Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology 2006
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat
a Encyclopedia of multicultural psychology / Yo Jackson, editor.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-4129-0948-1 (cloth) 1. Ethnospychology—Encyclopedias. 2. Ethnic groups—Psychology—Encyclopedias.
3. Minorities—Psychology—Encyclopedias. I. Jackson, Yolanda Kaye. II. Title.
GN502.E63 2006 155.8 ′2—dc22 2006004938
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1 Rolf Janke
Publisher: Jim Brace-Thompson
Acquiring Editor: Yvette Pollastrini
Developmental Editor: Sanford Robinson
Project Editor: Leticia Gutierrez
Reference Systems Coordinator: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Typesetter:
Scott Oney Proofreader:
Molly Hall Indexer:
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Contents
Editorial Board vii List of Entries
ix
Reader’s Guide xiii About the Editor
xvii
Contributors xix Introduction
xxv
Entries A–X 1–484 Index 485
Editor
Joseph G. Ponterotto
Kimberlee M. Roy
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
Editorial Assistant
Luis Vargas
Howard University
Shawn Utsey
Western Washington University
Joseph Trimble
New York University
Lisa Suzuki
Colorado State University
Richard Suinn
Fordham University
University of Tennessee
Yo Jackson
Frederick T. L. Leong
DePaul University
Gayle Y. Iwamasa
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Allen Ivey
Portland State University
Richard Dana
Columbia University
Ian Canino
Arizona State University
Patricia Arredondo
University of Kansas
University of Kansas
Editorial Board Academic Achievement and Minority Individuals Accessibility of Health Care Acculturation Acculturation Measures Acculturation Scales: Acculturation, Habits, and
Interests Multicultural Scale for Adolescents Acculturation Scales: Acculturation Rating Scale for
Mexican Americans–II Acculturation Scales: African American
Acculturation Scale Acculturation Scales: Asian American
Multidimensional Acculturation Scale Acculturation Scales: Bidimensional Acculturation
Scale for Hispanics Acculturation Scales: East Asian Acculturation
Measure Acculturation Scales: Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics Acculturation Scales: Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity
Acculturation Scale Acculturative Stress Affirmative Action African Americans and Mental Health African/Black Psychology Africentric Alaska Natives Alcohol/Substance Use and Abuse American Counseling Association American Psychological Association Americans With Disabilities Act Anti-Semitism Anxiety Disorders in Ethnic Minorities Asian American Psychological Association Asian/Pacific Islanders Association of Black Psychologists Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Attribution
Bell Curve, The
Biculturalism Bilingual Education Bilingualism Biracial Biracial Identity Blaming the Victim Bureau of Indian Affairs Census Statistics Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood Chicanas/Chicanos Child Abuse: Overview Child Abuse: Physical Chinese Americans Cholo/Chola Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Collectivism Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs Community Interventions Community Psychology Context Communication Coping Mechanisms Council of National Psychological Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests Critical Race Theory Cross-Cultural Psychology Cuban Americans Cultural Barriers Culture Culture-Bound Syndromes Culture-Bound Syndromes: Amok Culture-Bound Syndromes: Ataque de Nervios Culture-Bound Syndromes: Bilis, Colera Culture-Bound Syndromes: Brain Fag Culture-Bound Syndromes: Dhat
List of Entries Culture-Bound Syndromes: Falling Out, Blacking Out
Culture-Bound Syndromes: Ghost Sickness Culture-Bound Syndromes: Hwa-byung Culture-Bound Syndromes: Koro Culture-Bound Syndromes: Latah Culture-Bound Syndromes: Mal de Ojo Culture-Bound Syndromes: Nervios Culture-Bound Syndromes: Qigong
Psychotic Reaction Culture-Bound Syndromes: Shenjing Shuairuo Culture-Bound Syndromes: Shin-byung Culture-Bound Syndromes: Susto Culture-Bound Syndromes: Taijin Kyofusho Culture-Bound Syndromes: Zar Dementia Depression Disabilities Domestic Violence Dozens Drapetomania Drug Abuse Prevention in Ethnic Minority Youth DSM-IV Eating Disorders Education Emic Versus Etic Distinction Equal Employment Opportunity Ethnic and Racial Identity Ethnic Gloss Ethnic Identity Development Ethnic Identity Development Measures Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Asian Values Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Bicultural Involvement Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Cross Racial Identity Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Racial Identity Attitude Scale Ethnicity Ethnic Minority Counselors Ethnic Minority Elderly Individuals Ethnic Minority Youth Ethnic Research
Ethnocentric Monoculturalism Ethnocentrism Eugenics External-Internal Control Familismo Family Therapy Filial Piety Filipino Americans Head Start Help-Seeking Behavior Hispanic Americans Historical Trauma
(Native Americans) HIV/AIDS Prevention Immigrants Indian Health Service Indigenous Treatments and Healers Indigenous Treatments: Coining Indigenous Treatments: Cuento Therapy Indigenous Treatments: Cupping Indigenous Treatments: Curanderismo Indigenous Treatments: Dichos Indigenous Treatments: Moxibustion Indigenous Treatments: Shamans Indigenous Treatments: Sobadores Individualism Institutional Racism Instrument Development for Ethnic Minority
