Analysis of The Non-Observance of The Gricean Maxims in 'That '70s Show'.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……… i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... ii

ABSTRACT ……… iii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study ………. 1

Statement of the Problem ………. 4

Purpose of the Study ………. 4

Method of Research ………. 4

Organization of the Thesis ………. 4

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ……… 6

CHAPTER THREE: ANALYSIS OF THE NON-OBSERVANCE OF THE GRICEAN MAXIMS IN THAT ‘70S SHOW ……….. 11

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION ………. ……… 47

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……… 52

APPENDICES: Table of the Types of the Maxims and the Non-Observance of the Gricean Maxims ……… 53

ABSTRACT

Topik yang saya pilih dalam skripsi saya adalah Analysis of the

Non-Observance of the Gricean Maxims in That ‘70s Show. Alasan saya memilih topik

ini adalah topik ini menarik untuk dibahas karena berhubungan erat dengan kehidupan kita sehari-hari. Topik ini membahas tentang kesalahpahaman dalam menangkap maksud yang mungkin saja terjadi dalam suatu percakapan antara seorang atau lebih pembicara dan pendengar. Untuk membahas ini, saya menggunakan teori H.P Grice, Teori Gricean Maxim. Grice membuat empat ‘aturan’ atau standar yang seharusnya dipatuhi oleh pembicara dan pendengar agar suatu percakapan dapat berjalan dengan baik tanpa kesalahpahaman. Menurutnya, pembicara harus bicara secukupnya, tidak lebih maupun kurang, harus bicara sesuai topik, tidak boleh berbohong dan apa yang dikatakan tidak bermakna ambigu.

Pada kenyataannya, teori ini sulit diterapkan. Grice mengungkapkan lima tipe kegagalan dalam pemenuhan teori Maxim. Pertama, pembicara ingin memberikan tambahan arti. Kedua, pembicara memang mempunyai maksud untuk menipu pendengar. Selanjutnya adalah, pembicara memang tidak mempunyai kemampuan yang baik dalam bahasa. Keempat, pembicara melanggar Maxim karena tuntutan profesi dan terakhir karena tata cara budaya mereka.

Data yang saya pilih untuk pemenuhan skripsi ini adalah komedi seri TV berjudul That ‘70s Show. Di dalam serial ini, banyak sekali pelanggaran Maxim, yang kebanyakan memberikan efek lucu atau komedi. Pelanggaran yang terjadi banyak dilakukan oleh lima tokoh utama, yang semuanya adalah remaja. Mereka sering mengatakan kebohongan secara sengaja karena terkadang mereka ingin hidup bebas dari orang tua. Alasan lain, mereka ingin terlihat ‘lebih’ dan mampu melakukan apapun di depan teman-teman mereka. Yang menarik dalam film ini, ada beberapa pelanggaran Maxim yang terjadi karena ada satu remaja yang berasal dari kota lain, yang sedang belajar bahasa. Dia terkadang salah menangkap maksud teman-temannya.

Saya berharap penjelasan di atas dapat memberikan gambaran pada para pembaca. Penjelasan tentang latar belakang, teori dan pembahasan akan dibahas lebih lengkap pada bab-bab selanjutnya. Saya berharap semoga skripsi saya ini dapat memberikan manfaat kepada para pembaca.

APPENDIX

V= Violation F= Flout I=Infringement Ou=Opting Out S=Suspending

No. Dialogues V F I Ou S Type of maxim that

is not observed

1. MICHAEL: I’m going to the prom. I’m taking Pam Marcy

JACKIE: I have a date, too.

MICHAEL: Who is it? What’s his name?

JACKIE :His name is not important. What’s important is he’s

better than you in every conceivable way.

9 9

Quality Quantity and Manner

2. HYDE: And I could write some really great slogan like “I hate fuzz”on my ass.

FEZ : If you hate fuzz on your ass, why don’t you just shave it off.

9 Relation

3. RED: Now, are you gonna vote for the guy that let that happen?

ERIC: I believe that everyone’s political opinion is valid

and worth hearing.

9

Manner and Quantity

4. RED: Kitty, take your hand off of that melon!

KITTY: Red, you haven’t gone fishing.

