Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol10.Issue2.1999:
Nuisance caused by aircraft noise in the vicinity of
Tehran International Airport
Khodabakshsh Karami
He alth Fac ulty, Ahwaz Unive rsity o f Me dic al Sc ie nc e s, Ahwaz, Iran
Stan Frost
De partme nt o f Enviro nme ntal Re so urc e s, Unive rsity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK
Keywords
Air transpo rt, He alth, Iran, No ise ,
Planning
Abstract
No ise me asure me nt and so c ial
que stio nnaire surve ys in thre e
re side ntial are as aro und
Me hrabad Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
(Te hran, Iran) we re base d upo n
rando mly se le c te d dwe llings in
e ac h are a. A to tal o f 1 9 3 individuals re spo nde d and many are
anno ye d and dissatisfie d with
airc raft no ise and in c o nse que nc e
the y wo uld like to mo ve . Airc raft
no ise is the stro nge st ne gative
e nviro nme ntal fac to r affe c ting the
re side nts in the vic inity o f
Me hrabad Airpo rt and it c o uld be
a hazard fo r the ir he alth.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [ 1999] 9 0 –9 5
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[ 90 ]
Introduction
An n oya n ce is a com m on psych ologica l
r espon se to n oise (Mclea n a n d Ta r n opolsk y,
1977; Ta r n opolsk y et a l., 1980) defin ed a s:
feelin g both er ed by n oise distu r ba n ce or
displea su r e a ssocia ted w ith a n y a gen t or
con dition , con ver sa tion a n d r est in ter fer en ce
(WHO, 1980), fa tigu e or h ea da ch e (Sta n sfeld et
a l., 1985). Da ily exposu r e to en vir on m en ta l
str essor s ca n cr ea te a n n oya n ce a n d decr ea ses
th e qu a lity of life for th ose wh o view it a s
u n n ecessa r y a n d u n con tr olla ble (Coh en et a l.,
1986). Distu r ba n ce of sleep by n oise is often
th e u n der lyin g r ea son for n oise a n n oya n ce
(Str ea m , 1980). Speech in ter fer en ce by n oise
is a lso a n n oyin g (Mu lh olla n d a n d Atten bor ou gh , 1981), a n d com m u n ica tion in ter fer en ce
ca u ses w idespr ea d a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986;
Sm ith , 1991). Residen ts a r ou n d two a ir por ts
in Ca n a da , Tor on to (In ter n a tion a l) a n d
Osh aw a (Mu n icipa l) (Taylor et a l., 1981)
sh owed th e per cen ta ge of people h igh ly
a n n oyed w a s con sider a ble for both a ir por ts.
In F r a n ce, Th e N eth er la n ds a n d th e UK
80 per cen t of people wer e a n n oyed a t 55 N N I
(Va llet et a l., 1988).
In ter fer en ce w ith a ctivities m igh t be a
sou r ce of gr ea ter a n n oya n ce wh er ein su ccessfu l a ch ievem en t of th e a ctivity is h igh ly
va lu ed by th e su bjects (Levy-Leboyer a n d
Moser, 1987). An n oya n ce is a ssocia ted w ith
th e n oise level a n d type of a ctivity. Th e con text is a lso im por ta n t (Ch eifetz a n d Bor sk y,
1980) a n d a n n oya n ce is a dir ect effect of n oise
on con ver sa tion , m en ta l con cen tr a tion , r est
or r ecr ea tion (WHO, 1980). Th e r ela tion sh ip
between a ir cr a ft n oise (Gu n n et a l., 1981;
Mor a n et a l., 1981; Va llet et a l., 1988; Sm ith
a n d Sta n sfeld, 1986), tr a in n oise (Ah r lin a n d
Ryla n der, 1979; Cle gg, 1979), tr a ffic n oise
(Ka r a m i a n d F r ost, 1995; La n gdon , 1976;
Ryla n der et a l., 1976), in du str ia l n oise
(Oh r str om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978; Mela m ed et
a l., 1988) a n d power lin es n oise (Ler n er a n d
Leh r m a n , 1981) esta blish ed a positive cor r ela tion between n oise a n d a n n oya n ce. A gr ea ter
per cen ta ge of people wer e h igh ly a n n oyed by
a ir cr a ft n oise a s com pa r ed to r oa d tr a ffic
n oise a t th e sa m e n oise level (Ha ll et a l., 1981;
Roh r m a n n , 1978). High er a n n oya n ce levels
wer e fou n d for r oa d tr a ffic th a n for tr a in s a n d
tr a m w ays wh en com pa r ed to a ir cr a ft n oise
(Ah r lin a n d Ryla n der, 1979). In Ha m bu r g
(Ger m a n y) people a r e m or e a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n oise th a n oth er sou r ces of u r ba n n oise.
Respon den ts believed th a t a ir cr a ft n oise w a s
th e m ost u n plea sa n t type of en vir on m en ta l
n oise, even if th ey did n ot live n ea r a n a ir por t. Th e fu r th er r a n k or der w a s str eet tr a ffic, fa ctor ies, con str u ction a n d r a ilw ays
(Roh r m a n n , 1978). In th e UK th er e h ave been
few com pla in ts a bou t r a ilw ay n oise, yet
sou n d levels gen er a ted a lon g r a ilw ays a r e
h igh er th a n levels fr om va r iou s oth er sou r ces
wh ich fr equ en tly give r ise to w idespr ea d
com pla in ts (Cle gg, 1979). A socia l su r vey
(F idell a n d Silva ti, 1991) on th e pr eva len ce of
a n n oya n ce in Ha r tsfield In ter n a tion a l Air por t (ATL) in Atla n ta sh ows th at a ir cr a ft n oise
wa s th e m ost disliked a spect of n eigh bou r h ood
life for r esiden ts of both a cou stica lly tr eated
a n d u n tr eated h om es in a ll n oise exposu r e
in ter va ls.