Research Intelligence Tests Intergroup Relations Internalized Racism Internment of Japanese Americans Interpreters Intraracial Violence Japanese Americans John Henryism Korean Americans Language Proficiency Machismo Marginality Measures of Racial Prejudice Measures of Racial Prejudice: Modern Racism Scale
x ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
Mental Health Mexican Americans Minority Status Model Minority Myth Models of Mental Health Models of Second-Culture Acquisition Multicultural Counseling Multicultural Counseling Competencies Multiculturalism Multicultural Personality Multiracial Individuals National Latina/o Psychological Association Native Americans Neuropsychology Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs Organizational Diversity Parenting Practices Across Families of Color Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Poverty Powerlessness Projective Testing Psychopharmacology Puerto Rican Americans Qualitative Methods Race Race Psychology Racial Identity Development Racial Identity Models Racism and Discrimination Rapport Refugees Religion
Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Espiritismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Fatalismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Marianismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Personalismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Santería Schizophrenia Scholastic Assessment Test Self-Disclosure Self-Esteem Sexual Abuse Sexual Minority Status in People of Color Social Justice/Action Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues Society of Indian Psychologists Socioeconomic Status Somatization Southeast Asian Americans Spirituality Stress Suicide Teaching Racial Identity Tokenism/Psychology of Tokenism Translation Methods Transracial Adoption Uncle Tom Syndrome Vietnamese Americans White Privilege White Racial Identity Women of Color Worldviews Xenophobia
List of Entries ——— xi Multicultural psychology is a broad field covering a great multitude of topics. The list is designed to assist the reader in finding articles on related topics. Headwords are organized into nine main categories, including Conceptual Issues, Cultural Concerns, Ethnic Groups, Indigenous Concerns, Measurement, Professional Organiza- tions, Psychopathology, Sociological Issues, and Treatment. Because many topics cannot be easily categorized into one area, some headwords are listed under more than one category.
Reader’s Guide
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES Acculturation Acculturative Stress African/Black Psychology Africentric Attribution Biracial Identity Blaming the Victim Collectivism Community Psychology Context Communication Coping Mechanisms Critical Race Theory Cross-Cultural Psychology Cultural Barriers Culture Emic Versus Etic Distinction Ethnic and Racial Identity Ethnic Gloss Ethnic Identity Development Ethnic Minority Elderly Individuals Ethnic Minority Youth Ethnic Research Ethnicity Ethnocentric Monoculturalism Ethnocentrism Eugenics External-Internal Control Individualism
Intelligence Tests Intergroup Relations John Henryism Language Proficiency Marginality Mental Health Minority Status Model Minority Myth Models of Mental Health Models of Second-Culture Acquisition Multicultural Counseling Multicultural Counseling Competencies Multicultural Personality Multiculturalism Neuropsychology Organizational Diversity Race Race Psychology Racial Identity Development Racial Identity Models Religion Self-Esteem Social Justice/Action Somatization Spirituality Teaching Racial Identity Tokenism/Psychology of Tokenism Translation Methods Uncle Tom Syndrome White Privilege White Racial Identity Worldviews Xenophobia CULTURAL CONCERNS Academic Achievement and Minority Individuals Anti-Semitism Bilingual Education Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood Cultural Barriers Dozens Drug Abuse Prevention in Ethnic Minority Youth Emic Versus Etic Distinction Equal Employment Opportunity Ethnic and Racial Identity Ethnic Identity Development Ethnocentric Monoculturalism Ethnocentrism Eugenics Filial Piety Help-Seeking Behavior Historical Trauma (Native Americans) Institutional Racism Instrument Development for Ethnic Minority
Research Intelligence Tests Intergroup Relations Internalized Racism Internment of Japanese Americans Interpreters Intraracial Violence John Henryism Language Proficiency Marginality Minority Status Multiculturalism Parenting Practices Across Families of Color Poverty Powerlessness Psychopharmacology Race Racial Identity Development Racism and Discrimination Religion Scholastic Assessment Test Self-Disclosure Self-Esteem
Spirituality Stress Tokenism/Psychology of Tokenism Translation Methods Transracial Adoption Uncle Tom Syndrome White Privilege White Racial Identity Women of Color Worldviews Xenophobia ETHNIC GROUPS African Americans and Mental Health Alaska Natives Asian/Pacific Islanders Biracial Chicanas/Chicanos Chinese Americans Cuban Americans Filipino Americans Hispanic Americans Immigrants Japanese Americans Korean Americans Mexican Americans Multiracial Individuals Native Americans Puerto Rican Americans Refugees Sexual Minority Status in People of Color Southeast Asian Americans Vietnamese Americans
