Virgil's Aeneid Cosmos and Imperium

Virgil's Aeneid

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

COSMOS zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
AN D
IMPERIUM

PH I LI P

CLAR E N D O N

R.

H AR D I E

PRESS
19 8 6

•

O XF O R D

Oxford

/

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R.

cosm os and Im perium

1. Virgil.
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Aeneid

Title
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Ack n o wle d ge m e n t s
I ytsrponligfecaYXWVUTSRQPONMLIHGFEDCBA
A M g r a t e fu l t o t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d F e l l o w s o f C o r p u s Ch r i s t i
Co l l e g e , O x f o r d , fo r e l e c t i n g m e fo r f o u r ye a r s t o t h e P . S. A l l e n
j u n i o r R e s e a r c h F e l l o w s h i p , w i t h o u t w h i c h t h is b o o k w o u l d
n ot h a ve b e e n co n ce ive d a n d wr it t en . R o b i n Nisb et a n d D o n a l d
R u s s e ll g a v e g e n e r o u s l y o f t h e ir t i m e a n d s c h o l a r s h i p in r e a d i n g
t h r o u g h d r a ft s o f t h e w o r k ; I a ls o p r o f i t e d f r o m t h e c o m m e n t s o f
Den is F e e n e y, St e p h e n H a r r is o n , E liza b e t h R a w s o n , N i c h o l a s
R i c h a r d s o n , Be r t S m i t h , a n d M i c h a e l Vi c k e r s . J o h n S w a n n e l l
a n d J u li a Swa n n e ll r ea d t h r o u gh t h e co m p le t e d t yp e s cr ip t ;

t h e ir c o n t r i b u t i o n s w e r e n o t l i m i t e d t o p o i n t s o f s t yle . F i n a l l y ,
I o we a m o r e ge n e r a l in t ellect u a l d e b t to J o h n Br a m b l e , a
s c h o l a r o f r a r e i n s i gh t , w i t h o u t w h o s e t e a c h i n g a n d c o n ve r s a t i o n o v e r t h e ye a r s t h is w o u l d h a v e b e e n a v e r y d i f f e r e n t
book.
P a r t s o f c h a p t e r s 3 a n d 4 a r e a r e w o r k i n g o f m a t e r i a l fir s t
p u b l i s h e d in zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Herm es, 111 ( 19 8 3 ) .
P.R.H.

Co n t e n t s

<

LI ST OF P L AT E S

vii

AB B R E VI AT I O N S

viii

I NTRODUCTI ON

I

1. P O E T R Y A N D C O S M O L O G Y I N A N T I Q U I T Y

5

I. Poet r y a n d cosm ology

6

I I . Ep ic a n d cosm ology

22

2. C O S M O L O G Y A N D H I S T O R Y I N V I R G I L
I, Co s m o lo g y

and

n a t ion a l

ep ic

in

t h e zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGF
Georgics

¡Georges 2 .4 58 -3.4 8 )

33

I I . N a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y in t h e Aeneid

51

Ap p e n d i x : T h e S o n g of C l y i n e n e (Georgics 4 . 3 4 5 - 3 4 7 )
3. G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AENEID:

I

I . T h e t r a d it ion of p olit ica l Gi g a n t o m a c h i c i m a ge r y
I I . T h e s t o r m in Aeneid 1

V. Typ h o e u s a n d Tu r n us

85

110
118

II

1. 1 h e S h i e l d o f Ae n e a s : t h e G a u l s o n t h e C a p i t o l
I I . P e r g a m e n e a n d Au g u s t a n i d e o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l
im a ger y
I I I . G i g a n t o m a c h y in t h e la s t fo u r b o o k s o f t h e Aeneid

I . I m i t a t i o n o f L u c r e t i u s in t h e Georgics

85

97

I V. H e r c u l e s t h e g i a n t - s l a ye r : t h e fi g h t w i t h C a c u s

5. L U C R E T I U S A N D T H E AENEID

83

90

I I I . T h e S h i e l d o f Ae n e a s : A c t i u m

4 . G I G A N T O M A C H Y I N T H E AENEID:

33

12 0
12 0
12 5
14 3
15 7
15 8

I I . Lu cr e t iu s a n d a p p lie d co s m o lo gy

16 7

I I I . Co s m o l o g i c a l t h e m e s in t h e Aeneid

17 6

I V . E p i c t h e m e s in t h e De Rerum Natura

19 3

V. Le ve ls a n d i m a g e r y

2 19

CONTENTS

vi

V I . Vi r g i l ' s i m i t a t i o n o f L u c r e t i u s

233

Ap p e n d i x : L u c r c t i a n p a r a l l e l s fo r Vi r g i l ' s C a v e o f t h e
W i n d s zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
{Aeneid 1. 5 2 - 6 3 , 8 1- 8 3 )

237

6. H YP E R B O L E

241

I . T h e fu n c t i o n s o f h y p e r b o l e

242

I I . H y p e r b o l e in t h e Aeneid

254

Ap p e n d i x : S k y - r e a c h i n g in H o m e r

291

7. U N I V E R S A L E X P R E S S I O N S I N T H E AENEID

293

I. Dis t r ib u t io n o ve r t wo t er m s

29

I I . Dist r ib u t ion o ve r t h r ee t er m s

5

3 13

I I I . D is t r ib u t io n o ve r fo u r t e r m s

325

I V . Co n c l u s i o n s

329

8. T H E S H I E L D O F AE N E AS : T H E C O S M I C I C O N
I . Cr i t i c i s m o f t h e S h i e l d s i n ce Le s s i n g
II. Th e

a n cien t

t r a d it ion

of com m en t a r y

336
336

on

the

Sh i e l d o f Ac h i l l e s

34°

I I I . T h e Vi r g i l i a n Sh i e l d

346

I V. T h e Sh ie ld as p h ys ica l o b je ct

366

V . T h e s h o u l d e r i n g o f t h e S h i e l d [ Aeneid 8 . 7 2 9 - 7 3 1)

3^ 9

Ap p e n d i x : T h e Bu r d e n s o f t h e S h i e l d a n d o f An c h i s e s

3 75

EPILOGUE

377

INDEX

3^ 7

OF P ASSAGE S DI SCU SSE D

G E N E R AL I N D E X

393

List of Plat es

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCB

facing p.:
1. R e l i e f o f t h e Ap o t h e o s i s o f H o m e r , s i g n e d b y Ar c h e la u s o f P r i c n e

1 18

Co u r t e s y Tr u s t e e s o f t h e Br it ish M u s e u m

2. G a u l a n d D e a d W i f e : P e r g a m e n e Vi c t o r y M o n u m e n t
( R o m a n c o p y ) . R o m e , M u s e o d e lle T e r m e

119

P h o t o : M a n s e ll Co lle ct io n

3. G r o u p o f At h e n a a n d G e : Al t a r o f Z e u s a t P e r g a m u m .
S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n z u Be r l i n

1^o

4. G e m m a
Vi e n n a

151

Au g u s t e a .

5 . Au g u s t u s b e t w e e n
Bo s c o r e a l e
Fr om

Monum ents Piot

Ku n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s

Ve n u s

and

Mars:

Museum ,

Cu p

fr o m
18 2

5 ( 18 9 9 ) , p i. 3 1. 1.

Ph oto:

As h m o l e a n

Museum
6 . R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S u n d i a l o f Au g u s t u s

18 3

E . Bu c h n e r , RM 8 3 ( 19 76 ) , p . 3 53 , figs. 13 & 14 . P h o t o : As h m o le a n M u s e u m

7. Ae n e a s a n d R o m u l u s : W a l l - p a i n t i n g s f r o m P o m p e i i

2 14

Sp i n a zzo l a , Pom peii alia luce degli scavi nuovi di Via delVAbbundanza
( 19 5 3 ) , PP- I 5 I f-( p is. 18 3 & 18 4. P h o t o : As h m o l e a n M u s e u m

8 . S t a t u e o f Au g u s t u s : Vi l l a o f L i v i a a t P r i m a
( d e t a i l ) . Va t i c a n M u s e u m
Photo: Man sell Collection

Porta
21 5

Ab b r e via t io n s

FOR p er iod ica ls t h e a b b r e via t io n s ofzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJI
L'Année philologique h a ve b een
u sed . T h e fo llo win g wor ks ar e r efer r ed t o b y t h e a u t h o r ' s n a m e or b y
n a m e a n d a b b r e via t e d t it le.
Bin d er

Bu ch h e it ,
Sendung
Bu ch h e it ,
Anspruch
Bu ffièr e
Ch r ist

Ge r n e n t z
H e in ze
H eit s ch

H en r y

H u n zik e r
Kn a u e r

N is b e t / H u b b a r d

G. Bin d er , Aeneas und Augustus: Interpretationen zum
8. Buch der Aeneis (Beit r ä ge zu r klassisch en Ph ilologie 38 , M e is e n h e im a m Gla n , 19 71)
V. Bu ch h e it , Vergil über die Sendung Rom s: Untersuchungen zum Bellu m P o e n icu m und zur Ae n e is
(Gy m nasium Beih eft 3, H e id e lb e r g, 1963)
V. Bu ch h e it , Der Anspruch des Dichters in Vergib
Ge o r gi k a : Dichtertum und Heilsw eg (I m p u lse d e r
F o r s ch u n g 8, D a r m s t a d t , 19 72)
F. Bu ffièr e, Les m y thes (THom ère et la pensée grecque
(Par is, 1956)
F. Ch r is t , Die röm ische W eltherrschaft in der antiken
Dichtung ( Tü b in ge r Beit r ä ge zu r Alt er t u m swiss.
3 1, St u t t ga r t a n d Ber lin , 1938 )
W . Ge r n e n t z, Laudes Rom ae (diss. R o s t o ck , 19 18 )
R . H e in ze , Virgils epische Technik 3, ( Le ip zig a n d
Ber lin , 19 15)
E. H eit s ch , Die griechischen Dichterfragm ente der
röm ischen Kaiserzeit 2 ( Ab h a n d lu n ge n d er Ak a d em ie
d er
Wissen sch a ft en
in
Gö t t in ge n ,
e
p h ilologisch -h ist or isch e Kla s s e, 3 Folge, 49, Gö t t in gen , 1963)
J . H e n r y, Aeneidea, or critical, exegetical, and aesthetical rem arks on the Aen eis, i ( Lo n d o n a n d E d in b u r gh , 18 73 ), ii ( Du b lin , 18 78 ), iii ( Du b lin ,
18 8 9), iv ( Du b lin , 1889)
R . H u n zik e r , Die Figur der Hy perbel in den Gedichten
Vergib (diss. Zu r ich , 18 96)
G. N . Kn a u e r , Die Aen eis und Hom er: Studien zur
poetischen technik Vergib m it Listen der Hom erzitate in
der Aen eis ( H yp o m n e m a t a 7, Gö t t in ge n , 1964)
R . G. M . N isb et a n d M . H u b b a r d , A com m entary
on Horace: O d e s Book 1 ( O xfo r d , 19 70 ), Book 2
( Oxfo r d , 1978 )

ABBR E VI AT I O N S

IX

N o r d e n ytsrponligfecaYXWVUTSRQPONMLIHGFEDCBA
E . N o r d e n ,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
P. Vergilius Maro Ae n e i s Buch I 7 6
( S t u t t g a r t , 19 7 6 )

Otto

A. O t t o , Die Sprichw örter und sprichw örtlichen Re-

Sch r ijve r s

densarten der Röm er ( Le ip zig, 1890);
P . H . Sch r ijver s, Horror ac divina voluptas: études sur

Sku t sch

la poétique et la poésie de Lucrèce ( Am s t e r d a m , 19 70 )
O . Sk u t s c h , Studio Enniana ( L o n d o n , 19 6 8 )

West

M . L . W e s t , Hesiod: T h e o g o n y ( O x f o r d , 19 6 6 )

Wigod sky

E in ze ls ch r ift 24, W i e s b a d e n ,

M . W igo d s k y, Vergil and early Latin poetry (Herm es
19 7 2 )

A. W lo s o k , Die Göttin Venus in Vergils Aeneis (H eiWlosok

d elb er g,

19 6 7 )

I n t r o d u ct io n
T h e e a r t h l y s u c c e s s a n d t r i u m p h o f Ae n e a s , o f t h e w h o l e o f
R o m a n h i s t o r y, a n d o f Au g u s t u s is d e t e r m i n e d b y n o t h i n g
o t h e r t h a n t h e s o ve r e ign t y o n e a r t h o f t h e h igh est

God ,

b y t h e s h a p i n g of e a r t h ly t h in gs t h r o u g h t h e s p ir it u a l fo r ce
t h a t go ve r n s t h e u n ive r s e , b y t h e m e a s u r e d co s m o s w o n
f r o m t h e p o w e r s o f c h a o s t h a t l u r k i n s i d e a n d p r e s s in f r o m
a ll q u a r t e r s o u t s id e . ( F . K l i n g n e r ) 1

cr i t i ci s m o f t h e zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Aeneid h a s l a r g e l y s t r u c t u r e d it s e lf
a r o u n d t w o o p p o s i n g a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e p o e m , w h i c h see it a s
e i t h e r a j p a n e g y r i c o f R o m e a n d it s h e r o , Au g u s t u s , o r a s a
" j r a g e d y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a u g h t u p in t h e r e m o r s e le s s p r o ce s s e s
o f h i s t o r y; a n e p i c o f o p t i m i s m o r a n e p i c o f p e s s im is m . 2 O f
r e c e n t ye a r s , a t le a s t in E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e s c h o l a r s h i p , t h e e m p h a s is h a s fa lle n m o r e h e a v i l y o n t h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e e v a l u a t io n s , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t of t a k i n g t h e Aeneid a s in a n i m p o r t a n t
s en s e a n t i - Au g u s t a n .
MODERN

I n t h is s t u d y I d e a l , fo r t h e m o s t p a r t , w i t h t h e p a n e g y r i c a l o r
_ i d e o l o g i c a l a s p e ct s o f t h e Aeneid. M y w o r k w a s n o t u n d e r t a k e n
d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e a i m o f c o n f r o n t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l issu es t h a t h a v e
d o m i n a t e d r e ce n t w o r k o n Vi r g i l , b u t g r e w o u t o f a m o r e
g e n e r a l , h i s t o r i c a l, in t e r e s t in t h e a n c i e n t t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e
o f a l l e g o r y ; t h e r e s u lt s s h o u l d b e s e e n a s p r e l i m i n a r y t o a g l o b a l
cr i t i ca l a p p r o a c h t o t h e Aeneid. I w o u l d h e r e o n l y s a y t h a t t h o s e
w h o s e c r i t i c a l s yn t h e s is t e n d s t o d is m is s t h e p a n e g y r i c a l c o n t e n t
oi t h e p o e m a s so m u c h ' s u r fa c e i d e o l o g y ' w o u l d fin d t h a t t h e
' s u r fa c e ' r u n s r a t h e r d e e p , if m y a n a l ys e s a r e c o r r e c t .
T h e k e y w o r d s o f t h e t it le , cosm os a n d Im perium , d e fi n e t h e
fo cu s o f t h e w o r k a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o s m o l o g i c a !
m od els , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d th e s t r u ct u r es o f h u m a n h ist or y
!

' R o m a ls l d e e \ in Röm ische Geistesw elt* ( M u n i c h , 19 6 1) , p p . 6 3 8 f. ( =Ant.

3 {19 2 7 ) ,

2 3 r ia
..i.
F o r a b a l a n c e d a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e t w o a p p r o a c h e s s ee J . P e r r e t , ' O p t i m i s m e e t
t r a g é d i e d a n s VEnéide', REI. 45- ( 19 6 7 ) , 3 4 2 - 6 2 . I n g e n e r a l o n r e c e n t t r e n d s in Vi r g i l i a n
s c n o l a r s h i p s ee W . R . J o h n s o n , Darkness visible: a study of Vergil's Ae n e i d ( Be r k e l e y, L o s
An g e l e s , a n d L o n d o n , 19 76 ) , c h . 1.

io

V I R G I L ' SzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
A E . N E I D : COSMOS
AN D
IMPERIL!M

a n d s o c i e t y, o n t h e o t h e r . T h e i d e a t h a t t h e s t a t e is a n a l o g o u s
t o , o r e ve n in s o m e w a y i d e n t i c a l w i t h , t h e n a t u r a l u n i ve r s e is
w i d e s p r e a d in a n c i e n t t h o u g h t ; Vi r g i l ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e
ve r s i o n o f t h is e l a b o r a t e d in t h e R o m a n i m p e r i a l m y t h c a n
h a r d l y b e o v e r r a t e d , b u t h is fa s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e c o s m i c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f R o m a n h i s t o r y is t y p i c a l o f t h e a g e : O t t o Br e n d e l ' s
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Au g u s t a n p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r i e s in t h e vi s u a l
a r t s c o u l d b e a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e Aeneid'. ' T h e i r o r i g i n a l
t h e m e wa s t h e R o m a n in s t it u t ion s u n d e r t h e E m p i r e ; t h eir
ge n e r a l t e n d e n cy, to t r a n sp ose t h e a ct u a l p olit ica l b o d y in t o
a n i m a g e o f s e m i m y t h i c a l o r d e r f u n c t i o n i n g a s t h e t e r r e s t r ia l
a n a lo gu e o f t h e cos m ic o r ga n is m . ' 3 O f cou r s e t h e r e la t io n s h ip
b e t w e e n cosm os a n d im perium is b u t a p a r t o f t h e s t o r y t o ld in
t h e Aeneid; a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e p o e m w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y s t u d y of,'im perium a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' ,
w h i c h it is n o t m y p u r p o s e h e r e t o u n d e r t a k e in d e t a i l , a n d o f
w h i c h t h e r e e xis t s e ve r a l r e c e n t s k e t ch e s .
T h e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t I d is cu s s m a y a p p e a r u n p l e a s a n t l y s ch e m a t i c a n d h a r s h l y lit t o c o n n o i s s e u r s o f a sfum ato Vi r g i l i a n
m e l a n c h o l y . T h e r e is h e r e a p e c u l i a r l y Vi r g i l i a n o p p o s i t i o n : a t
t h e i d e o l o g i c a l le ve l t h e r e is a c l a r i t y o f o u t l i n e , a g r a n d i o s e
a n d h yp e r b o li ca l co n fid e n ce , w h i c h a r e a t t h e o p p o s it e p o le
fr o m t h e s u b d u e d s h a d o w s a n d u n c e r t a i n r e a l i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i ze m u c h o f t h e h u m a n a c t i o n . T h e s e a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y fa c e t s o f t h e Aeneid a r e r e l a t e d a s t h e d i ve r s e
m a n i fe s t a t i o n s o f a c e n t r i f u g a l m o v e m e n t t h a t s h u n s t h e i n t e lli gi b i li t y a n d a u t o n o m y o f t h e H o m e r i c h e r o . T h e h y p e r r e a li s m o f a m y t h i c i z e d
i d e o l o g y c o m p e n s a t e s fo r t h e
fo r m le s s n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e .
Vi k t o r P o s c h l u n d e r s t a n d s t h e Vi r g i l i a n s yn t h e s is o f c o s m i c
a n d i m p e r i a l t h e m e s a s t h e r e s u lt o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f ' t h e
P l a t o n i c i d e a o f t h e u n i t y o f Co s m o s a n d P o l i t e i a ' w i t h ' t h e
H o m e r i c b e l i e f t h a t t h e u n i t y o f n a t u r e is i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e
h u m a n w o r l d ' . 4 T h e s e a r e i m p o r t a n t fa ct o r s , b u t t h e r e is m o r e
3 O . J . B r e n d e l , Prolegom ena to the study of Rom an art ( N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n , 19 7 6 ) ,
p . 18 9 .

The art of Vergil: im age and sy m bol in the Ae n e i d , t r a n s . G . S e l i g s o n ( An n Ar b o r ,
19 6 2 ) , p . 2 3 . B r o o k s O t i s , Virgil: a study in civilized poetry ( O x f o r d , 19 6 3 ) , is a ls o
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o s m i c a s p e c t o f t h e Aeneid-, h e w o r k s w i t h a l o o s e l y d e f i n e d n o t i o n
o f ' c o s m i c s y m p a t h y ' (see i n d e x , s . v v . ) , a n d h is i n t e r e s t s c e n t r e o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e cosm os a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
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t o b e s a id a b o u t t h e r ich n e s s a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e t r a d i t i o n
a v a i l a b l e t o Vi r g i l , a n d t h e s u b t l e t y w i t h w h i c h h e e x p l o i t e d it .
I n c h a p t e r i I e x a m i n e t h e clo s e lin k s t h a t e xis t e d in a n t i q u i t y
b e t w e e n p o e t r y a n d n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y ; Vi r g i l s t a n d s , h ist o r i c a l l y, a t a p o i n t w h e r e a H e l l e n i s t i c v i e w o f H o m e r a s t h e
p o e t o f t h e n a t u r a l u n i ve r s e in t e r s e ct s w i t h a s p e c i fi c a l l y R o m a n
r e vi va l o f a n i m a g e o f t h e p o e t a s p r i v y t o t h e s e cr e t s o f t h e
u n i ve r s e . C h a p t e r 2 a n a l ys e s t h e e x p l i c i t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
. n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e m e s in t h e zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Aeneid, a n d d e v e l o p s t h e
n o t i o n o f t h e ' c o s m i c s e t t i n g ' in o r d e r t o i n t e g r a t e t h e m w i t h
t h e m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l e p i c t h e m e s . As P o s c h l s a w , m y t h is a
n a t u r a l m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e cosm os a n d h i s t o r y; in c h a p t e r s 3
a n d 4 I e x a m i n e fr o m t h is p o i n t o f v i e w Vi r g i l ' s u se o f t h e m y t h
o f i }i g a n t o m a c h y a n d o f t h e s e ve r a l a l l e g o r i z a t i o n s o f t h a t m y t h
c u r r e n t in a n t i q u i t y . I n d r a w i n g e x t e n s i ve l y o n t h is m y t h Vi r g i l
p la ce s h i m s e l f in a t r a d i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l i m a g e r y t h a t r e a c h e s
b a c k a t le a s t a s fa r a s e a r l y fifth-century At h e n s , a n d w h i c h
r e c e i ve d n e w i m p e t u s in t h e v e r b a l a n d v i s u a l a r t s o f t h e H e l le n is t ic k i n g d o m s . C h a p t e r 5 t u r n s t o a s p e c i fi c a l l y l i t e r a r y
m o d e l , t h e De Rerum Natura o f L u c r e t i u s ; im itatw o f t h is h e x a m e t e r p o e m o f t h e u n i ve r s e , p e r v a s i v e a t t h e lin gu is t ic le ve l, is
a ls o d e t e r m i n a t i v e fo r Vi r g i l ' s o v e r a l l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e Aeneid
a s a n a c c o u n t o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f a R o m a n ( Au g u s t a n ) u n i ve r s e ,
i n c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7 I a n a l y s e Vi r g i l ' s u s e o f t w o s m a l l - s c a l e
v e r b a l d e vi c e s , h y p e r b o l e a n d t h e u n i ve r s a l e xp r e s s i o n ' ( fo r
e x a m p l e , ' H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ' ) . I n b o t h ca s e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l
u s a ge s c o n t r i b u t e t o l a r g e r t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e s : h y p e r b o l e le n d s
it self e a s i ly t o t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a n a l l e g o r i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r a l u n i ve r s e a n d e ve n t s in t h e h u m a n w o r l d ,
w h i l e t h e ' u n i ve r s a l e xp r e s s i o n ' p lo t s t h e a c t i o n o f t h e e p i c
t h r o u g h a m o r e li t e r a l c o s m o g r a p h y . F i n a l l y , in c h a p t e r 8 I
d r a w on a n cie n t n a t u r a l- p h ilo s o p h ica l a lle go r iza t io n o f H o m e r
t o i n t r o d u c e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e S h i e l d o f Ae n e a s a s t h e
u l t i m a t e s y m b o l o f t h e i d e n t i fi c a t i o n o f cosm os a n d im perium , a
r e c a p i t u l a t i o n in m i c r o c o s m i c fo r m o f t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l a n d
i d e o l o g i c a l t h e m e s d i s cu s s e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s .
Vi r g i l ' s ' R o m a n c o s m o g o n y ' m a y b e r e a d a s a s e l f- c o n t a i n e d
a n d co n s i s t e n t s t o r y; h o w e v e r , a s I i n d i c a t e in c h a p t e r 1, t h e
p o e t r y o f t h e u n i ve r s e is b u t o n e c o m p o n e n t o f a n i d e a l o f t h e
u n i ve r s a l e p i c w h i c h Vi r g i l , a s a s e lf- co n s ci o u s r e s p o n s e t o t h e

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ch a llen ge t h r o wn d o w n b y th e e xa m p le of a n a p ot h eosed
H o m e r , s t r o ve t o r e a l i ze in t h e Aeneid. T h e p o e t i c u n i ve r s e is
m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n t h e R o m a n u n i ve r s e o f t h e Au g u s t a n
p r i n c i p a t e ; b u t t o e x p l o r e it s b o u n d s w o u l d e x c e e d t h e a i m s of
t h is b o o k .

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I T is t h e c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t o f t h is b o o k t h a t Vi r g i l ' s l e g e n d a r y
a n d h i s t o r i ca l e p i c , t h e zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Aeneid, d r a w s e x t e n s i v e l y o n t e c h n i q u e s
a n d t h e m e s w h i c h c a n b r o a d l y b e cla s s e d a s ' c o s m o l o g i c a l ' ;
t h a t is t o s a y, t h e y d e r i v e e i t h e r f r o m p h i l o s o p h i c a l d is cu s s io n s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p h ys i c a l u n i ve r s e , o r else fr o m t h e
m yt h ica l co s m o lo gy o f a p r e - p h ilo s o p h ica l a ge
(wh ich ,
h o w e v e r , a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h y w a s k e e n t o a s s i m i la t e t o it s e lf b y
v a r i o u s k i n d s o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ) . Vi r g i l ' s ' c o s m i c s e n s e ' , t o u s e
P ier r e Bo ya n ce ' s p h r a s e ,1 h a s b e e n fr e q u e n t ly c o m m e n t e d
u p o n ; t h e p r e s e n t w o r k s e e k s t o d e fi n e m o r e e x a c t l y t h e s o u r ce s
o f t h is a s p e c t o f t h e Aeneid a n d t o p r o v i d e a n a n a l ys i s o f t h e
u ses t o w h i c h c o s m o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l is p u t in t h e p o e m . Vi r g i l ' s
u s e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l t h e m e s is p e c u l i a r l y h is o w n , a n i n d i v i d u a l
r e s p o n s e t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e a n d t i m e in t h e
h i s t o r y o f R o m e , b u t it c a n n o t b e p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t
r e fe r e n c e t o t h e p r e v i o u s a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n o f w r i t i n g p o e t r y o n
cosm ologica l t h em es.
T h e i d e a t h a t p o e t r y m i g h t b e a s u i t a b l e , a n d e v e n p r e fe r r e d ,
v e h i c l e fo r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s cie n t ific c o s m o l o g y is o n e t h a t
is a li e n t o m o d e r n w a y s o f t h i n k i n g , b u t t h is is a r e l a t i ve l y
r ecen t p r e ju d ice . F o r Q u i n t i li a n a k n o w l e d g e o f a s t r o n o m y a n d
p h i l o s o p h y is a n e s s e n t ia l p a r t o f gram m atics, s i m p l y in o r d e r t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o e t s . 2 T h i s is n o t j u s t t h e s p e c i a l p l e a d i n g o f
t h e l i t e r a r y p r o fe s s o r , b u t s y m p t o m a t i c o f a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h
l o n g o u t l a s t e d a n t i q u i t y . I n D a n t e ' s Com m edia t h e p o e t u n e m b a r r a s s e d ly s t e p s f o r w a r d a s b o t h t h e o l o g i a n a n d ^ p h ilo s o p h e r , t o p r e s e n t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ( a c c o u n t o f t h e cosm os^ a s
t h e n u n d e r s t o o d . 3 I n t h e g r e a t e s t E n g l i s h e p i c , M i l t o n ' s Paradise
1

' L e S e n s c o s m i q u e d e Vi r g i i e ' , REL

32 ( 19 5 4 ) , 2 2 0 - 4 9 .

Inst. 1. 4 . 4 ' n e c ; si r a t i o n e m s i d e r u m i g n o r e t [ g r a m m a t i c e ] , p o e t a s i n t e l l i g a t , q u i
Cut a l i a o m i i t a m 1 t o t ie n s o r t u o c x a s u q u e s i g n o r u m i n d e c l a r a n d i s t e m p o r i b u s u t u n t u r ;
2

t g n a r a p h i l o s o p h i a e , c u m p r o p t e r p l u r i m o s in o m n i b u s fe r e c a r m i n i b u s l o c o s e x
j n t i m a n a t u r a l i u m q u a e s t i o n u m s u b t s l i t a t e r e p e t i t o s , t u r n ve l p r o p t e r E m p e d o c l e n
in G r a e c i s , V a r r o n e m a c L u c r e t i u m i n La t i n i s , q u i p r a e c e p t a s a p i e n t i a e v e r s i b u s
t r a d id er u n t .1
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O n t h e m e d i e v a l c o n c e p t s o f t h e poeta-theologus a n d t h e poeta-philosophus

a n d t h eir

a n t i q u e s o u r c e s s ee F. R . C u r t i u s , European literature and the Latin m iddle ages, t r a n s . W .

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Lost, t h e t h e m e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a s t r o n o m y a n d c o s m o l o g y
a r e fu lly a c c e p t e d a s s u b j e c t s s u i t a b l e fo r t h e m o s t n o b l e fo r m
o f p o e t r y. T h e e a r l y s e ve n t e e n t h c e n t u r y s a w a g r e a t o u t p u t o f
p o e t r y c o n t a i n i n g c o s m o l o g i c a l a llu s i o n , b u t t h e a d v a n c e s in
s cie n ce w h i c h w e r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b le fo r t h is in t e r e s t w e r e
a ls o c r e a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a d i vi s i o n b e t w e e n p o e t ic a n d
s cie n t ific d is co u r s e s t h a t h a s la s t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y . 4
D a n t e a n d M i l t o n b o t h p l a c e a v e r y h i g h v a l u e o n t h e r o le
o f t h e p o e t a s i n s t r u c t o r a n d c u l t u r a l s p o k e s m a n . Bo t h in t h is
r e s p e ct , a n d in t h a t o f t h e p o e t i c h a n d l i n g o f s cie n t ific a n d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e m e s , it is p o s s ib le t o t a lk o f a n i m a g e o f t h e
' i n t e g r a t e d p o e t ' , w h i c h a s s ign s t o t h e p o e t a p l a c e a t t h e c e n t r e
o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l w o r l d s ; t h is i m a g e is t yp i c a l l y s u p p o r t e d b y e l e va t e d id e a s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e
o f p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n . T h e m a n o e u vr e s a n d t o p i cs w h i c h t h e
M i d d l e Ag e s a n d t h e R e n a i s s a n c e u s e d in t h e d e fe n c e o f s u ch a
p o s i t i o n w e r e l a r g e l y t r a n s fo r m a t i o n s o f a n c i e n t s t a t e m e n t s
a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f p o e t r y; f u r t h e r m o r e , fo r b o t h
D a n t e a n d M i l t o n , Vi r g i l w a s a m o d e l o f t h e fir s t i m p o r t a n c e .
I n t h is c h a p t e r I e x a m i n e t h e i m a g e o f t h e ' i n t e g r a t e d p o e t ' in
t h e ve r s i o n p r e s e n t e d t o Vi r g i l b y t r a d i t i o n , a n d c o n c e n t r a t e
o n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s fo r t h e p o e t ' s c o m p e t e n c e t o d e a l w i t h
m a t t er s cosm ologica l.

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C O S M O L O G Y

U n d e r t h is h e a d i n g I c o n s i d e r , fir s t ly, t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d h ist o r y o f t h e a s s o ci a t i o n o f p o e t r y a n d c o s m o l o g y in t h e s u r v i v i n g
p o e t i c a l w o r k s o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n a n t i q u i t y ; a n d , s e c o n d l y,
t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d q u e s t i o n o f w h a t t h e a n c i e n t s t h e m s e l ve s
t h o u g h t o f t h e lin k b e t w e e n p o e t r y a n d c o s m o l o g y , a s u b j e c t
t h a t I s h a ll a p p r o a c h t h r o u g h a s u r v e y o f t h e p s e u d o - h i s t o r i c a l
con s t r u ct ion s of t h e d e ve lo p m e n t o f cu lt u r e a n d p o e t r y cu r r e n t
in a n t i q u i t y . T h e final p a r t o f t h is s e ct i o n is d e v o t e d t o t h e
R . T r a s k ( L o n d o n , 19 5 3 ) , ch s . 11 a n d 12 . O n D a n t e s ee P . B o y d e , Dantephilom y tkes
philosopher:

m an in the cosm os ( C a m b r i d g e ,

19 8 1) ; t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n

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c o m p a r a t i v e e s s a y o n D a n t e a n d L u c r e t i u s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r h a r n e s s i n g o f s c i e n t i fi c
p h ilo s o p h y t o s o cia l a n d r eligiou s en d s .
4

S e e J . M. D . Bu s h , Science and English poetry : a historical sketch i^ go-iQf^ o ( N e w Yo r k ,

19 5 0 ) ; M . H . N i c o l s o n , The breaking of the circle: studies tn the effect of the 'new science' upon
seventeenth-century poetry ( E v a n s t o n , 19 5 0 ) -

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7

q u e s t i o n , i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t fo r Vi r g i l , o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e Au g u s t a n c o n c e p t o f t h e zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDC
vates a n d n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaWVUTSRPMLIHGFEDCBA

(a) Co s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y in Gr e e k a n d R o m a n a n t i q u i t y
O f t h e t w o gr e a t fo u n t a in - h e a d s o f Gr e e k p o e t r y, H e s io d im m e d i a t e l y o ffe r s m o d e l s fo r c o s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y . As t h e o b j e c t
o f l a t e r i m i t a t i o n h is p o s i t i o n is a m b i v a l e n t , b e c a u s e o f t h e
v a r i e d n a t u r e o f h is w o r k s . O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e s h o r t e r c o m p a s s o f h is p o e m s , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e o f H o m e r , a n d t h e
n o n - e p i c s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f t h e W orks and Day s, s i n gle d h i m o u t
fo r t h e Al e x a n d r i a n s a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a k i n d o f p o e t r y
o p p o s e d t o t h e g r a n d i o s i t y o f e p i c; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d h is a c c o u n t s , in t h e Theogony , o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c o s m i c d e i t i e s
o u t o f Ch a o s , a n d o f t h e a w e s o m e s t r u ggle s o f T i t a n o m a c h y
a n d T y p h o n o m a c h y , r e p r e s e n t e d a le ve l o f e p i c g r a n d e u r
h i g h e r e v e n t h a n t h e w a r s o f g o d s a n d m e n in t h e Iliad. T h e
m y t h i c a l a c t i o n s o f t h e Theogony c o u l d , b y a s i m p l e fo r m o f
a l l e g o r i z a t i o n , b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e o f a less
a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c c o s m o go n y a n d co s m o lo gy; 5 t h u s t h e ca t egor y of 'H es iod ic' p oet r y m igh t be wid e n e d to in clu d e t h e
p o p u la r i ze d s cien ce o f a m o r e s o p h is t ica t e d a ge . I n ch a p t e r 3 I
s h a ll e x a m i n e a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e o f t h e a l l e g o r i c a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n in t h e Aeneid o f H e s i o d i c m y t h o l o g y t o a p h ys i c a l
v i e w o f t h e u n i ve r s e . H e s i o d is a ls o i m p o r t a n t fo r t h e fu t u r e
d e ve l o p m e n t a n d a p p li ca t i o n o f co s m o lo gica l p o e t r y b y vir t u e
o f t h e fa c t t h a t h e p r o v i d e s a p r i m i t i v e m o d e l fo r a u n i v e r s a l
h i s t o r y, in w h i c h a c o n t i n u o u s d e v e l o p m e n t is t r a c e d f r o m t h e
first a c t o f c r e a t i o n t o l e g e n d a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l e ve n t s o f t h e
r e l a t i ve l y r e c e n t p a s t ; in a n t i q u i t y t h e H e s i o d i c c a t a l o g u e o f
l e g e n d a r y w o m e n , t h e Eoiai, w a s t a k e n t o b e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f
t h e Theogony ,6 W e s h o u l d a ls o r e m e m b e r t h a t in a n t i q u i t y
H esiod
wa s cr ed it ed wit h a n a s t r o n o m ica l p o e m ,
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T h e ea r ly Gr e e k t r a d it ion of h e xa m e t e r cosm ologica l p oet r y
is c o n t i n u e d in t h e p o e m s o f t h e p r e - S o c r a t i c s X e n o p h a n e s ,
5

e . g. C o r n u t u s Theol. Gra.ec. 17.

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S e e W e s t , p p . 4 8 ff.; s ee b e l o w , p p . 6 6 f.

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P a r m e n i d e s , a n d E m p e d o c l e s . T h e s e t h i n k e r s p r e s e n t w h a t is
r e c o g n i z a b l y a p h i l o s o p h i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a m y t h o l o g i c a l co s m o l o g y , b u t m y t h i c a l e l e m e n t s a r e st ill p r o m i n e n t . N o r c a n w e
y e t s p e a k o f t h e d i s i n t e r e s t e d p u r s u i t o f s cie n ce fo r it s o w n s a k e ;
n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y is c o n c e i v e d a s p a r t o f a w i d e r p r o g r a m m e
o f s o cia l a n d r e li gi o u s e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d i n s t r u c t i o n . I n t h is
t h e s e w r i t e r s a r e q u i t e c o m p a r a b l e t o H e s i o d , w h o in t h e W orks
and Day s a r g u e s f r o m t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e a n d n a t u r a l
w o r l d s t o t h e d e m a n d s o f j u s t i c e in t h e h u m a n w o r l d . T h e
in t e gr a t io n o f co s m o lo gica l wit h ot h er con cer n s, a n d t h e h igh
m o r a l s e r io u s n e s s o f t h e p h i I p s o p h e r - p o c t , a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y d is t in ct in t h e w o r k s o f E m p e d o c l e s , w h o c o m b i n e s t h e r o le s o f
p u r ve yo r of cosm ologica l t r u t h , sh a m a n ist ic wo n d e r - wo r k e r ,
a n d p r o p h e t t o a b e n i g h t e d s o c i e t y.
T h e r e w a s a d i s p u t e in a n t i q u i t y a s t o w h e t h e r d i d a c t i c p o e t r y o f t h e t yp e wr it t e n b y t h e p r e - So cr a t ics w a s p r o p e r ly to b e
cla s s ifie d a s p o e t r y . I n t h e Poetics Ar i s t o t l e s a id t h a t E m p e d o c l e s
s h a r e d w i t h H o m e r o n l y h is m e t r e , a n d s h o u ld m o r e ju s t ly b e
c a l l e d a phy siologos t h a n a p o e t . 8 I n t h e lo s t w o r k On Poets,
h o w e v e r , Ar i s t o t l e ( o r a n i n t e r l o c u t o r ) is r e p o r t e d a s h a v i n g
s a id t h a t E m p e d o c l e s w a s ' H o m e r i c ' a n d a m a s t e r in t h e u s e o f
m e t a p h o r . 9 T h i s m o r e p o s i t i ve e v a l u a t i o n is s h a r e d b y Ci c e r o ,
w h o in t h e De Oratore s p e a k s o f t h e "e g r e g i u m p o e m a ' o f E m p e d o c l e s . 10
W e m u s t w a i t a fe w c e n t u r i e s fo r t h e n e x t g r e a t p e r i o d o f
c o s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y , u n t il t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a g e , w h e n c o n d i t i o n s
a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t . T h e d i s s o c i a t i o n o f s ci e n ce f r o m p o e t r y a n d
r e l i g i o n h a d a d v a n c e d fa r , a n d it m i g h t s e e m t o b e a s a d e t a c h e d e xe r ci s e o f p o e t i c t e c h n i q u e t h a t Ar a t u s ve r s ifie s o n e o f
t h e m o s t t e c h n i c a l o f t h e p r o s e t r e a t is e s o n a s t r o n o m y , t h e
Phaenom ena o f E u d o x u s . T h e e c h o , in t h e / ) / ' ^ - e p is o d e , o f t h e
H e s i o d ic m o r a l c o n c e r n fo r t h e fa lle n s t a t e o f m a n k i n d , a n d
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l r e ligio s it y o f t h e o p e n i n g h y m n t o Ze u s , m i g h t
a p p e a r t o b e a s e m p t y o f t r u e c o m m i t m e n t a s t h e p r i e s t ly persona
a d o p t e d b y C a l l i m a c h u s in h is Hy m ns. Bu t Ar a t u s ' p i e t y is n o t
w h o l l y a m a t t e r o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; t h e r e is a
8

Poet. i 4 4 7 b J 7 f t

8

D i o g . L a e r t . 8 . 5 7 ( = Ar i s t o i . fr . 70 R o s e }.

De Or. 1. 5 0 . 2 1 7 ( in t h e m o u t h o f An t o n i u s ) ; cf. a ls o Acad. 2 , 2 3 . 7 4 . O n t h e w h o l e
h i s t o r y o f t h e is s u e s e e E . P o h l m a n n , ' G h a r a k t e r i s t i k a d e s r o m i s c h e n L e h r g e d i c h t s ' ,
10

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i . 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 8 1 6 ff.

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s t r o n g u n d e r c u r r e n t o f S t o i c i s m in t h e p o e m a l i g n i n g it w i t h
t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y fa s h i o n fo r a c o s m i c r e l i g i o n w h i c h fo l l o w e d
t h e d i r e c t i o n s la id d o w n in t h e P l a t o n i czyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Epinorm s a n d Ar i s t o t l e ' s
e a r l y w o r k , t h e los t De Philosophia, a n d w h i c h t e n d e d t o l e a d t h e
t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s o f fift h - a n d f o u r t h - c e n t u r y c o s m o l o g y
b a c k t o a m o r e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n in t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f r e li gi o u s
a n d s o ci a l t h e o r y . 1 1 I n e ffe c t , t h is c o s m i c r e li gi o n p r o d u c e d a
n e w fu s io n o f s ci e n ce a n d r e l i g i o n , in w h i c h t h e p o e t m i g h t a ls o
r e in s e r t h im s e lf. Cl e a n t h e s ' Hy m n to gem is t h e m o s t n o t a b l e
s u r v i v i n g p r o d u c t o f t h is n e w s yn t h e s is o f m ys t i c i s m a n d ..co s m o l o g y , c l a d in c o n v e n t i o n a l p o e t i c f o r m . 1 2 Ar a t u s ' Phaenom ena
c a n n o t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n in i g n o r a n c e o f t h e n e w s e r io u s n e s s
in p o p u l a r i z e d c o s m o l o g y , a n d p a r t o f t h e p i q u a n c y o f t h e
p o e m fo r h is Al e x a n d r i a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s p e r h a p s l a y in t h e
j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e r e q u i s i t e s l e n d e r r e f i n e m e n t | lep t ot ls) w i t h
a t r a d i t i o n a l l y g r a n d i o s e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t h a t w a s a ls o o f w i d e r
c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e r n . T h e s u cce s s o f t h e p o e m , a n d a b o v e a ll
it s p o p u l a r i t y in R o m e , a r e h a r d t o e x p l a i n u n le s s w e s u p p o s e
t h a t t e c h n i c a l d e l i g h t in m e t a p h r a s i s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n w e n t h a n d
in h a n d w i t h a n a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e c o s m i c g r a n d e u r o f t h e d e s cr ip t io n o f t h e star s a n d we a t h e r - s ign s .
An o t h e r p i e c e o f Al e x a n d r i a n a s t r o n o m i c a l ve r s e , a n d o n e
w h i c h a ls o a p p e a l e d t o t h e R o m a n t r a n s l a t o r , w a s t h e Com a
Berenices o f Ca l l i m a c h u s ; t h is r e ve a l s a d e l i b e r a t e l y o b l i q u e ,
e v e n t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k , a p p r o a c h t o a n o t h e r a r e a w h e r e co s m o lo gy wa s a t th e t im e b e in g r e in t e gr a t e d in t o m o r e n a r r o wly
h u m a n con cer n s, n a m e ly ast r al a p ot h eosis, p a r t icu la r ly as
c l a i m e d fo r t h e d e a d r u l e r . C a l l i m a c h u s ' c o u r t l y c o m p l i m e n t
t o t h e P t o l e m i e s w a s w e l l j u d g e d fo r a d y n a s t y w h i c h , a m o n g
t h e Su cce s s o r s o f Al e x a n d e r , s e e m s n o t t o h a v e i n d u l g e d in
gr o s s ly p r e t e n t i o u s s e l f- p a n e g yr i c , a t le a s t n o t fo r a G r e e k a u d i e n c e . B u t t h i n gs h a d b e e n d i ffe r e n t w i t h t h e p a n e g yr i s t s o f
Al e x a n d e r h i m s e lf, a n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y r u le r s o f P e r g a m u m
a n d S y r i a t o o k m o r e s e r io u s ly t h e i r p r e t e n s i o n s t o a ' co s m ic,
k i n g s h i p ' , in w h i c h t h e i r o w n p o w e r w a s m o r e o r less clo s e ly
i d e n t i fi e d w i t h t h a t o f t h e g o d s w h o r u le t h e co s m o s . L a t e r
11

Cf. A. J . F e s t u g i è r e , La Révélation d'Herm ès

Trùrnégi.sU ii ( P a r i s , 19 4 9 ) ; t>n A r a t u s

s ee p p . 3 3 2 ff., ' L e S e n t i m e n t r e l i g i e u x d u M o n d e d a n s Ar a t o s ' .
12

O n C l e a n t h e s ' v i e w s o n t h e a d e q u a c y 1 o f ve r s e npo* rrjm àXrfi^ av

deujpiaç s ee C l e a n t h e s fr . 4 8 6 S VF.

r r j i rcôv SeioJV

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c h a p t e r s o f t h is w o r k w i ll r e t u r n r e p e a t e d l y t o e x a m i n e Vi r g i l ' s
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h is p o l i t i c i ze d c o s m o l o g y .
Al e x a n d r i a n in t e r e s t in c o m b i n i n g p o e t r y a n d a s t r o n o m y is
a ls o m a n i fe s t e d b y t h e e p i c p o e m Herm es o f E r a t o s t h e n e s ,
w h i c h , in t h e w o r d s o f R u d o l f P fe ifTe r ,
d r ew old m yt h ica l t ales a b o u t t h e b ir t h an d p r ecociou s clever n ess of
th e god fr o m t h e H o m e r ic h ym n t o H e r m e s a n d co m b in e d t h em in a
u n iq u e w a y wit h t h e cosm ology of P la t o's Tim aeus a n d Er a t ost h en es'
o wn ge o gr a p h y; wh e n th e go d a scen d ed to th e h e a ve n ly sp h er es of
t h e p la n et s, wh e r e h e b e ca m e on e of t h em h im self, h e p er ceived n ot
on ly th eir h a r m o n y a n d t h eir id en t it y wit h t h e âp^ ov(a
[ h a r m o n y]
o f h is o wn lyr e b u t also t h e live zon es in t o wh ich t h e e a r t h wa s d ivid ed
a cco r d in g to Er a t ost h en es' ge o gr a p h ica l t h e o r y. 13
E r a t o s t h e n e s ' o w n l i t e r a r y- t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n , w h i c h l i m i t e d
t h e f u n c t i o n o f p o e t r y t o e n t e r t a i n m e n t , m i g h t l e a d u s t o s e e in
t h e Herm es a m e r e jeu d 'esprit, w e r e it n o t fo r t h e fa c t t h a t h e
w a s s e r i o u s ly i n t e r e s t e d in P l a t o n i s m , w h i c h d i d p l a c e a r e li gi o u s v a l u e o n a s t r o n o m y . 1 4
I n R o m e t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f c o s m o l o g i c a l p o e t r y is n a t u r a l l y
t h e h ist or y of t h e t r a n s la t io n a n d a d a p t a t io n o f Gr e e k m od els .
E n n i u s ' Epicharm us w a s a L a t i n ve r s i o n o f a w o r k a s c r i b e d t o
t h e fift h - ce n t u r y Sicilia n co m i c wr it e r o f t h a t n a m e w h i c h d e a lt
wit h n a t u r a l-p h ilosop h ica l t h em es, in clu d in g th e t h eor y of t h e
f o u r e l e m e n t s . M o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
E n n i u s d r e w o n n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l t o p ics in h is d r a m a t i c
w o r k s a n d in t h e e p i c Annals; in t h e n e xt c h a p t e r I s h a ll c o n s i d e r
h o w fa r E n n i u s m a y h a v e b e e n a s o u r c e fo r t h e Vi r g i l i a n in t e g r a t i o n o f e p i c a n d c o s m o l o g i c a l t h e m e s . I h a v e a l r e a d y a ll u d e d t o t h e R o m a n fa s h i o n fo r Aratea; o t h e r m o d e l s o f s cie n t ific
p o e t r y w e r e a ls o b e i n g t r ie d o u t in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first
c e n t u r yytsrponligfecaYXWVUTSRQPONMLIHGFEDCBA
B C . W e h e a r o f Em pedoclea b y a Sa llu s t i u s , a n d o f a De
Rerum .N'attira b y a n E g n a t i u s . 1 5
I t is p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t t h e first p o e t in R o m e t o p r o d u c e a
g r e a t w o r k o f s cie n t ific p o e t r y in w h i c h c o s m o l o g i c a l , s o ci a l,
13

R . P fe i fi e r , History of classical scholarship from the beginnings to the end of the Hellenistic

age ( O x f o r d , 19 6 8 ) , p p . 16 8 f. T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e five z o n e s in t h e Herm es is t h e
m o d e l fo r Geo. 1. 2 3 3 ®
14

O n E r a t o s t h e n e s ' c o m b i n a t i o n o f s c i e n t i fi c c o s m o l o g y a n d p o e t r y in t h e Herm es

s e e F . S o l m s e n , ' E r a t o s t h e n e s a s P l a t o n i s t a n d p o e t ' , TAPhA

73 ( 19 4 2 ) , 19 2 - 2 13 , e s p .

2 i i AT.
15

S e e H . B a r d o n , La Littérature latine inconnue i ( P a r i s , 19 5 2 ) , p . 3 3 5 .

P O E T R Y AN D C O S M O L O G Y I N A N T I Q U I T Y

11

e t h i c a l , a n d r e li gi o u s c o n c e r n s a r e clo s e ly i n t e g r a t e d s h o u l d b e
L u c r e t i u s , a n a d h e r e n t o f t h e s e ct m o s t d e e p l y o p p o s e d t o
ju s t t h a t ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y P l a t o n i z i n g a n d S t o i c i z i n g ) c o s m i c
r e l i g i o n w h i c h h a d e n c o u r a g e d t h e H e l l e n i s t i c s yn t h e s is o f
s ci e n t i fi c c o s m o l o g y a n d m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o n . T h e p a r a d o x is e a s e d
s o m e w h a t b y L u c r e t i u s ' p e c u l i a r t a c t i c o f g e t t i n g in s id e h is
o p p o n e n t s ' p o s it io n s a n d t h e n e v a c u a t i n g t h e m o f t h e i r p r i o r
c o n t e n t t o r e fill t h e m w i t h E p i c u r e a n d o c t r i n e ; t h e e m o t i o n a l
a n d a e s t h e t i c a p p e a l o f a Cl e a n t h e s is p a r a s i t i c a l l y d i v e r t e d t o
t h e e n d s o f a n a r e ligio u s m a t e r ia lis m . Bu t Lu cr e t iu s a ch ie ve s a
ye t fu lle r i n t e g r a t i o n o f c o s m o l o g i c a l w i t h o t h e r t h e m e s t h a n
t h is P l a t o n i c / S t o i c m o d e , b y g o i n g b a c k t o t h e p r e - S o c r a t i c ,
a n d s p e c i fi c a l l y E m p e d o c l e a n , u n i o n o f p o e t , s cie n t is t , a n d p r o p h e t . As w e s h a ll s h o r t l y s e e , t h is L u c r e t i a n p o s e is a n i m p o r t a n t
p r e c e d e n t fo r t h a t Au g u s t a n i d e a l o f t h e ' i n t e g r a t e d ' p o e t t o
w h i c h is a t t a c h e d t h e l a b e lzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
votes. yxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaWVUTSRPMLIHGFEDCBA

(b) I m a g e s o f th e p r i m i t i v e p o e t in a n t i q u i t y
W h e n t h e G r e e k s , a n d t h e R o m a n s a ft e r t h e m , c a m e t o t h e o r i z e
a b o u t t h e cu lt u r a l h ist or y o f m a n k i n d , t h ey n a t u r a lly t ook as a
s t a r t i n g - p o i n t t h e e a r lie s t s u r v i v i n g l i t e r a r y d o c u m e n t s ( o r
w h a t w e r e t a k e n t o b e s u ch ) . F r o m t h ese a n u m b e r o f t h in gs
w e r e c l e a r : t h a t p o e t r y a n t e d a t e d p r o s e , t h a t t h e e a r lie s t p o e t s
h a d s u n g o f t h e god s , a n d t h a t a m yt h o lo gica l t h e o lo gy h a d
p r e c e d e d s ci e n t i fi c p h i l o s o p h y ; b u t a ls o t h a t t h e t h e o g o n y o f a
H esiod wa s r e co gn iza b ly co n ce r n e d wit h t h e s a m e p r o b le m s as
s ci e n t i fi c c o s m o g o n y a n d c o s m o l o g y . 1 6 T w o f u r t h e r fa c t o r s o f a
less e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e c a m e i n t o p l a y : firstly, a t e n d e n c y , p r e v a le n t in m a n y a ge s , t o a s c r i b e t o i m m e m o r i a l a n t i q u i t y a w i s d o m
in n o w a y i n fe r i o r , a n d o f t e n s u p e r i o r , t o t h e s c i e n c e a n d l e a r n i n g o f t h e p r e s e n t d a y ; a n d s e c o n d l y t h e s e lf- in t e r e s t o f p o e t s
( a n d o t h e r s w h o l i ve d b y a l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e ) in m a x i m i z i n g
t h e p r e s t i g e o f p o e t r y in t im e s w h e n t h e s o cia l a n d
financial
d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e p o e t w a s a ll t o o o b v i o u s .
16

F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e lin k s b e t w e e n p o e t r y , r e l i g i o n , a n d p h i l o s o p h y in G r e e k

t h o u g h t t h a t is a t m a n y p o i n t s r e l e v a n t t o m y d i s c u s s i o n , s ee F . M . C o r n f o r d , P r i n c i p i u m s a p i e n t i a e : the origins of Greek philosophical thought ( C a m b r i d g e , 19 5 2 ; . C o r n f o r d
is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e actual r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s in t h e e m e r g e n c e
o f G r e e k p h ilo s o p h y; I a m h e r e co n ce r n e d wit h t h e r e la t io n s h ip s t h a t la t er a n t i q u i t y
p o s i t e d in it s r e t r o s p e c t