RED: Kitty, take your hand off of that melon! (angry).

9 Relation

5. DONNA: Do you want to play air hockey?

ERIC: Mmm…With you? Eh…Donna, I’m kind of tired and my wrist hurts and I think I’m coming down with the flu.

9 Quality

6. SHOPKEEPER: What do you want to buy?

MICHAEL: Hmm…Hi, I’m 25. I know I look young

but my dad asked me to come down here and pick up a tap for his keg. And he’s 43,so we’re both legal.No problem there.

9 Quality and Manner

7. RED : Not going to that disco,huh?

HYDE: No. Phony people listening to crappy music…It doesn’tlike my kind of music.

RED : You can’t dance. Can you? HYDE : I can dance.

RED: I don’t think so, pal. HYDE: I can dance. RED: Not one step.

HYDE: Yeah. You’re right. Not one step.

8. ERIC: Okay, let’s go.Everybody hop in the car and let’s go now.

MICHAEL: Where’s your mom?

ERIC: Shut up. Don’t you dare talk about my mother !

9 Relation

9. KITTY: Your father and I have noticed that you’ve been

acting very strange lately. Is there something you want to tell us?

RED: You are on dope, aren’t you?

ERIC: Mom, Dad. I’m not on drugs.

RED: Then, what the hell’s wrong with you?

ERIC: I accidentally…I wasupstairs…and I…Okay,you know what I’m on drugs.

9

9 Quantity

Quality

10. FEZ’S FOSTER FATHER: Son, when we took you in as an

exchange student, you become our responsibility. And we’re concerned about the gang you hang out with. FEZ: They’re my friends.

FEZ’S FOSTER FATHER: That’s exactly what they want you

to think. Now, we’re not inflexible. Now’ you’ve brought the devil’s music into our home. (show KISS’ CD).

11. DONNA: Where’s Buddy?

ERIC: Buddy? Mmm…Buddy got busy

JACKIE: Yeah. I mean. I’m sure he has a lot to do. He is

popular.

FEZ: Yeah, and so obviously gay. (Eric is immediately panic).

9 Quality

12. KITTY: Wow Eric. This is the most beautiful tree I think we

have ever had. And it’s just so fresh. Where did you buy it?

ERIC: Mmm in a shop. Ooh..yeah Mom. It’s so fresh.

9 Quality

13. RED: Eric… before you explain the beer. Maybe you can tell me why there are two state troopers in the living room confiscating our Christmas tree?

ERIC: Well, Dad. That…funny story, and a true story. You’re gonna laugh…

RED: Get to the part!

ERIC: We cut the tree off the side of the interstate.

9 Quantity and

Manner 14. HYDE: Forman, man. It’s a tiny little scratch and Red’s

never gonna see it.

ERIC: No. Red sees everything. He sees when I put cheap gas in the car.

MICHAEL: Listen, Forman, whatever happens, we’ll all take

the rap.

FEZ: Yeah. (Red comes in)

RED: How’d you scratch the car, Eric? FEZ: Have fun. Later.

MICHAEL: See you, Forman.

15. RED: Well…

ERIC: Well…Sir I was pulling out of this parking space. Creeping is more like it. I was creeping…

RED: You were screwing around, barked into a hydrant. ERIC: No!

RED: Eric, I see the paint marks. ERIC: And by ‘no’. I mean ‘exactly’.

9 9

Manner

Quality

16. HYDE: So, what’d you get? ERIC: ID Bracelet.

HYDE: Cool. Is your name on it? ERIC: Yeah. What you’d get? HYDE: Tube socks.

ERIC: Good. I mean. Tube socks are good. 9 Quality

17. ERIC: Why does Sully have a statue of the Virgin Mary on his dashboard?

MICHAEL: Maybe, he’s like religious or something

HYDE: Wasn’t Sully in prison for arson?

MICHAEL: Yeah. People who burn stuff believe in God too,

Hyde.

ERIC: All right. I’m starting to think maybe this isn’t Sully’s car.

MICHAEL: Then whose car is it? (There is police’s siren).

18. JACKIE: Hello…

MICHAEL: Jackie! Thank God you’re home. I was driving a

stolen car and I got arrested.