INDIGENOUS CONCERNS Cholo/Chola Culture-Bound Syndromes Culture-Bound Syndromes: Amok Culture-Bound Syndromes: Ataque de Nervios Culture-Bound Syndromes: Bilis, Colera Culture-Bound Syndromes: Brain Fag Culture-Bound Syndromes: Dhat Culture-Bound Syndromes: Falling Out,
Blacking Out Culture-Bound Syndromes: Ghost Sickness Culture-Bound Syndromes: Hwa-byung Culture-Bound Syndromes: Koro
xiv ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
Culture-Bound Syndromes: Mal de Ojo Culture-Bound Syndromes: Nervios Culture-Bound Syndromes: Qigong
Ethnic Identity Development Measures: Cross Racial Identity Scale
Minority Issues Society of Indian Psychologists PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Alcohol/Substance Use and Abuse Anxiety Disorders in Ethnic Minorities Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Child Abuse: Overview Child Abuse: Physical Dementia Depression Disabilities Domestic Violence Drapetomania Drug Abuse Prevention in Ethnic Minority Youth DSM-IV Eating Disorders
Racism Scale Projective Testing Qualitative Methods Scholastic Assessment Test PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS American Counseling Association American Psychological Association Asian American Psychological Association Association of Black Psychologists Bureau of Indian Affairs Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs Council of National Psychological Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests Indian Health Service National Latina/o Psychological Association Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic
Ethnic Research Instrument Development for Ethnic Minority Research Measures of Racial Prejudice Measures of Racial Prejudice: Modern
Ethnic Identity Development Measures: Racial Identity Attitude Scale
Ethnic Identity Development Measures: Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale
Ethnic Identity Development Measures: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure
Asian Values Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Psychotic Reaction Culture-Bound Syndromes: Shenjing Shuairuo Culture-Bound Syndromes: Shin-byung Culture-Bound Syndromes: Susto Culture-Bound Syndromes: Taijin Kyofusho Culture-Bound Syndromes: Zar Familismo Filial Piety Indigenous Treatments and Healers Indigenous Treatments: Coining Indigenous Treatments: Cuento Therapy Indigenous Treatments: Cupping Indigenous Treatments: Curanderismo Indigenous Treatments: Dichos Indigenous Treatments: Moxibustion Indigenous Treatments: Shamans Indigenous Treatments: Sobadores Machismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Espiritismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Fatalismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Marianismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Personalismo Religious/Spiritual Beliefs: Santería MEASUREMENT Acculturation Measures Acculturation Scales: Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans–II Acculturation Scales: African American
Acculturation Scale Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Ethnic Identity Development Measures Ethnic Identity Development Measures:
Scale for Hispanics Acculturation Scales: Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity
Measure Acculturation Scales: Short Acculturation
Acculturation Scale for Hispanics Acculturation Scales: East Asian Acculturation
Multidimensional Acculturation Scale Acculturation Scales: Bidimensional
Acculturation Scale Acculturation Scales: Asian American
Reader’s Guide ——— xv Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Schizophrenia Sexual Abuse Somatization Suicide SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES Academic Achievement and Minority Individuals Accessibility of Health Care Affirmative Action Americans With Disabilities Act Anti-Semitism
Bell Curve, The
Biculturalism Bilingual Education Bilingualism Census Statistics Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood Child Abuse: Overview Child Abuse: Physical Disabilities Domestic Violence Drug Abuse Prevention in Ethnic Minority Youth Education Equal Employment Opportunity Ethnic and Racial Identity Ethnic Identity Development Ethnic Minority Elderly Individuals Ethnic Minority Youth Ethnicity Ethnocentric Monoculturalism Ethnocentrism Eugenics Head Start Historical Trauma (Native Americans) HIV/AIDS Prevention Immigrants Institutional Racism Intelligence Tests Intergroup Relations Internalized Racism Internment of Japanese Americans Intraracial Violence Marginality
Mental Health Model Minority Myth Multiculturalism Multiracial Individuals Organizational Diversity Parenting Practices Across Families of Color Poverty Powerlessness Race Racial Identity Development Racism and Discrimination Refugees Religion Sexual Abuse Sexual Minority Status in People of Color Social Justice/Action Socioeconomic Status Stress Transracial Adoption White Privilege White Racial Identity Women of Color TREATMENT Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Community Interventions Ethnic Minority Counselors Family Therapy Help-Seeking Behavior Indian Health Service Indigenous Treatments and Healers Indigenous Treatments: Coining Indigenous Treatments: Cuento Therapy Indigenous Treatments: Cupping Indigenous Treatments: Curanderismo Indigenous Treatments: Dichos Indigenous Treatments: Moxibustion Indigenous Treatments: Shamans Indigenous Treatments: Sobadores Interpreters Multicultural Counseling Multicultural Counseling Competencies Psychopharmacology Rapport Translation Methods