An n oya n ce w ith a ir cr a ft n oise h a s often
been a ssocia ted w ith fea r a n d th e belief th a t
th e n oise cou ld be pr even ted if a dequ a te m ea su r es wer e ta k en (F ield a n d Wa lk er, 1982).
Respon den ts livin g dir ectly u n der n ea th a
fligh t pa th a r e m or e a n n oyed th a n people
livin g ou tside th e pa th (Gjestla n d, 1988). Th e
fea r of cr a sh es in th e n eigh bou r h ood a r e a n
im por ta n t fa ctor for gen er a tin g a n n oya n ce
w ith a ir cr a ft n oise (Gu n n , 1987; Gu n n et a l.,
1981; Reijn eveld, 1994).
Materials and methods
Th e qu estion n a ir e w a s ba sed on ea r lier in vestiga tion s (Dia m on d a n d Rice, 1987; J u e et a l.,
1984; Mclea n a n d Ta r n opolsk y, 1977;
Ta r n opolsk y a n d Mor ton -Willia m s, 1980)
w ith sta n da r d com m on ly u sed qu estion s. Th e
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
qu estion n a ir e w a s design ed in a for m th a t
m a de it ea sy for r esiden ts to a n swer th e qu estion s. Socia l su r veys to m ea su r e h u m a n r ea ction s (Ha de a n d Bu llen , 1982) r equ ir e r espon den ts to give a r a tin g of th eir feelin gs in r ela tion to pa r ticu la r a n n oya n ce fa ctor s. Qu estion s sh ou ld th er efor e in clu de th e wor d a n d
dir ectly r ela te to “a n n oya n ce”. Th is r ecom m en da tion w a s a dopted for th e qu estion n a ir e
u sed in th e Teh r a n su r vey. Residen ts wer e
en cou r a ged to in clu de in dividu a l per ception s
on h ea lth , com m u n ica tion a n d sa tisfa ction in
r ela tion to a ir cr a ft n oise a n d to r a te th eir
feelin gs u sin g th e descr iptive ph r a ses “ver y
m u ch ”, “fa ir ly”, “a little”, “ver y often ”, “qu ite
often ” a n d “r a r ely”. Two sou n d level m eter s
wer e ca libr a ted a n d sta n da r dised by th e
Depa r tm en t of Applied Acou stics, Un iver sity
of Sa lfor d. Noise m ea su r em en ts a n d socia l
su r veys wer e ca r r ied ou t a t th r ee sites in th e
a ir por t r esiden tia l a r ea . Mea su r em en ts wer e
m a de wh en th e effects of envir on m en ta l
vibr a tion , h u m idity, w in d, tem per a tu r e a n d
r a in wer e in sign ifica n t (J a m a b Con su ltin g
E n gin eer s, 1991) on su n n y a n d br igh t days
(Cr ook er a n d P r ice, 1975; Pen n , 1979). Th e
Sta tistica l Pa ck a ge for Socia l Scien ces (SP SS
P C + ) w a s u sed for da ta a n a lysis.
Th e va r ia bles wer e en ter ed ba sed on Da ta
E n tr y II. Th e a m ou n t of exposu r e to a ir cr a ft
n oise is m ea su r ed u sin g differ en t u n its (N N I,
N E F, Ldn , CN E L) a s r ecom m en ded by a u th or ities in va r iou s cou n tr ies (Ha de a n d Bu llen ,
1982; Mu lh olla n d a n d Atten bor ou gh , 1981;
Sh eph er d, 1987). N N I w a s selected a s a su ita ble m etr ic of a ir cr a ft n oise a ssessm en t for
th e pr esen t stu dy. It is gen er a lly a ccepted a s a
m ea n s of a ssessin g a n n oya n ce lik ely to be
ca u sed by a ir cr a ft n oise (Ba ttin g et a l., 1980;
Kn ipsch ild, 1977; Sm ith a n d Sta n sfeld, 1986;
Wa tk in s et a l., 1981).
Results and discussion
Th e level of a n n oya n ce a m on gst r esiden ts
sh owed 91 per cen t of people a r e a n n oyed by
a ir cr a ft n oise w ith 43 per cen t bein g “ver y
m u ch ” a ffected (see F igu r e 1). Abou t 75 per
cen t of r esiden ts h ave lived in th e a r ea for ten
yea r s or m or e. Th er e is n o eviden ce of a r ela tion sh ip between th e pr oblem of th e level of
a ir cr a ft n oise a n d th e len gth of tim e dwellin g
n ea r Meh r a ba d Air por t. Lon g-ter m r esiden ts
a r e ju st a s a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n oise a s a r e
n ew r esiden ts. Oth er stu dies (Coh en a n d
Wein stein , 1981) dem on str a te th is a n d in
Spa in th e n eigh bou r h ood n oises wer e com pa r ed w ith sa tisfa ction levels wh ich wer e
h igh er in qu iet a r ea s th a n n oisy a r ea s.
N oises h ave been cla ssified on th e ba sis of th e
sou r ce (tr a ffic, a ir cr a ft, electr on ica lly
Figure 1
Anno yanc e to airc raft no ise
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
no t at all
a little
fairly
ve ry muc h
pr odu ced, voca l, a n im a l a n d im pa ct sou n ds
(su ch a s ba n gin g door s or footsteps), a n d th e
exten t of th eir distu r ba n ce ca pa city (Utley
a n d Keigh ley, 1988). In F r a n ce (Levy-Leboyer
a n d N a tu r el, 1991) th e m ost a n n oyin g n oises
wer e th ose ju dged to be lou d, a bn or m a l,
im possible to avoid a n d h a ppen in g a t n igh t.
Feelin gs of a n n oya n ce m ay be pa r tly ca u sed
in dir ectly by th e su bjects’ aw a r en ess of th eir
im pa ir ed per for m a n ce in n oisy a r ea s
(Ar vidsson a n d Lin dva ll, 1978).
Th e sign ifica n ce of a ir cr a ft n oise is a lso
illu str a ted by a su r vey con du cted in th e USA
(E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Agen cy, 1978).
Her e, th e r ea son s for w a n tin g to m ove fr om a
pa r ticu la r pla ce wer e given a s day-n igh t
n oise levels of (Ldn ) > 68b B (A ). Air cr a ft n oise
w a s th e m a in pr oblem a ccor din g to m ost
su r vey pa r ticipa n ts. Va r iou s oth er r ea son s
r espon den ts give for dissa tisfa ction in clu de
clim a te, th e n eed for better livin g a ccom m oda tion , sm ok e/ dir t/ sm ells a n d dista n ce fr om
wor k (Wilson , 1989).
In th is stu dy, th e sa tisfa ction sca le r a n ges
fr om “fa ir ly” to “defin itely sa tisfied” a n d is
u sed to r a te th e over a ll r espon se to a ir cr a ft
n oise of th ose qu estion ed. It in dica tes a r ela tion sh ip between a ir cr a ft n oise a n d dissa tisfa ction scor es. Th e n oise w a s a ssessed a n d w a s
u n bea r able to 80 per cen t of r espon den ts (see
F igu r e 2). It ca u sed feelin gs of dislik e a m on gst
th e r esiden ts tow a r ds th e envir on m en t. Air cr a ft n oise is th e m ost im por ta n t fa ctor in
feelin gs of dislik e for th eir a r ea (see F igu r e 3).
Con sequ en tly th ey wou ld pr efer to m ove
fr om th e a r ea beca u se of th e a ir cr a ft n oise
(see F igu r e 4).
[ 91 ]
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
Figure 2
Airc raft no ise satisfac tio n
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Key
definitely satisfied
fairly satisfied
definitely unsatisfied
fairly unsatisfied
Figure 3
Re aso ns fo r dislike o f are a
airc raft no ise
45%
e nviro nme nt
5%
traffic no ise
20%
e c o no mic
12%
no le isure
7%
po llutio n
11%
Figure 4
Re aso ns fo r “ wanting to mo ve ”
e nviro nme nt
24%
traffic no ise
10%
ne ighbo urs
13%
garriso n
3%
airc raft no ise
30%
[ 92 ]
ac c o mmo datio n
20%
An n oya n ce du e to a ir cr a ft n oise w a s r a ted a s
th e biggest sou r ce of a n n oya n ce fr om a list of
n eigh bou r h ood n oises. Th e pr opor tion of th e
tota l sa m ple of r espon den ts wh o a r e a n n oyed
by differ en t n eigh bou r h ood n oises (see
F igu r e 5) in dica tes th a t m or e th a n two-th ir ds
of com pla in ts a r e a bou t a ir cr a ft n oise. Th e
m ost both er som e n oises in th is stu dy ca n be
divided in to a ir cr a ft n oise, ch ildr en a n d people ou tside, tr a ffic n oise a n d ch ildr en a n d
a du lts in door s. Th er e is a sign ifica n t r ela tion sh ip between th e de gr ee of sa tisfa ction a bou t
livin g wh er e th ey a r e a n d bein g both er ed by
a ir cr a ft n oise (P = 0.001). Sta r tlin g sou n ds
(P < 0.001), h ou se vibr a tion s (P = 0.006), com m u n ica tion in ter fer en ce (P = 0.02) fr om a ir cr a ft n oise, fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g
(P < 0.001) a n d sleep distu r ba n ce (P < 0.001)
a r e sign ifica n t u n der lyin g r ea son s for a ir cr a ft n oise a n n oya n ce. Th er efor e, a n n oya n ce
der ives fr om sever a l a ir cr a ft n oise effects.
Th e differ en t in dices of a n n oya n ce a n d th e
per cen ta ge of th ose a ffected in dica te th a t
a ir cr a ft n oise in du ces differ en t r espon ses
wh ich pr om pt “a n n oya n ce” (see F igu r e 6).
Fea r of cr a sh in g a ir cr a ft is a n im por ta n t
ca u se of con cer n a n d a n n oya n ce a m on gst
r esiden ts. Th is fi n din g con for m s w ith th e
r esu lts of pr eviou s r esea r ch (Gu n n , 1987;
Mor a n et a l., 1981; Sta n sfeld et a l., 1985;
Tr a cor In c., 1971) a n d wor k on cr a sh ed a n d
oth er a r ea s a r ou n d a ir por ts in Am er ica
(Mor a n et a l., 1981) a n d Th e N eth er la n ds
(Reijn eveld, 1994). All in ter viewees wer e
con cer n ed bu t th er e wer e gr ea ter fea r a n d
a n n oya n ce a m on gst th ose in a r ea s wh er e
th er e h a d been cr a sh es pr eviou sly. Oth er
stu dies (Sta n sfeld et a l., 1985) a lso con fir m ed
th a t fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es a s a fa ctor in du cin g a n n oya n ce r espon ses to a ir cr a ft n oise
a ccen tu a ted th e belief th a t a ir cr a ft n oise
im pa ir s h ea lth . It w a s a lso sh ow n th a t com pla in ts a bou t a ir cr a ft n oise fr om th ose wh o
a r e a fr a id to fly or wh o fea r th e th r ea t of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es a n d da m a ge to th eir h om es
r ela te m or e to th e sign ifica n ce of th e n oise
th a n its in ten sity (Br oa dben t, 1980).
Th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es is a psych osocia l fa ctor a m on g r esiden ts a r ou n d a ir por ts. It is a n im por ta n t fa ctor for gen er a tin g
a n n oya n ce to a ir cr a ft n oise a n d th e belief
th a t it im pa ir s h ea lth (Gu n n , 1987; Sta n sfeld
et a l., 1985). Th e fa ctor s wh ich cou ld be a
ca u se of a ir cr a ft n oise r ea ction wer e stu died
a r ou n d seven m a jor a ir por ts in th e USA
(Tr a cor In c., 1971). Fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g
w a s th e m ost im por ta n t fa ctor in flu en cin g
r ea ction s to a ir cr a ft n oise. Air cr a ft n oise in
th ese situ a tion s in du ces fea r a n d a sen se of
in secu r ity wh ich a r e two im por ta n t a spects
a ffectin g psych ologica l h ea lth a n d th e qu a lity
of life (Ha de a n d Bu llen , 1982).
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
In th is stu dy, th e differ en t sca les r a n gin g
fr om “n ot a t a ll” to “ver y often ” wer e u sed to
r a te th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g wh en flyin g
over h ea d. It in dica tes th a t 68 per cen t of people a lso fea r a ir cr a ft n oise beca u se of th eir
con cer n a bou t th e r isk of cr a sh es. Th er e is a
sign ifica n t r ela tion sh ip between th e fea r of
a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d th e exten t of a ir cr a ft
n oise distu r ba n ce a m on gst th e r esiden ts.
Wh en h ou ses vibr a te th er e is a sign ifi ca n t
fea r of a cr a sh (P < 0.001) a n d th ose a ffected
r epor t sign ifica n tly gr ea ter a ir cr a ft n oise
a n n oya n ce th a n th ose wh o a r e u n a ffected
(P < 0.001). Th er e is a n a ssocia tion between
Figure 5
Co mpariso n o f diffe re nt no ise s
Figure 6
Signific ant indic e s o f airc raft no ise anno yanc e
th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d psych oph ysiologica l sym ptom s (sta r tlin g, P = 0.002;
h ea da ch es, P = 0.02; tir edn ess a n d fa tigu e,
P < 0.001; ten sen ess a n d n er vou sn ess,
P = 0.004).
Of th ose qu estion ed 95 per cen t believe th a t
a ir cr a ft n oise th r ea ten s th eir h ea lth “a little”
to “ver y m u ch ” w ith 57 per cen t r a ted “ver y
m u ch ”. Th e per ception of a ir cr a ft n oise bein g
h a r m fu l cor r ela tes positively w ith th e exten t
of dissa tisfa ction , P < 0.001; fea r of cr a sh in g,
P = 0.004; sleep distu r ba n ce, P < 0.001;
n er vou sn ess, P = 0.01 a n d a n n oya n ce, P <
0.001. Th is con fir m s pr eviou s stu dies (Coh en
a n d Wein stein , 1981; Ga r cia et a l., 1988) a n d
in dica tes th e im por ta n ce of th e r espon den ts’
per ception of th e n oise th ey exper ien ced.
Better edu ca ted r esiden ts a r e m or e wor r ied
a bou t h ea lth effects of a ir cr a ft n oise. Ir r ita bility, h ea da ch es, depr ession a n d th e desir e
to esca pe fr om th e n oise a r e th e cla ssic sym ptom s of n oise a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986). Accor din g to Pen n (1979), r esiden ts a r ou n d Ha m bu r g
a n d Mu n ich a ir por ts su ffer n er vou sn ess a s a
r esu lt of a ir cr a ft n oise. Th e r esu lt of th is
stu dy sh ow s a sign ifica n t a ssocia tion
between bein g sta r tled a n d per ception of
a ir cr a ft n oise da n ger (P < 0.001). Sta r tlin g is a
sign ifica n t fa ctor for dissa tisfa ction w ith
a ir cr a ft n oise (P < 0.001), a n n oya n ce
(P < 0.001), n er vou sn ess (P = 0.04) a n d
tir edn ess/ fa tigu e (P < 0.001).
Conclusion
%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Key
startling
vibratio n
waking up
fe e l ne rvo us
c onversation interferenc e
tiredness and fatigue
he adac he s
fe ar o f c rashing
Da ta ga th er ed in th e pr esen t stu dy, togeth er
w ith in ter im r esu lts of oth er stu dies in
F r a n ce, Th e N eth er la n ds, Ger m a n y a n d
J a pa n , sh ow th a t a n n oya n ce in cr ea sed w ith
in cr ea sin g n u m ber of over -fligh ts a n d n oise
level (Oh r str om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978). Th er e
w a s a h igh cor r ela tion a t fou r F r en ch a ir por ts between th e aver a ge fi gu r es of th e
a n n oya n ce scor es a n d n oise level (Bu glia r ello
et a l., 1976). N oise level is th e m ost im por ta n t
va r ia ble in deter m in in g a n n oya n ce (Ch eifetz
a n d Bor sk y, 1980).
Com pa r ison s of a ir cr a ft n oise in differ en t
a r ea s a r ou n d Meh r a ba d Air por t su ggest th a t
th e h igh er n oise levels con tr ibu te m ost to
a n n oya n ce (see F igu r e 7). Th e over a ll con clu sion pr om pted by th is stu dy is th a t a ir cr a ft
n oise is a sign ifica n t en vir on m en ta l pr oblem
wh ich h a s n e ga tive effects th r ea ten in g
h u m a n h ea lth a n d wh ich r equ ir es effective
con tr ols th r ou gh m or e con sider a tion in
fu tu r e city pla n n in g.
[ 93 ]
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
Figure 7
No ise le ve l and anno yanc e
%
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
no t at all
a little
fairly
ve ry muc h
Key
NNI = 4 6
NNI = 4 7
NNI = 5 3
References
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Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
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[ 95 ]
Tehran International Airport
Khodabakshsh Karami
He alth Fac ulty, Ahwaz Unive rsity o f Me dic al Sc ie nc e s, Ahwaz, Iran
Stan Frost
De partme nt o f Enviro nme ntal Re so urc e s, Unive rsity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK
Keywords
Air transpo rt, He alth, Iran, No ise ,
Planning
Abstract
No ise me asure me nt and so c ial
que stio nnaire surve ys in thre e
re side ntial are as aro und
Me hrabad Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
(Te hran, Iran) we re base d upo n
rando mly se le c te d dwe llings in
e ac h are a. A to tal o f 1 9 3 individuals re spo nde d and many are
anno ye d and dissatisfie d with
airc raft no ise and in c o nse que nc e
the y wo uld like to mo ve . Airc raft
no ise is the stro nge st ne gative
e nviro nme ntal fac to r affe c ting the
re side nts in the vic inity o f
Me hrabad Airpo rt and it c o uld be
a hazard fo r the ir he alth.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [ 1999] 9 0 –9 5
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[ 90 ]
Introduction
An n oya n ce is a com m on psych ologica l
r espon se to n oise (Mclea n a n d Ta r n opolsk y,
1977; Ta r n opolsk y et a l., 1980) defin ed a s:
feelin g both er ed by n oise distu r ba n ce or
displea su r e a ssocia ted w ith a n y a gen t or
con dition , con ver sa tion a n d r est in ter fer en ce
(WHO, 1980), fa tigu e or h ea da ch e (Sta n sfeld et
a l., 1985). Da ily exposu r e to en vir on m en ta l
str essor s ca n cr ea te a n n oya n ce a n d decr ea ses
th e qu a lity of life for th ose wh o view it a s
u n n ecessa r y a n d u n con tr olla ble (Coh en et a l.,
1986). Distu r ba n ce of sleep by n oise is often
th e u n der lyin g r ea son for n oise a n n oya n ce
(Str ea m , 1980). Speech in ter fer en ce by n oise
is a lso a n n oyin g (Mu lh olla n d a n d Atten bor ou gh , 1981), a n d com m u n ica tion in ter fer en ce
ca u ses w idespr ea d a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986;
Sm ith , 1991). Residen ts a r ou n d two a ir por ts
in Ca n a da , Tor on to (In ter n a tion a l) a n d
Osh aw a (Mu n icipa l) (Taylor et a l., 1981)
sh owed th e per cen ta ge of people h igh ly
a n n oyed w a s con sider a ble for both a ir por ts.
In F r a n ce, Th e N eth er la n ds a n d th e UK
80 per cen t of people wer e a n n oyed a t 55 N N I
(Va llet et a l., 1988).
In ter fer en ce w ith a ctivities m igh t be a
sou r ce of gr ea ter a n n oya n ce wh er ein su ccessfu l a ch ievem en t of th e a ctivity is h igh ly
va lu ed by th e su bjects (Levy-Leboyer a n d
Moser, 1987). An n oya n ce is a ssocia ted w ith
th e n oise level a n d type of a ctivity. Th e con text is a lso im por ta n t (Ch eifetz a n d Bor sk y,
1980) a n d a n n oya n ce is a dir ect effect of n oise
on con ver sa tion , m en ta l con cen tr a tion , r est
or r ecr ea tion (WHO, 1980). Th e r ela tion sh ip
between a ir cr a ft n oise (Gu n n et a l., 1981;
Mor a n et a l., 1981; Va llet et a l., 1988; Sm ith
a n d Sta n sfeld, 1986), tr a in n oise (Ah r lin a n d
Ryla n der, 1979; Cle gg, 1979), tr a ffic n oise
(Ka r a m i a n d F r ost, 1995; La n gdon , 1976;
Ryla n der et a l., 1976), in du str ia l n oise
(Oh r str om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978; Mela m ed et
a l., 1988) a n d power lin es n oise (Ler n er a n d
Leh r m a n , 1981) esta blish ed a positive cor r ela tion between n oise a n d a n n oya n ce. A gr ea ter
per cen ta ge of people wer e h igh ly a n n oyed by
a ir cr a ft n oise a s com pa r ed to r oa d tr a ffic
n oise a t th e sa m e n oise level (Ha ll et a l., 1981;
Roh r m a n n , 1978). High er a n n oya n ce levels
wer e fou n d for r oa d tr a ffic th a n for tr a in s a n d
tr a m w ays wh en com pa r ed to a ir cr a ft n oise
(Ah r lin a n d Ryla n der, 1979). In Ha m bu r g
(Ger m a n y) people a r e m or e a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n oise th a n oth er sou r ces of u r ba n n oise.
Respon den ts believed th a t a ir cr a ft n oise w a s
th e m ost u n plea sa n t type of en vir on m en ta l
n oise, even if th ey did n ot live n ea r a n a ir por t. Th e fu r th er r a n k or der w a s str eet tr a ffic, fa ctor ies, con str u ction a n d r a ilw ays
(Roh r m a n n , 1978). In th e UK th er e h ave been
few com pla in ts a bou t r a ilw ay n oise, yet
sou n d levels gen er a ted a lon g r a ilw ays a r e
h igh er th a n levels fr om va r iou s oth er sou r ces
wh ich fr equ en tly give r ise to w idespr ea d
com pla in ts (Cle gg, 1979). A socia l su r vey
(F idell a n d Silva ti, 1991) on th e pr eva len ce of
a n n oya n ce in Ha r tsfield In ter n a tion a l Air por t (ATL) in Atla n ta sh ows th at a ir cr a ft n oise
wa s th e m ost disliked a spect of n eigh bou r h ood
life for r esiden ts of both a cou stica lly tr eated
a n d u n tr eated h om es in a ll n oise exposu r e
in ter va ls.
An n oya n ce w ith a ir cr a ft n oise h a s often
been a ssocia ted w ith fea r a n d th e belief th a t
th e n oise cou ld be pr even ted if a dequ a te m ea su r es wer e ta k en (F ield a n d Wa lk er, 1982).
Respon den ts livin g dir ectly u n der n ea th a
fligh t pa th a r e m or e a n n oyed th a n people
livin g ou tside th e pa th (Gjestla n d, 1988). Th e
fea r of cr a sh es in th e n eigh bou r h ood a r e a n
im por ta n t fa ctor for gen er a tin g a n n oya n ce
w ith a ir cr a ft n oise (Gu n n , 1987; Gu n n et a l.,
1981; Reijn eveld, 1994).
Materials and methods
Th e qu estion n a ir e w a s ba sed on ea r lier in vestiga tion s (Dia m on d a n d Rice, 1987; J u e et a l.,
1984; Mclea n a n d Ta r n opolsk y, 1977;
Ta r n opolsk y a n d Mor ton -Willia m s, 1980)
w ith sta n da r d com m on ly u sed qu estion s. Th e
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
qu estion n a ir e w a s design ed in a for m th a t
m a de it ea sy for r esiden ts to a n swer th e qu estion s. Socia l su r veys to m ea su r e h u m a n r ea ction s (Ha de a n d Bu llen , 1982) r equ ir e r espon den ts to give a r a tin g of th eir feelin gs in r ela tion to pa r ticu la r a n n oya n ce fa ctor s. Qu estion s sh ou ld th er efor e in clu de th e wor d a n d
dir ectly r ela te to “a n n oya n ce”. Th is r ecom m en da tion w a s a dopted for th e qu estion n a ir e
u sed in th e Teh r a n su r vey. Residen ts wer e
en cou r a ged to in clu de in dividu a l per ception s
on h ea lth , com m u n ica tion a n d sa tisfa ction in
r ela tion to a ir cr a ft n oise a n d to r a te th eir
feelin gs u sin g th e descr iptive ph r a ses “ver y
m u ch ”, “fa ir ly”, “a little”, “ver y often ”, “qu ite
often ” a n d “r a r ely”. Two sou n d level m eter s
wer e ca libr a ted a n d sta n da r dised by th e
Depa r tm en t of Applied Acou stics, Un iver sity
of Sa lfor d. Noise m ea su r em en ts a n d socia l
su r veys wer e ca r r ied ou t a t th r ee sites in th e
a ir por t r esiden tia l a r ea . Mea su r em en ts wer e
m a de wh en th e effects of envir on m en ta l
vibr a tion , h u m idity, w in d, tem per a tu r e a n d
r a in wer e in sign ifica n t (J a m a b Con su ltin g
E n gin eer s, 1991) on su n n y a n d br igh t days
(Cr ook er a n d P r ice, 1975; Pen n , 1979). Th e
Sta tistica l Pa ck a ge for Socia l Scien ces (SP SS
P C + ) w a s u sed for da ta a n a lysis.
Th e va r ia bles wer e en ter ed ba sed on Da ta
E n tr y II. Th e a m ou n t of exposu r e to a ir cr a ft
n oise is m ea su r ed u sin g differ en t u n its (N N I,
N E F, Ldn , CN E L) a s r ecom m en ded by a u th or ities in va r iou s cou n tr ies (Ha de a n d Bu llen ,
1982; Mu lh olla n d a n d Atten bor ou gh , 1981;
Sh eph er d, 1987). N N I w a s selected a s a su ita ble m etr ic of a ir cr a ft n oise a ssessm en t for
th e pr esen t stu dy. It is gen er a lly a ccepted a s a
m ea n s of a ssessin g a n n oya n ce lik ely to be
ca u sed by a ir cr a ft n oise (Ba ttin g et a l., 1980;
Kn ipsch ild, 1977; Sm ith a n d Sta n sfeld, 1986;
Wa tk in s et a l., 1981).
Results and discussion
Th e level of a n n oya n ce a m on gst r esiden ts
sh owed 91 per cen t of people a r e a n n oyed by
a ir cr a ft n oise w ith 43 per cen t bein g “ver y
m u ch ” a ffected (see F igu r e 1). Abou t 75 per
cen t of r esiden ts h ave lived in th e a r ea for ten
yea r s or m or e. Th er e is n o eviden ce of a r ela tion sh ip between th e pr oblem of th e level of
a ir cr a ft n oise a n d th e len gth of tim e dwellin g
n ea r Meh r a ba d Air por t. Lon g-ter m r esiden ts
a r e ju st a s a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n oise a s a r e
n ew r esiden ts. Oth er stu dies (Coh en a n d
Wein stein , 1981) dem on str a te th is a n d in
Spa in th e n eigh bou r h ood n oises wer e com pa r ed w ith sa tisfa ction levels wh ich wer e
h igh er in qu iet a r ea s th a n n oisy a r ea s.
N oises h ave been cla ssified on th e ba sis of th e
sou r ce (tr a ffic, a ir cr a ft, electr on ica lly
Figure 1
Anno yanc e to airc raft no ise
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
no t at all
a little
fairly
ve ry muc h
pr odu ced, voca l, a n im a l a n d im pa ct sou n ds
(su ch a s ba n gin g door s or footsteps), a n d th e
exten t of th eir distu r ba n ce ca pa city (Utley
a n d Keigh ley, 1988). In F r a n ce (Levy-Leboyer
a n d N a tu r el, 1991) th e m ost a n n oyin g n oises
wer e th ose ju dged to be lou d, a bn or m a l,
im possible to avoid a n d h a ppen in g a t n igh t.
Feelin gs of a n n oya n ce m ay be pa r tly ca u sed
in dir ectly by th e su bjects’ aw a r en ess of th eir
im pa ir ed per for m a n ce in n oisy a r ea s
(Ar vidsson a n d Lin dva ll, 1978).
Th e sign ifica n ce of a ir cr a ft n oise is a lso
illu str a ted by a su r vey con du cted in th e USA
(E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Agen cy, 1978).
Her e, th e r ea son s for w a n tin g to m ove fr om a
pa r ticu la r pla ce wer e given a s day-n igh t
n oise levels of (Ldn ) > 68b B (A ). Air cr a ft n oise
w a s th e m a in pr oblem a ccor din g to m ost
su r vey pa r ticipa n ts. Va r iou s oth er r ea son s
r espon den ts give for dissa tisfa ction in clu de
clim a te, th e n eed for better livin g a ccom m oda tion , sm ok e/ dir t/ sm ells a n d dista n ce fr om
wor k (Wilson , 1989).
In th is stu dy, th e sa tisfa ction sca le r a n ges
fr om “fa ir ly” to “defin itely sa tisfied” a n d is
u sed to r a te th e over a ll r espon se to a ir cr a ft
n oise of th ose qu estion ed. It in dica tes a r ela tion sh ip between a ir cr a ft n oise a n d dissa tisfa ction scor es. Th e n oise w a s a ssessed a n d w a s
u n bea r able to 80 per cen t of r espon den ts (see
F igu r e 2). It ca u sed feelin gs of dislik e a m on gst
th e r esiden ts tow a r ds th e envir on m en t. Air cr a ft n oise is th e m ost im por ta n t fa ctor in
feelin gs of dislik e for th eir a r ea (see F igu r e 3).
Con sequ en tly th ey wou ld pr efer to m ove
fr om th e a r ea beca u se of th e a ir cr a ft n oise
(see F igu r e 4).
[ 91 ]
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
Figure 2
Airc raft no ise satisfac tio n
%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Key
definitely satisfied
fairly satisfied
definitely unsatisfied
fairly unsatisfied
Figure 3
Re aso ns fo r dislike o f are a
airc raft no ise
45%
e nviro nme nt
5%
traffic no ise
20%
e c o no mic
12%
no le isure
7%
po llutio n
11%
Figure 4
Re aso ns fo r “ wanting to mo ve ”
e nviro nme nt
24%
traffic no ise
10%
ne ighbo urs
13%
garriso n
3%
airc raft no ise
30%
[ 92 ]
ac c o mmo datio n
20%
An n oya n ce du e to a ir cr a ft n oise w a s r a ted a s
th e biggest sou r ce of a n n oya n ce fr om a list of
n eigh bou r h ood n oises. Th e pr opor tion of th e
tota l sa m ple of r espon den ts wh o a r e a n n oyed
by differ en t n eigh bou r h ood n oises (see
F igu r e 5) in dica tes th a t m or e th a n two-th ir ds
of com pla in ts a r e a bou t a ir cr a ft n oise. Th e
m ost both er som e n oises in th is stu dy ca n be
divided in to a ir cr a ft n oise, ch ildr en a n d people ou tside, tr a ffic n oise a n d ch ildr en a n d
a du lts in door s. Th er e is a sign ifica n t r ela tion sh ip between th e de gr ee of sa tisfa ction a bou t
livin g wh er e th ey a r e a n d bein g both er ed by
a ir cr a ft n oise (P = 0.001). Sta r tlin g sou n ds
(P < 0.001), h ou se vibr a tion s (P = 0.006), com m u n ica tion in ter fer en ce (P = 0.02) fr om a ir cr a ft n oise, fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g
(P < 0.001) a n d sleep distu r ba n ce (P < 0.001)
a r e sign ifica n t u n der lyin g r ea son s for a ir cr a ft n oise a n n oya n ce. Th er efor e, a n n oya n ce
der ives fr om sever a l a ir cr a ft n oise effects.
Th e differ en t in dices of a n n oya n ce a n d th e
per cen ta ge of th ose a ffected in dica te th a t
a ir cr a ft n oise in du ces differ en t r espon ses
wh ich pr om pt “a n n oya n ce” (see F igu r e 6).
Fea r of cr a sh in g a ir cr a ft is a n im por ta n t
ca u se of con cer n a n d a n n oya n ce a m on gst
r esiden ts. Th is fi n din g con for m s w ith th e
r esu lts of pr eviou s r esea r ch (Gu n n , 1987;
Mor a n et a l., 1981; Sta n sfeld et a l., 1985;
Tr a cor In c., 1971) a n d wor k on cr a sh ed a n d
oth er a r ea s a r ou n d a ir por ts in Am er ica
(Mor a n et a l., 1981) a n d Th e N eth er la n ds
(Reijn eveld, 1994). All in ter viewees wer e
con cer n ed bu t th er e wer e gr ea ter fea r a n d
a n n oya n ce a m on gst th ose in a r ea s wh er e
th er e h a d been cr a sh es pr eviou sly. Oth er
stu dies (Sta n sfeld et a l., 1985) a lso con fir m ed
th a t fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es a s a fa ctor in du cin g a n n oya n ce r espon ses to a ir cr a ft n oise
a ccen tu a ted th e belief th a t a ir cr a ft n oise
im pa ir s h ea lth . It w a s a lso sh ow n th a t com pla in ts a bou t a ir cr a ft n oise fr om th ose wh o
a r e a fr a id to fly or wh o fea r th e th r ea t of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es a n d da m a ge to th eir h om es
r ela te m or e to th e sign ifica n ce of th e n oise
th a n its in ten sity (Br oa dben t, 1980).
Th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es is a psych osocia l fa ctor a m on g r esiden ts a r ou n d a ir por ts. It is a n im por ta n t fa ctor for gen er a tin g
a n n oya n ce to a ir cr a ft n oise a n d th e belief
th a t it im pa ir s h ea lth (Gu n n , 1987; Sta n sfeld
et a l., 1985). Th e fa ctor s wh ich cou ld be a
ca u se of a ir cr a ft n oise r ea ction wer e stu died
a r ou n d seven m a jor a ir por ts in th e USA
(Tr a cor In c., 1971). Fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g
w a s th e m ost im por ta n t fa ctor in flu en cin g
r ea ction s to a ir cr a ft n oise. Air cr a ft n oise in
th ese situ a tion s in du ces fea r a n d a sen se of
in secu r ity wh ich a r e two im por ta n t a spects
a ffectin g psych ologica l h ea lth a n d th e qu a lity
of life (Ha de a n d Bu llen , 1982).
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
In th is stu dy, th e differ en t sca les r a n gin g
fr om “n ot a t a ll” to “ver y often ” wer e u sed to
r a te th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g wh en flyin g
over h ea d. It in dica tes th a t 68 per cen t of people a lso fea r a ir cr a ft n oise beca u se of th eir
con cer n a bou t th e r isk of cr a sh es. Th er e is a
sign ifica n t r ela tion sh ip between th e fea r of
a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d th e exten t of a ir cr a ft
n oise distu r ba n ce a m on gst th e r esiden ts.
Wh en h ou ses vibr a te th er e is a sign ifi ca n t
fea r of a cr a sh (P < 0.001) a n d th ose a ffected
r epor t sign ifica n tly gr ea ter a ir cr a ft n oise
a n n oya n ce th a n th ose wh o a r e u n a ffected
(P < 0.001). Th er e is a n a ssocia tion between
Figure 5
Co mpariso n o f diffe re nt no ise s
Figure 6
Signific ant indic e s o f airc raft no ise anno yanc e
th e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d psych oph ysiologica l sym ptom s (sta r tlin g, P = 0.002;
h ea da ch es, P = 0.02; tir edn ess a n d fa tigu e,
P < 0.001; ten sen ess a n d n er vou sn ess,
P = 0.004).
Of th ose qu estion ed 95 per cen t believe th a t
a ir cr a ft n oise th r ea ten s th eir h ea lth “a little”
to “ver y m u ch ” w ith 57 per cen t r a ted “ver y
m u ch ”. Th e per ception of a ir cr a ft n oise bein g
h a r m fu l cor r ela tes positively w ith th e exten t
of dissa tisfa ction , P < 0.001; fea r of cr a sh in g,
P = 0.004; sleep distu r ba n ce, P < 0.001;
n er vou sn ess, P = 0.01 a n d a n n oya n ce, P <
0.001. Th is con fir m s pr eviou s stu dies (Coh en
a n d Wein stein , 1981; Ga r cia et a l., 1988) a n d
in dica tes th e im por ta n ce of th e r espon den ts’
per ception of th e n oise th ey exper ien ced.
Better edu ca ted r esiden ts a r e m or e wor r ied
a bou t h ea lth effects of a ir cr a ft n oise. Ir r ita bility, h ea da ch es, depr ession a n d th e desir e
to esca pe fr om th e n oise a r e th e cla ssic sym ptom s of n oise a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986). Accor din g to Pen n (1979), r esiden ts a r ou n d Ha m bu r g
a n d Mu n ich a ir por ts su ffer n er vou sn ess a s a
r esu lt of a ir cr a ft n oise. Th e r esu lt of th is
stu dy sh ow s a sign ifica n t a ssocia tion
between bein g sta r tled a n d per ception of
a ir cr a ft n oise da n ger (P < 0.001). Sta r tlin g is a
sign ifica n t fa ctor for dissa tisfa ction w ith
a ir cr a ft n oise (P < 0.001), a n n oya n ce
(P < 0.001), n er vou sn ess (P = 0.04) a n d
tir edn ess/ fa tigu e (P < 0.001).
Conclusion
%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Key
startling
vibratio n
waking up
fe e l ne rvo us
c onversation interferenc e
tiredness and fatigue
he adac he s
fe ar o f c rashing
Da ta ga th er ed in th e pr esen t stu dy, togeth er
w ith in ter im r esu lts of oth er stu dies in
F r a n ce, Th e N eth er la n ds, Ger m a n y a n d
J a pa n , sh ow th a t a n n oya n ce in cr ea sed w ith
in cr ea sin g n u m ber of over -fligh ts a n d n oise
level (Oh r str om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978). Th er e
w a s a h igh cor r ela tion a t fou r F r en ch a ir por ts between th e aver a ge fi gu r es of th e
a n n oya n ce scor es a n d n oise level (Bu glia r ello
et a l., 1976). N oise level is th e m ost im por ta n t
va r ia ble in deter m in in g a n n oya n ce (Ch eifetz
a n d Bor sk y, 1980).
Com pa r ison s of a ir cr a ft n oise in differ en t
a r ea s a r ou n d Meh r a ba d Air por t su ggest th a t
th e h igh er n oise levels con tr ibu te m ost to
a n n oya n ce (see F igu r e 7). Th e over a ll con clu sion pr om pted by th is stu dy is th a t a ir cr a ft
n oise is a sign ifica n t en vir on m en ta l pr oblem
wh ich h a s n e ga tive effects th r ea ten in g
h u m a n h ea lth a n d wh ich r equ ir es effective
con tr ols th r ou gh m or e con sider a tion in
fu tu r e city pla n n in g.
[ 93 ]
Khodabakshsh Karami and
Stan Frost
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
Figure 7
No ise le ve l and anno yanc e
%
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
no t at all
a little
fairly
ve ry muc h
Key
NNI = 4 6
NNI = 4 7
NNI = 5 3
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Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft
no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran
Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
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