JACKIE: Michael, this is just like the book Prisoner of Love

where Cliff, the rugged sweet motorcycle mechanic was thrown into jail. And then his true love, Tasha, was forced to be a slave girl for this really rich, mean guy.

MICHAEL: Jackie, I’m not kidding around. I’m really in jail.

JACKIE: My God. Are you okay?

9 Relation

19. BOB: I can’t believe she went to that club. Married women do not abandon their families.

DONNA: Sure, they do, Dad. The whole point is women

don’t have to decline themselves by a man.

BOB: Donna, is this about clothes? Cause I can buy you clothes.

9 Relation

20. RED: Eric, did you take those books back to the library like I asked you?

ERIC: Yeah. I took them back.

RED: Then, why did I see them in the backseat of your car?

9 Quality

21. RED: I wonder if you’d mind giving my son an autograph?

COACH: Give the kid an autograph, and then, no more

autograph.

RED: Yeah. Thanks. Wanna make that out to Red Forman? ERIC: No, I don’t think so. It’s Eric Forman. Capital E-R-I-C

RED: Yeah, but see, his nickname is Red. 22. ERIC: All right, Dad! I’ve got something to say.

DONNA: Eric, for the love of God, don’t.

ERIC: Dad, I do it too. That’s right. So you can’t kick him out.

9 Quality

23. KITTY: Here, Bernice, I made you a plate of leftovers.

BERNICE: Oh, Red. My garbage disposal is broken.

KITTY: Just as long as you enjoy it.

BERNICE: Red, listen, I’ve got an idea. Let’s eat out next

Sunday. That way everybody can get something they like.

9 9

Relation

Manner

24. HYDE’S FATHER: So, fellas, school let out early?

MICHAEL: Yeah, we’re just…

ERIC: Kelso, shut up!

MICHAEL: Uh, I mean no. No, we’re old. We’re workers.

We’re all construction workers. Hey, fellas, did you see that brick today?

9 Quality

25. JACKIE: Steven…this is not just a last chance at roller disco.

It’s a last chance at love-our love. Now, will you or will you not skate with me?

HYDE : I would Jackie…but seeing you there in your cute

little skating outfit…with all your tassels and

sequins…I might be tempted to…put you down a flight of stairs.

9 Quality, Manner,

26. KITTY: Well, there’s the little patient. So, how’d it go at the doctor’s?

RED: Well, let me put it this way. If a horse is in good shape, they say it’s healthy as me.

KITTY: Uh-huh. And did they say something about your

pants being on fire, liar, liar? RED: No.

KITTY: I just got off the phone with Dr. Leggett. He said

your blood pressure is through the roof.

9 Quality and

Quantity

27. JACKIE: Hyde, what happened?

HYDE: What? Nothing. Just somebody-and then a guy said ‘bitch’, and there’s nothing.

JACKIE: Oh, my God. He called me a bitch? And you hit

him. And that’s what happened, isn’t it? HYDE: No.

JACKIE: Liar. I am the bitch and you love me.

9 9

Manner

Quality

28. KITTY: Oh. Oh, and this blanket, it needs a nice Christmas

washing.

HYDE: Oh, no ,no ,no ,no ,no ! That’s Bud’s Christmas tool. Very sentimental. If anybody touches it, he’ll just go nuts.

9 Quality

29. DONNA: Eric, you got to hear this.

ERIC: We were just studying, Donna. That’s all.

DONNA: Eric, I’m telling a story here. Michael was running

through the cafeteria and there were these mashed potatoes on the floor…

ERIC: She’s just my lab partner! So, mellow out! God!

30. MICHAEL: Fine. Fine. I’ll pay for the stupid dinner. Now

just give me your stupid keys…so I can get my money out of your stupid car. Stupid. (a few minutes later)

DONNA: Um, Eric? Did Kelso leave his money at home?

Cause he just drove away in the Vista Cruiser. ERIC: He ditched us!

FEZ: I’m sure he’s right outside. I’ll go get him. Don’t worry. I’ll go and get the money and come back. You can trust me. (a few minutes later).

DONNA: He’s not coming back! And we trusted him.

JACKIE: Foreigners lie. You know what? I’m just gonna call

my dad, and he’ll come pay for our dinner. ERIC: Okay, Jackie, if you don’t come back…

JACKIE: Eric, please. I’m not immature like these idiots.

(a few minutes later).

DONNA: She is immature like those idiots.

9 Quality

31. ERIC: So, looks like I’m gonna spend the weekend with Michael-tutoring him in math.

RED: Are you good in Math? ERIC: Yes, sir.

RED: What’s the square root of ‘x’?

ERIC: ‘x’ is a variable, so until you define its

parameters…the only possible answer is a variable-or ‘x’

9

9

Quality

if you prefer. KITTY: Is that right?

RED: Sounds good. Will Michael’s parents be home?

ERIC: Yes. 9 Quality

32. RED : Well, you know Eric worked with him too. Eric, tell him about Earl.

LABOR BOARD: Actually, I’d be more interested in hearing

what Eric thinks about working with you. Eric?

ERIC: No. No, no, no, no. I’m here just to answer questions about Earl-old, dumb Earl.

LABOR BOARD: No, no, no, no. Eric, just a few more

questions. Is your father ever unnecessarily angry? ERIC: Unnecessarily angry? Well, you know, what does

‘unnecessarily’ mean, really? I mean my sister likes to put salt on roast beef…but I think it’s unnecessary. I mean, why cover up the flavor of such a delicious meat. RED: Just answer the question, dumb- ass !

9 9

Relation

Quantity

33. RED AND ERIC: Happy Birthday!

KITTY: Oh, you remembered?

RED: Well, of course we remembered, honey. We just figured that we’d wait till those were only 15 minutes left

in the day…and you were good and mad…and then we’d sneak up here and surprise the hell out of you.

ERIC: Well, Mom. Open this first. It’s from me.

KITTY: Oh, a map of Wisconsin. Well, thank you, honey.

ERIC: And, Mom, I got you these balloons too.

KITTY: ‘Knock out the knock-knocks at Schiffy’s. Gas- N Go.’

RED: Well, Kitty, there’s more!

KITTY: A funnel. Well, um, either these gifts are really

thoughtful…or you brought a bunch of crap at the gas station.

34. JACKIE: What’s that?

MICHAEL: Oh, it’s just this little…crib-like thing I made for

Eggy.

JACKIE: Eggy?

MICHAEL:Yeah, I named him. I don’t know, this egg is, like,

bringing out…all the parental stuff in me.

JACKIE: Michael, what happened to the pencil mark I made

on the bottom?

MICHAEL: Oh. Must have come off when I was giving him

his gentle bath.

9 Quality

35. FEZ: I am with Donna. Yes? Remember? Donna?

CAROLINE: Well, you’d be better be, because if you’re not

that means you still love me. And if you still love me but you’re not with me, I’ll make you pay.

FEZ: That would be scary if I was lying aboutDonna and me.(weak chuckles).

9 Quality

36. DONNA: Eric, this is yourpopcorn and soda.

ERIC: Hey, how are you? I didn’t do anything. You look

DONNA: Did you read my journal?

ERIC: No. Oh! I was just, uh. I was, uh, going through your underwear drawer. Yeah I know. That is why I look guilty.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

As social beings, we cannot be separated from social interactions. There are a lot of ways of interacting. One of them is having conversations with other people. The medium that is used in a conversation is language. Language can be divided into verbal and non-verbal language. An interaction using non-verbal language is done by means of facial expressions, gestures or body movements. On the other hand, in using verbal language, the speaker expresses his feelings, emotions or opinions through words. Language obviously plays an important role in expressing one’s feelings, emotions, or opinions.

In interacting, both verbally and non-verbally, misunderstandings are likely to occur, even though the speaker and the hearer are using the same language. It happens because in conveying the point of his or her utterance in a conversation, the speaker does not always speak literally. On the contrary, he may say something implicitly. There is an additional meaning or a meaning completely different from the literal meaning of the sentence. For instance, a speaker who is bored and does not like to continue a conversation further may not say it directly, but perhaps say that he has to go. Thus, his utterance ‘I have to go' implies that it

A conversation containing an implied meaning will be successful if the hearer can get the speaker’s intention. Unfortunately, however, not all hearers can immediately catch that meaning. It depends on their intellect and on their condition at that time, such as when they are nervous or in a panic. This situation will lead to misunderstandings. This misunderstanding will surely give effects. The effects can be comical or serious, depending on the context of the conversation. In That ‘70s Show, the source of the data of my thesis, the misunderstandings mostly result in comical effects. However, I do not only focus my discussion on conversations related to comical effects, but also all misunderstandings as a result of the non-observance of the Gricean Maxims. These misunderstandings are interesting to discuss, so I choose Analysis of the Non-Observance of the Gricean Maxims in That ‘70s Show as the topic of my thesis.

The implied meaning and the misunderstanding belong to Pragmatics, a study about speaker meaning. The theory that I use in approaching the problems in That ‘70s Show is the Gricean Maxim. The Gricean Maxim is the theory introduced by Paul Grice and is used to analyze conversation. According to Grice, there are four Conversational Maxims: a speaker must not say more or less than is required, a speaker has to tell the truth, a speaker has to give a relevant answer and a speaker has to be brief and clear in giving an answer. In making a conversation a speaker may or may not conform to these maxims.

not necessarily have an intention to mislead the hearer. In addition, a speaker may not observe a maxim because he is drunk, too nervous or excited or because he is a child or a foreign language learner that has no linguistic competence. Another reason is the speaker’s profession or culture’s belief that makes the speaker unable to answer explicitly. These will be more clearly explained when the theory is applied in the data.

I take the data of my thesis from That ‘70s Show TV series. I choose this TV series because it has a lot of misunderstandings that happen in the interactions between the characters, and the misunderstandings are caused by the speaker’s non-observance of the Gricean Maxims. Some of the misunderstandings give comical effects. Moreover, some of the characters are angry or confused because of the non-observance.

That '70s Show was made in 2005. It tells about the life of some teenagers and the setting of time is 1976. I choose this TV series because it has a lot of misunderstanding that occur because of the non-observance of the Grican Maxim. The non-observance is done by the main characters, the teenagers. They do the non-observance not only to their parents but also to their friends. As teenagers, they do not want to live with a lot of rules so that they do not obey their parents. Moreover, they want their friends to know that they are capable of doing everything. These reasons make the teenagers do the non-observance such as not saying the truth and giving much information. The non-observance gives comical effect that makes this TV series is interesting to be analyzed.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There are three problems that I am going to analyze:

1. Which utterances in That ‘70s Show show the fact that the speaker fails to observe the Gricean Maxims?

2. Which Gricean Maxims does the speaker fail to observe? 3. Why does the speaker fail to observe the Gricean Maxims?

1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of doing the analysis is

1. to show the utterances in That’ 70s Show that contain failure in observing the Gricean maxims.

2. to explain which maxims the speaker fails to observe. 3. to explain why the speaker fails to observe the maxims.

1.4 Method of Research

In doing this research, first I watch the TV comedy series, That '70s Show. Then I collect the conversations which contain comical scenes and I choose the conversations in which the speaker fails to observe the Gricean maxims. After that, I analyze and classify them based on the types of the non-observance and the types of maxim that they fail to observe. Then I analyze the data. Finally, I write the conclusion.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

Study, Method of Research, and Organization of the Thesis. Chapter Two contains the theories that I use, Pragmatics and Conversational Implicature of the Gricean Maxims. The discussion and the interpretation of my data are written in Chapter Three. In the last chapter, Chapter Four, I put forward my personal comments and opinion on my findings. The thesis finally ends with Bibliography and Appendix.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

Thomas, Jenny. (1995). Meaning in Interaction: an Introduction to Pragmatics. London and New York: Longman Group Limited.

Yule, George. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Primary Source

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

As social beings, we cannot be separated from social interactions. There are a lot of ways of interacting. One of them is having conversations with other people. The medium that is used in a conversation is language. Language can be divided into verbal and non-verbal language. An interaction using non-verbal language is done by means of facial expressions, gestures or body movements. On the other hand, in using verbal language, the speaker expresses his feelings, emotions or opinions through words. Language obviously plays an important role in expressing one’s feelings, emotions, or opinions.

In interacting, both verbally and non-verbally, misunderstandings are likely to occur, even though the speaker and the hearer are using the same language. It happens because in conveying the point of his or her utterance in a conversation, the speaker does not always speak literally. On the contrary, he may say something implicitly. There is an additional meaning or a meaning completely different from the literal meaning of the sentence. For instance, a speaker who is bored and does not like to continue a conversation further may not say it directly, but perhaps say that he has to go. Thus, his utterance ‘I have to go' implies that it is unpleasant to have a conversation with his conversational partner.

A conversation containing an implied meaning will be successful if the hearer can get the speaker’s intention. Unfortunately, however, not all hearers can immediately catch that meaning. It depends on their intellect and on their condition at that time, such as when they are nervous or in a panic. This situation will lead to misunderstandings. This misunderstanding will surely give effects. The effects can be comical or serious, depending on the context of the conversation. In That ‘70s Show, the source of the data of my thesis, the misunderstandings mostly result in comical effects. However, I do not only focus my discussion on conversations related to comical effects, but also all misunderstandings as a result of the non-observance of the Gricean Maxims. These misunderstandings are interesting to discuss, so I choose Analysis of the Non-Observance of the Gricean Maxims in That ‘70s Show as the topic of my thesis.

The implied meaning and the misunderstanding belong to Pragmatics, a study about speaker meaning. The theory that I use in approaching the problems in That ‘70s Show is the Gricean Maxim. The Gricean Maxim is the theory introduced by Paul Grice and is used to analyze conversation. According to Grice, there are four Conversational Maxims: a speaker must not say more or less than is required, a speaker has to tell the truth, a speaker has to give a relevant answer and a speaker has to be brief and clear in giving an answer. In making a conversation a speaker may or may not conform to these maxims.

not necessarily have an intention to mislead the hearer. In addition, a speaker may not observe a maxim because he is drunk, too nervous or excited or because he is a child or a foreign language learner that has no linguistic competence. Another reason is the speaker’s profession or culture’s belief that makes the speaker unable to answer explicitly. These will be more clearly explained when the theory is applied in the data.

I take the data of my thesis from That ‘70s Show TV series. I choose this TV series because it has a lot of misunderstandings that happen in the interactions between the characters, and the misunderstandings are caused by the speaker’s non-observance of the Gricean Maxims. Some of the misunderstandings give comical effects. Moreover, some of the characters are angry or confused because of the non-observance.

That '70s Show was made in 2005. It tells about the life of some teenagers and the setting of time is 1976. I choose this TV series because it has a lot of misunderstanding that occur because of the non-observance of the Grican Maxim. The non-observance is done by the main characters, the teenagers. They do the non-observance not only to their parents but also to their friends. As teenagers, they do not want to live with a lot of rules so that they do not obey their parents. Moreover, they want their friends to know that they are capable of doing everything. These reasons make the teenagers do the non-observance such as not saying the truth and giving much information. The non-observance gives comical effect that makes this TV series is interesting to be analyzed.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There are three problems that I am going to analyze:

1. Which utterances in That ‘70s Show show the fact that the speaker fails to observe the Gricean Maxims?

2. Which Gricean Maxims does the speaker fail to observe? 3. Why does the speaker fail to observe the Gricean Maxims?

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of doing the analysis is

1. to show the utterances in That’ 70s Show that contain failure in observing the Gricean maxims.

2. to explain which maxims the speaker fails to observe. 3. to explain why the speaker fails to observe the maxims.

1.4 Method of Research

In doing this research, first I watch the TV comedy series, That '70s Show. Then I collect the conversations which contain comical scenes and I choose the conversations in which the speaker fails to observe the Gricean maxims. After that, I analyze and classify them based on the types of the non-observance and the types of maxim that they fail to observe. Then I analyze the data. Finally, I write the conclusion.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

Study, Method of Research, and Organization of the Thesis. Chapter Two contains the theories that I use, Pragmatics and Conversational Implicature of the Gricean Maxims. The discussion and the interpretation of my data are written in Chapter Three. In the last chapter, Chapter Four, I put forward my personal comments and opinion on my findings. The thesis finally ends with Bibliography and Appendix.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

Thomas, Jenny. (1995). Meaning in Interaction: an Introduction to Pragmatics. London and New York: Longman Group Limited.

Yule, George. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Primary Source