement of verb, such as take substitute to done. And the writer finds 1 data of clause substitution. Here, clause substitution has a function to replacements entire clause or whole clause in a text.

Finally, the writer finds 3 data in each kinds of conjunction. Additive conjunction has a function to gives additive information in the content. Then, the function of adversative conjunction is very different with additive conjunction, because adversative conjunction has a function to gives a contrary expectation in the content. While, causal conjunction has a function to shows the result specific of reason information in the content. The last, the function of temporal conjunction is to create a sequence in time or link an information structure in event.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 5.1 Conclusion

This chapter draws a conclusion based on the discussion in the previous chapters. Firstly, the writer has two problems in his research. There are: what are the kinds of grammatical cohesion and what are the functions of grammatical cohesion in Mark Twain’s novel entitled “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”. The writer just focuses on grammatical cohesion. So, the writer chooses the theory from Halliday and Hasan for analyzes the data. Grammatical cohesion divides into four kinds: reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. The writer uses descriptive qualitative method and the source of data from Mark Twain’s novel. In technique of data analyzes, the writer classifies or computes re-occurrence of grammatical cohesion and analyzes the functions of grammatical cohesion in his data.

The writer computes re-occurrence kinds of grammatical cohesion in his data. The writer finds 9 each kinds of reference in his data. Then, the writer finds 7 each kinds of substitution in his data. The writer finds 12 each kinds of conjunction in his data. The writer not only computed re-occurrence kinds of grammatical cohesion but also he finds the function kinds of grammatical cohesion in his data. The function kinds of grammatical cohesion are to shows the category of person or pronoun, to shows a scale of proximity or verbal pointing, to compares the identity or similarity, to substitute one item with another, the

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replacement of verb, the replacement in entire clause or whole clause, to gives a additive information, to gives a contrary expectation, to shows the result specific of reason information and to create a sequence in time.

The difference between this research with the previous research, the first the writer just focus on grammatical cohesion for specific result and the previous research focus on cohesive devices. The second, the writer take source data from novel and the previous research take source data from magazine, news, article and narrative writing. Mostly the previous research analyzes or computes re-occurrence kinds of cohesion device. Here, the writer try to different analyzes because the writer not only classifies or computes kinds of grammatical cohesion but also the writer analyzes the function kinds of grammatical cohesion in his research.

The excess of this research, the writer can concludes grammatical cohesion as a research is very interesting topic for analyzes, because grammatical cohesion has several important functions in arranging the sentence, which are to epitomize an idea or though and to establish a variety of sentence structure. The lack of this research, the writer can’t concludes very clearly or detail about the function kinds of grammatical cohesion in his data.

5.2 Suggestion

In this point, the writer gives a suggestion to the other researcher and expresses about the excess and the lack of this research and gives a suggestion to

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before you decides or concludes what you want to analyzes, such as analyzes the function of grammatical cohesion. Secondly, the writer expresses the excess of this research. The writer expresses the function of grammatical cohesion has several important functions in arranging the sentence, which are to epitomize an idea or though and to establish a variety of sentence structure. The lack of this research, the writer can’t concludes very clearly or detail about the function kinds of grammatical cohesion in his data. The third, the writer hopes to the readers must be understand if you decides to learns grammatical cohesion as interesting topic for making a research. Finally, the writer hopes to the readers can be clearly and detail in learns grammatical cohesion.

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A STUDY ON THE GRAMMATICAL COHESION IN MARK TWAIN’S NOVEL “THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN.