GENDERED EXPERIENCES IN INDIAN AND AMERICAN FAMILY AS PORTRAYED IN ANITA DESAI’S FASTING, FEASTING

  GENDERED EXPERIENCES IN INDIAN AND AMERICAN FAMILY AS PORTRAYED IN ANITA DESAI’S

FASTING, FEASTING

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

  By

ARFIANA KHAIRUNNISA

  Student Number: 044214039

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

  

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

  Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : ARFIANA KHAIRUNNISA Nomor Mahasiswa : 044214039

  Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

  

GENDERED EXPERIENCES IN INDIAN AND AMERICAN FAMILY AS

PORTRAYED IN ANITA DESAI’S FASTING, FEASTING

  beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, me- ngalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun mem-berikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

  Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal : 31 Januari 2009 Yang menyatakan (ARFIANA KHAIRUNNISA)

PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN KARYA

  Saya menyatakan dengan sesungguhnya bahwa skripsi yang saya tulis ini tidak memuat karya atau bagian yang lain kecuali yang telah disebutkan dalam kutipan dan daftar pustaka sebagai layaknya karya ilmiah.

  Yogyakarta, 31 Januari 2009 Arfiana Khairunnisa

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  I would like to thank and express my greatest gratitude to Allah for blessing and giving me opportunity in completing this thesis. I would like to give my deepest gratitude to my mother Sumarti, my father Arifin, and my only sister Bella. Their love gave me the strength to finish this work immediately.

  My special thank to my advisor, Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S., M.Hum., for her smile, advice, discussion, patience, and guidance in working in this thesis.

  I thank my co-advisor Harris H. Setiajid, S.S., M.Hum., for so many inputs regarding my writing content. I thank my examiner, Dewi Widyastuti, S.Pd.,

  

M.Hum., for the funny defense. Thanks to all the lecturers and all staffs of

  English Letters Department, especially to my class advisor, Gabriel Fajar

  

Sasmita Aji, S.S., M.Hum. Mbak Ninik, despite of all the confusion that I gave

her in regards to my schedule every semester, I thank to you.

  Thanks to my friends Shanti, Acid, Toni ‘Item’, Rani, Lisis, Deva, Ison,

  

Lutfi, Oos for the fun time in class and all my friends in English Letters who I

  have not mentioned yet. Easynet crews, Putri, Om Sulis, Rini, Dodi, Hari,

  

Bayu and Nylla, I thank for filling my shifts when I have to write this thesis. I

  thank to Destila and Chietra for the strong ties of friendship. My special thank to

  

Letyzia for borrowing me her books, Eka for the discussion and grammar

  lessons, Ibu Noeri and Bennet for making me feel at home in Nagan house. The

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE............................................................................................ i

APPROVAL PAGE .................................................................................. ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE ............................................................................ iii LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA

  ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ............................... iv PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN KARYA................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................... vii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................. ix ABSTRAK ................................................................................................. x

  

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1

A.

  1 Background of the Study .............................................................

  B.

  5 Problem Formulation ...................................................................

  C.

  5 Objectives of the Study ................................................................

  D.

  5 Definition of Terms ......................................................................

  

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ........................................... 7

A.

  7 Review of Related Studies...........................................................

  B.

  8 Review of Related Theories.........................................................

  1. Theory of Characterization ………..………….........................

  8

  2. Theory of Gender………..……...……………………………. 11 a. Gender Differences……….................................................

  11 b. Gender Inequalities….........................................................

  13 c. Gendered Experiences ………….…..…………………….

  15

  3. Review on the Family ………………………..…………....…

  16 a. Review on the Indian Family………………………....

  16

  b. Review on the American Family…………………………

  19 C. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………… 22

  

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ……………………………………. 23

A.

  23 Object of the Study.......................................................................

  B.

  24 Approach of the Study.................................................................

  C.

  25 Method of the Study .....................................................................

  

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ……………………………………………. 27

A.

  27 Character and Characterization…. ..............................................

  1. Female Characters .………………….………………………

  28

  a. Uma ………………………………………………………

  28

  f. Melanie Patton………..…………………………………...

  39

  2. Male Characters………………...……………………….……

  41

  a. Arun ………….……….………….………………………

  41 b. Papa.…… ……….……………………………………….

  44 c. Ramu………..………..…………..……………………….

  46 d. Mr. Patton…… …………..……….……………………...

  48 e. Rod Patton………..…..………..…..……………………...

  50 B.

  51 Gendered Experiences in Indian and American Family……….

  1. Gendered Experiences in Indian Family…..…………………

  52

  a. Domestic Life..……………………………………………

  52 b. Relationship between Men and Women………………….

  58 c. Education and Career………….………………………….

  62

  2. Gendered Experiences in American Family.…………………

  66

  a. Domestic Life..……………………………………………

  66 b. Relationship between Men and Women………………….

  69 c. Education and Career………….………………………….

  73 C.

  74 Women’s and Men’s Position in Indian and American Family

  1. Women’s and Men’s Position in Indian Family…..…….……

  75

  2. Women’s and Men’s Position in American Family.……….…

  80 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION …........................................................... 86

  BIBLIOGRAPHY ….................................................................................. 89

  

ABSTRACT

ARFIANA KHAIRUNNISA. Gendered Experiences in Indian and American

Family as Portrayed in Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting. Yogyakarta: Jurusan

Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2009.

  The novel Fasting, Feasting by Anita Desai depicts the life journey of a middle-class Indian family throughout the years. The plot alternates between the present and flashbacks to various moments in the past. The novel itself is divided into two parts; India and America. The plot reveals through the perceptions of Uma, in India, and of Arun, in America. Both of them are entrapped, irrespective of the culture and enveloping situation, by oppressive bonds exercised by their own parents, MamaPapa, who are prototypical parents that can be found in middle-class family in India.

  There are some objectives that the writer wants to achieve through this thesis. The first is to analyze the male and female characters in Fasting, Feasting in order to understand the characters deeply. The second is to classify the gendered experiences that are experienced by the characters in the novel. The last objective is to see the women’s position and men’s position in the family as reflected in both families in the novel.

  In order to analyze the problem, the writer is employing gender study as an approach. Gender study is considered appropriate to be applied to this topic because the discussion in this work is about men and women and their experiences in gendered experience, how they experienced it, and the result of those experiences. In this study, the approach only focuses to discuss the male and female characters and their problems of the novel.

  The study has found that each character in the novel experienced different gendered experiences. The female characters are obliged to do things that are regarded as ‘feminine’. They responsible for all domestic chores, take care of children, etc. In opposite, the male characters are obliged to do things that are regarded as ‘masculine’. They work outside home, get good education and career, etc. Those kinds of activities give more advantages to men than women. The gendered experiences always make women in subordinate position. As the result, both Indian and American families are male-centered family system. Moreover, as shown in the characters in Fasting, Feasting, culture has demand differently over sex. Culture determines what should be achieved by men and women. Different background culture of India and America constructs different gendered experiences. However, the form and degree of inequality in Indian family differs from the ones in American family.

  

ABSTRAK

ARFIANA KHAIRUNNISA. Gendered Experiences in Indian and American

Family as Portrayed in Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting. Yogyakarta: Jurusan

Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2009.

  Novel Anita Desai yang berjudul Fasting, Feasting menggambarkan perjalanan hidup sebuah keluarga kelas menengah India dari tahun ke tahun. Alur ceritanya bergantian dari masa kini ke masa lalu. Novel ini dibagi menjadi dua bagian, India dan Amerika. Alurnya dideskripsikan melalui persepsi Uma di India dan Arun di Amerika. Keduanya tertekan dan terjebak dalam budaya dan situasi oleh orangtua mereka sendiri, MamaPapa, orang tua konvensional yang biasa ditemui di keluarga kelas menengah India.

  Ada beberapa tujuan yang ingin dicapai penulis dalam menyusun karya tulis ini. Yang pertama adalah menganalisa karakter perempuan dan laki-laki di

  

Fasting, Feasting untuk lebih mengerti karakter-karakter tersebut lebih jauh.

  Yang kedua adalah mengklasifikasikan pengalaman gender yang dialami oleh para karakter dalam novel. Yang terakhir adalah untuk melihat posisi perempuan dan laki-laki yang tergambar di kedua keluarga dalam novel.

  Untuk menganalisa masalah, penulis menggunakan pendekatan studi gender. Studi gender dirasa tepat untuk diaplikasikan dalam topik ini karena bahasan dalam karya ini tentang laki-laki dan perempuan dan pengalaman gender mereka, bagaimana mereka mengalaminya, dan hasil dari pengalaman ini. Di dalam karya tulis ini, pendekatan difokuskan hanya pada karakter laki-laki dan perempuan juga masalah mereka yang ada pada novel.

  Penelitian ini merumuskan bahwa setiap karakter mengalami pengalaman gender yang berbeda. Karakter perempuan berkewajiban melakukan hal-hal yang dianggap sebagai ‘feminin’. Mereka bertanggung jawab atas rumah, mengasuh anak, dll. Sebaliknya, karakter laki-laki berkewajiban melakukan hal-hal yang dianggap sebagai ‘maskulin’. Mereka bekerja, mendapat edukasi dan karir yang bagus, dll. Aktivitas semacam itu memberikan lebih banyak keuntungan pada pihak laki-laki daripada perempuan. Pengalaman gender selalu membuat posisi perempuan berada di bawah. Lebih jauh, yang terlihat pada karakter-karakter di

  

Fasting, Feasting , budaya memiliki tuntutan yang berbeda pada jenis kelamin.

  Budaya menentukan apa yang harus dicapai oleh laki-laki dan perempuan. Perbedaan budaya India dan Amerika menghasilkan perbedaan pengalaman gender. Tetapi, bentuk dan level pada keluarga India lain dengan bentuk dalam keluarga Amerika.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study The word gender in the academic community has become a proper

  synonym for the study of women. Gender, however, does not refer simply to the study of women, but to the manner in which male and female differences are socially constructed. According to Pilcher and Whelehan in their book Fifty Keys

  

Concepts in Gender Studies, the concept of gender, as we now use it came into

  common parlance during the early 1970s. It was used as an analytical category to draw a line of demarcation between biological sex differences and the way these are used to inform behaviors and competencies, which are then assigned as either ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ (2004: 56). Goodman adds in her book Approaching

  

Literature: Literature and Gender that gender studies are concerned with the

representation, rights, and status of women and men (1996: xi).

  This novel, Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting, could be seen in many point of views. In this thesis, the writer takes the view that gender is an important area of study, and one which adds to the study of literature. This novel is written by a female and Indian writer. So, it lines a woman point of view through the sex differences and gendered experiences. Desai also wrote her works in English. Pilcher and Whelehan in her book Fifty Keys Concepts in Gender Studies wrote “disciplines such as English Literature, women had begun to the contest the

  2 conditions that prohibited the emergence of ‘great’ women in this arena (2004: x)”. So, the writer thinks that Desai is one of the good writers in literature arena.

  This thesis leads to the study of literature written by a woman. However, the writer does not discuss the author or her biography, the writer will discuss gendered experiences which emerge in the novel. Something is gendered when it is, in and of itself, actively engaged in social processes that produce and reproduce distinctions between women and men. ‘Gendering’ and ‘gendered’ are concepts which signify outcomes that are socially constructed and gives males advantages over females (Pilcher, 2004: 59).

  Even, colors are gendered, it can be masculine or feminine. For example, pink and black, pink regarded as ‘feminine’ and black regarded as ‘masculine’.

  Another example is in the job area, the carpenter is regarded as ‘masculine’ and the nurse is regarded as ‘feminine’. This social construction controls all of our behavior. We cannot avoid that we live in this society, where the men have more authority than women. However, this tradition makes limitation to the women.

  We can look at the past, when Indonesian women had no education. They had to stay in the house all the time doing the domestic duties, such as cooking, giving a birth, dressing up, and doing all domestic duties. Only men could work outside, and education for women was really useless because they could not work outside the house. It means that domestic area is regarded as ‘feminine’ area and outside area is regarded as ‘masculine’ area.

  Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting is a novel that contrast between two

  3 luxury, symbolizing ‘feasting’. In fact, India and America are different in both culture and family system. It evokes the writer to do comparative study of two system of family over the gendered experiences that appear in the domestic life, marriage, relationship between men and women, education and career.

  The thesis focuses on the role of the family in India and America and how the family affects men and women members, especially women members. The private sphere of the family is an area to which legislators and women’s groups have very little access and where any improvement in the status of women does not happen as easily as in a more public setting.

  Parsons as cited in Anshen describes the modern American family was characterized by three important features: (i) its ‘openness’, that is, the absence of rules of preferential marriage resulting in the ‘infinite dispersal of lines of descent’; (ii) the centrality of the conjugal family of parents and children; and (iii) multilinearity, with no exclusive preference for either the male or the female lines (1959: 242-46). In India, the family is the most important institution that has survived through the ages. India, like most other less industrialized, traditional, eastern societies is a collectivist society that emphasizes family integrity, family loyalty, and family unity. C. Harry Hui and Harry C. Triandis in their study “Individualism- Collectivism: A Study of Cross-Cultural Researchers” define collectivism, which is the opposite of individualism as, "a sense of harmony, interdependence and concern for others". More specifically, collectivism is reflected in greater readiness to cooperate with family members and extended kin

  4 It is seen that the Indian and American families are very contrast. The

  American family is more tolerance the women, but the duties in the home are still gendered. For example, although Mrs. Patton does not cook for the family, she is still under her husband’s ideal women. “Keeping freezer full”, like Mrs. Patton does is considered as domestic sphere which relates to women (or “feminine”).

  There are so many roles which limit women’s action, for example in the family and parents-authority. Men and women should follow the tradition that is constructed by the society. The women do not have to get high education, they do not really need a career, and they do not have to leave home for a long time.

  However, men should do that.

  The novel shows not only women who are entrapped in the patriarchal system in Indian and American family. Arun, as the son, is entrapped by the roles in his male-centered family. As a man, he needs high education. Rod, as a man, also entraps with the ideal of a man in America. That is a man must look masculine and have strong body. Patriarchal culture creates the gendered practices experienced by most of the characters in the novel. Not only experienced by the women, but also the men. In this thesis, the writer wants to explore the gendered experiences which are found in the novel. Besides, by analyzing the gendered experiences in different cultures the writer can see the differences and similarities of the family system in constructing gendered experiences performed by men and women.

  5

B. Problem Formulation

  Throughout this study, the writer will be concerned with several major topics, which can be formulated into the following questions:

1. How are male and female characters characterized in Anita Desai’s

  ?

  Fasting, Feasting 2.

  What kinds of gendered experiences are found in Indian and American family in the novel?

  3. What are women’s position and men’s position as reflected in both families in the novel?

  C. Objective of the Study The aim of this study is to answer the problems that have been formulated.

  There are three objectives of the study. The first objective is to know the characterization of the characters in the novel. The second objective is to show the gendered experiences in the society of the novel. The last objective is to know the women’s and men’s position in the Indian and American family.

  D. Definition of Term

  To avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding, it is necessary to give definition of terms used in this study.

  The first is ‘gender’. Jane Pilcher and Imelda Whelehan in their book Fifty

  6 way these are used to inform behaviours and competencies, which are then assigned as either ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’. The purpose of affirming a sex/gender distinction was to argue that the actual physical or mental effects of biological difference had been exaggerated to maintain a patriarchal system of power and to create a consciousness among women that they were naturally better suited to ‘domestic’ roles (2004: 56).

  The second is ‘gendered’. ‘Gendered’, though, is also used as a verb and therefore gives expression to action, or ‘the doing of’ gender. Davies (1996), as cited in Pilcher (2004: 59), states that the shift to using gender as a verb (‘to gender’, ‘gendered’, ‘gendering’, ‘engender’) is a reflection of changed understanding of gender as an active ongoing process, rather than something that is ready made and fixed.

  The third is ‘gendered experiences’. It is the specific experiences based on gender distinction in particular society. Men and women perform an activity that regarded as ‘masculine’ for men and ‘feminine’ for women. Brannon adds in her book Gender: Psychological Perspective, these gender-related behaviors thus become part of a pattern accepted as masculine or feminine, not because of any innate reason for these differences but because they are associated with men and women’ (1996: 168).

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Reviewed of Related Studies The criticism to Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting are difficult to find

  because the novel itself is categorized as new novel. Most of the criticisms only summarize the content of the novel but do not analyze it critically. Nevertheless, the reviews to the book are very useful although it is not in deep analysis.

  Lakshmi Chandra in her article “Interpreting Fasting, Feasting Through Feminism” asks question, “Is Desai trying to tell readers that happiness is illusory, regardless of culture or the place in which one lives?” Then she explains that woman authors write under pressure of various kinds, the main one being the need for an audience. They cannot say anything that may antagonize male readers. At the same time, they must address issues that will appeal to their female readers. The female writers' search for the self, for their creativity, is a struggle for self- definition. Virginia Woolf has advised woman writers to "kill the angel in the house" (the angel being the drudge who cooks, cleans and looks after all family members' needs) before they start writing. But is it always possible? Desai has not done this. Her female protagonists, at least the Indian ones, function within the parameters laid out for them by society; Mama and Uma kill all their needs to look after Papa and Arun. While her American female protagonists, though they

  8 Gender is one of the terms that often appear when women and men are being discussed. Putra, in his thesis, discussed gender issue as seen in the characters of Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway and Cunningham’s The Hours. He strengthens the idea of gender issue the authors reveal from the characters both male and female. The authors use their characters to portray and criticize the idea of gender issue which are shown in man and woman relationship, gender role issues, and homosexual inclination.

  However, this thesis is different from the thesis done by Putra. The differences can be found in the topic of analysis and the source of literary work itself. The first difference is that the writer will specify on the application on the male and female character in Indian and American family. The second is in the source. The writer here uses the literary work by Anita Desai story Fasting,

  

Feasting as the corpus of the research. It differs from others because the different

use of source will produce different result of analysis.

B. Review of Related Theories

1. Theory of Characterization

  A character in literary works is usually defined as the creation of imaginary persons that seem life-like and the characterization is the whole things that are related to the character. Stanton on An Introduction to Fiction defined character as the individuals that appear in the story that bring their human personalities such as interests, desires, emotions, moral principles, etcetera. Still

  9 toward him (1965: 17). In addition, Abrams says that characters become an extended verbal representation of human beings in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as having moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say (the dialogue) and what they do (the action). A character may remain essentially stable, or unchanged in outlook and disposition, from beginning to end of a work. This kind of character is called a flat character. But one may undergo a radical change, either through a gradual process of motivation and development, or as the result of a crisis. This called a round character (1985: 23).

  According to MJ Murphy, in his book Understanding Unseen An

  

Introduction to English Poetry and the English Novel for Overseas Students states

  that “Let us look now at some examples of a few of the ways in which an author attempts to make his characters understandable to, and come alive for, his readers (1972: 160-173). They are: 1.

  Personal description The author of the story helps the readers understand the character by describing the personal appearance of the character. It can be the description of their face, body, and even their clothes.

2. Character as seen by another

  The author describes characters through the eyes and opinion of other characters. The author provides the impressions of others such as the impressions

  10

  3. Speech The author gives the readers an insight into the characters in the story through what the persons say.

  4. Past Lives By letting the readers learn something about a character’s past life, the author can give the clue to events that have helped shape a person’s character. The author guides the reader to know more about past life of the person in order to get some ideas about the person’s thought, behavior, and action.

  4. Conversation of others The author can give the readers clue to a person’s character through the conversation between other people and what they say about her or him. it means what other people say in the novel will also give good basic idea in analyzing the character.

  5. Reaction The author can give the reader a clue to a person’s character by letting the readers know how that person reacts to various situations and events. Many events in the story can also give views to the reader to understand the characters.

  6. Direct Comment The author can directly describe or comment on a person’s character.

  Sometimes the author gives brief and clear direct explanation on the character.

  7. Thought

  11 what the person feels. Sometimes, he can also tell the readers about the mind of different characters in the story.

  8. Mannerism The author can describe a person mannerisms or habits, which may also tell the readers about specific character of different person. The habits or behaviors that a person has here are the clue in examining the character closely.

  2. Theory of Gender

a. Gender Differences

  Gender differences are different from sex difference. Sex differentiates men and women biologically and physically, whereas gender differences are often as the result of sex differences. Linda Brannon says that “humans (and most other animals) are sexually dimorphic; that is, they have two different physical versions

• – female and male” (1996: 44). Difference is “a necessary polarity between women and men and between women. The primary meaning is that women have different voice, a different psychology, and a different experience of love, works, and the family from men. Difference also means a negative category, which includes the exclusion and subordination of women” (Humm, 1990: 5-52).

  Judith Butler, as cited in Leitch (2001: 2485-91), argues about sex and gender in her book Gender Trouble that the sex/gender distinction and the category of sex itself appear to presuppose a generalization of “the body” that

  12 as “external” to that body. Feminists have sometimes distinguished between “sex” as the anatomical difference between male and female bodies and “gender” as the meanings attached to those bodily differences in various culture.

  Rubin, as cited in Glover and Kaplan (2005: xxiv), insists about the social division between the sexes, the basis upon which men and women are placed into ‘mutually exclusive categories’:

  Men and women are, of course, different. But they are not as different as day and night, earth and sky, yin and yang, life and death. In fact, from the standpoint of nature, men and women are close to each other than either is to anything else – for instance, mountains, kangaroos, or coconut palms. The idea that men and women are more different from one another than either is from anything else must come from somewhere other than nature… Far from being an expression of natural differences, exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities. It requires repression: in men, of whatever is the local version of ‘feminine’ traits; in women, of the local definition of ‘masculine’ traits. The division of the sexes has the effect of repressing some of the personality characteristics of virtually everyone, men and women (1975: 179-80).

  Scott as cited in Glover and Kaplan, said that ‘gender’, is simply ‘a social category imposed on a sexed body’. Locating gender within the many-sided realm of culture became the primary means of challenging the supposed inevitability of women’s subordination, part of what the historian Joan Scott, looking back over more that decade of feminist research, has called ‘a genuine historicization and deconstruction’ of masculinity and femininity that sought to minimize or reduce human biology’s capacity to underpin the spuriously ‘fixed and permanent quality’ of these terms (2005:xxiii).

  13

b. Gender Inequalities

  Rubin’s essay in Glover and Kaplan remains one of the most remarkable attempts to think through the causes of gender inequalities, constructing a systematic theoretical framework that links work, kinship and politics. Drawing upon insights from Marxist economics, psychoanalytic accounts of identity and anthropological studies of marriage and the family, Rubin shows how men typically ‘have certain rights in their female kin’, whereas ‘women do not have the same rights either to themselves or to their male kin’ and may be used as bridewealth, trophies, gifts and even ‘traded, bought, and sold’ (2005: xxv).

  Michelle Rosaldo, as cited in Humm, defines inequality as ‘a state where women are universally subordinate to men, where men are dominant due to their participation in public life and their regulation of women to domestic sphere. The differential participation of men and women in public life gives rise not only to universal male authority over women but to higher valuation of male over females roles’ (1990: 103).

  The inequality of the male and female can be a result of gender differences. Gender differences often create gender stereotypes about male and female. According to Miriam Lewin (1984c), as cited in Brannon’s Gender, ‘the current gender stereotypes, especially those about women, reflect beliefs that

  th

  appeared during the 19 century, the Victorian era. She discussed how the Industrial Revolution changed the lives of a majority of people in Europe, the

  14 unprecedented in history, forcing men and women to adapt by creating new behavior patterns. As men coped with the harsh business and industrial world, women were left in the relatively unvarying and sheltered environments of their homes’ (1996: 169).

  Baron and Byrne give the example on the positive and negative traits of male and female. Positive traits that are part of the masculine gender stereotype included daring, forceful, logical, confident; negative traits included aggressive, arrogant, dominant, reckless. Positive traits on the feminine gender stereotype included understanding, sociable, spontaneous, warm, gentle; negative traits included dependent, dreamy, changeable, affected (1994: 251).

  However, Deaux and Lewis as cited in Baron and Byrne (1994: 249), explain stereotypes about females are more negative in content than those about males. For example, in many cultures male are assumed to possess such desirable traits as decisiveness, forcefulness, confidence, ambition and rational. In contrast, the corresponding assumption about females includes less-desirable traits such as passivity, submissiveness, emotional, and dependence. Some positive characteristics, too, are included, such as warm, nurturance, sensitivity, and understanding. Overall, however, the traits assigned to females are less desirable and less suited for many valued roles (e.g. leadership, authority) than the traits assigned to males.

  Baron and Byrne continue about gender stereotypes that the effects of

  15 appears ones closer to the content of male gender stereotypes than to the content of female gender stereotypes. Leaders, most people believe, should be bold, assertive, tough, and decisive-all traits traditionally viewed as masculine in nature. In contrast, few persons want to expect leaders to be kind, sensitive, emotional, and nurturant (1994: 251).

  Instead of being a leader, women occupy a relatively disadvantages position in most societies in certain respect. ‘They are concentrated in low paying, low-status job, and their average salary remains lower than that for males’ (Baron and Byrne, 1994: 253). Based on that, gender stereotype makes women marginalized from the society, even from assumption based on a system of knowledge. The marginalized of women not only in the public sphere, but also in domestic sphere.

c. Gendered Experiences

  Pilcher & Whelehan in their book Fifty Keys Concepts in Gender Studies give some examples that describe the gendered character of the culture, institution and organization of contemporary Western societies. For example, Pilcher draws together a range of British research evidence that shows the gendered character of education and training paid work, household work and caring, love and sexuality, body-related technologies, popular media culture, crime and criminal justice, and politics. Lisa Adkins’ study is an example of an approach that focuses more on the

  16 character. Adkins describes her research as concerned with the ‘gendering’ of the contemporary labour market (2004: 60).

  Pilcher continues the move from thinking about gender as a noun, to focus on the way distinctions between men and women are actively reproduced through ‘gendering’ processes and ‘gendered’ practices has usefully encouraged the sort of analyses represented by Adkins’ work. However, more remains to be done on gendering, including variations by sexuality, social class, and ‘race’. While the concepts of ‘gendering’ and ‘engender(ed)’ give a clear emphasis to the ongoing, processual quality of gender relations, a more cautious use of ‘gendered’ might be advisable (Pilcher & Whelehan, 2004: 60-61).

  Linda Brannon in her book Gender: Psychological Perspectives adds about gendered activities that ‘in many cultures men perform some activities more often than women, and women perform some activities more than men. Activities such as repairing clothing are associated predominantly with men and women, respectively. These gender-related behaviors thus become part of a pattern accepted as masculine or feminine, not because of any innate reason for these differences but because they are associated with men and women’ (1996: 168).

3. Review on the Family

a. Review on the Indian Family

  The family is the most basic and fundamental form of organisation and

  17

  Relations: Procreation in South India wrote about the system of the family of

  India : In India the extended or joint family, a multigenerational family system in which parents and their children’s families live under the same roof, has been the norm for a long time. The tradition of taking care of the older in the family, and 18 lack of a functioning social security net to some extent explain the acceptance of the joint family norm in Indian society. The joint family as an institution is more than anything a collective way of working together in an efficient way, and little attention to family members as separate individuals is noted. Moreover, a joint family draws on the economic advantages of a collective undertaking. The benefits are in the form of cost efficiency from a collective ownership and use of necessities. The joint family aims to the better for the whole unit, many times at the expense of women due to the patriarchal structures (2001: 139).

  In traditional societies the family is extended and multifunctional, and is involved in most of the decisions concerning a family member. Indian society is fundamentally patriarchal in that sense that women are inferior to men by tradition, examples of this are so-called patrilinear structures, which mean that lineage, and heritage takes place through the male line. Following the same pattern is the patrilocal system which automatically place married couples to live in the household of the husband’s family (Saavala, 2001: 104). Accordingly, in this patriarchal structure, the senior male heads the family. All decisions run through the patriarch. Decisions concern aspects such as distribution of money, household shores, work, education, mobility, etc. Furthermore, the public sphere is reserved for men only, thus the private sphere including domestic life is kept for women (Saavala, 2001: 134).

  Most of Indian family system always place women in subordinate position

  18 citizens. The rituals relating to birth and marriage reflect a son-preference. A related phenomenon of son-preference in the modern context is the amniocentesis test to abort the female feolus. This unfortunately is more prevalent in urban India. The sex selective test has increased the male-female ratio between 1981 and 1991 in a significant manner (Murthi, Guio & Dreze, 1997). Saavala adds ‘everywhere in India families strive to have at least one son, in some cases families will try to maximise the number of sons and minimizing the number of daughters. Most Indians would agree upon the “need” of daughter in a family but that a son is crucial for the family’s survival and honour. Generally speaking, the birth of a son is celebrated more than the birth of a baby girl, sons are granted higher prestige and thus preferred to daughters (2001: 168)’.

  Additionally, subordinate position of women in Indian family is the dowry system. Still in Bidyut Mohanty, ‘the prevalence of dowry has increased a great deal and has spread to the low caste groups which earlier practised bride price. So much so that the ideal Kerala practice of husbands staying in wives houses has changed to demanding dowry. This phenomenon of taking dowry has increased considerably after the young men started going to Gulf countries and needed a lot of money to buy tickets and other things. Another important point with regard to marriage practices is that the majority of the marriages are arranged by parents.

  Love marriages are not encouraged even in urban areas though acute violence against women in recent years compel the parents not to consider arranged

  19 traditional bias would get reduced there is proved wrong’ (essay of “Women and Family in India and China” accesed on April, 4 2008). Chandra Talpade Mohanty adds, ‘dowry is an example of this as it symbolises male dominance in a sense that men are the ultimate decision makers and overall responsible for economic routines concerning marriage in combination with the fact that women are seen as a commodity on which a price can be set’ (2004: 28).

b. Review on the American Family

  America has different family system by the Indian family. Parsons, as cited in Anshen, argues about American family, that ‘the contemporary American family is not simply the natural way to live but constitutes a highly exceptional mode of the patterning of relationships in this area’ (1959: 241-42). As Parsons describes it, the modern American family was characterized by three important features: (i) its ‘openness’, that is, the absence of rules of preferential marriage resulting in the ‘infinite dispersal of lines of descent’; (ii) the centrality of the conjugal family of parents and children; and (iii) multilinearity, with no exclusive preference for either the male or the female lines (1959: 242-46).

  Coontz and Ofstedal in their essay “United States-Childbearing” wrote ‘the first family system in America was that of the native peoples. This was actually a kinship system rather than a family system, for despite the wide variety of marital, sexual, and genealogical customs found in several hundred different