xvi ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
Yo Jackson is a licensed clinical child psychologist
specializing in trauma, stress, abuse, resiliency, and diversity issues in children. She is an associate pro- fessor at the University of Kansas and a core faculty member of the Clinical Child Psychology Program, appointed in both the Psychology and Applied Behavioral Science Departments. Her research inter- ests are multifaceted. She has published numerous articles and conducts several research projects on the factors that make children resilient after exposure to stress, the development of interventions for children exposed to major life events and trauma, the role of protective factors in promoting adaptive behavior in children, and developing models of competence in children exposed to multiple stressors. Her research involves investigating typical children as well as spe- cial populations, such as children in foster care. She also conducts research on multicultural issues and is currently involved in two projects investigating ethnic identity development in adolescence and the influence of culture on how parents perceive mental illness in children. She teaches upper-level courses on child psychology, developmental psychopathol- ogy, advanced child and family assessment, and diversity issues in clinical psychology, and super- vises clinical practicums.
About the Editor
Ana Abraido-Lanza Columbia University Ignacio Acevedo-Polakovich University of Kentucky James Allen University of Alaska Fairbanks Jeanette Altarriba University at Albany, State University of New York Julie Ancis Georgia State University
The College of New Jersey Consuelo Arbona University of Houston Adria Armbrister Columbia University Eleanor Armour-Thomas Queens College (CUNY) Gonzalo Bacigalupe University of Massachusetts Pamela Balls Organista University of San Francisco Audrey Bangi The Consultation Center
Christy Barongan Washington and Lee University Declan Barry Yale University School of Medicine Monica Baskin University of Alabama at Birmingham Lana Beasley University of Kansas
F. Beauvais Colorado State University Jessica Belanger California State University–Northridge Fred Bemak George Mason University Gary Bennett Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Dolores Subia Big Foot The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Gilbert Botvin Weill Medical College of Cornell University Jenifer Bratter University of Houston Nicole Buchanan Michigan State University
Contributors
D. J. Angelone
Larisa Buhin Loyola University Chicago Alberto Bursztyn Brooklyn College, City University of New York Lisa Campbell Duke University Medical Center Esteban Cardemil Clark University Andrew Case Indiana University Carrie Castañeda University of Utah Jeanett Castellanos University of California, Irvine Doris Chang New School University Rita Chi-Ying Chung George Mason University Ruth Chung University of Southern California Y. Barry Chung Georgia State University Caroline Clauss-Ehlers State University of New Jersey at Rutgers Sara Corbin University of Kansas Rebecca Corona Loyola University–Chicago Deone Curling University of Toronto
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Edward Delgado-Romero Angela DeSilva
Boston College Gretchen Diefenbach Hartford Hospital/Institute of Living Khanh Dinh University of Massachusetts Lowell Mimi Doll DePaul University Christopher Edwards Duke University Medical Center Annel Esparza Northern Arizona University Jameca Falconer Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville Vern Farber University of California, Irvine Miriam Feliu Duke University Medical Center Leila Flores-Torres University of Texas, Pan American Rebecca Ford DePaul University M. French Family and Child Mental Health Services, Lee’s Summit, Missouri Peggy Gallaher University of Southern California Miguel Gallardo Pepperdine University Y. Evie Garcia Northern Arizona University Maria Garcia-Larrieu Private Practice, Miami, FL Rose Girgis xx ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
E. J. R. David
Alberta Gloria University of Wisconsin–Madison Michael Gomez The University of Kansas Diana Gonzalez-Eastep Boston College Harvette Grey DePaul University Arpana Gupta University of Tennessee MaryAnna Ham University of Massachusetts Boston Karen Hansen University of Utah Gary Harper DePaul University Shelly Harrell Pepperdine University Zaje Harrell Michigan State University Puncky Heppner University of Missouri–Columbia Shihoko Hijioka Graduate Faculty, New School University Richard Hirschman Kent State University Bertha Holliday American Psychological Association George Hong California State University–Los Angeles Joseph Hovey The University of Toledo Heather Hunter Michael Illovsky
Western Illinois University Colette Ingraham San Diego State University Gayle Iwamasa DePaul University Chizuko Izawa Tulane University Margo Jackson Fordham University Yo Jackson University of Kansas Rochelle James University of Kansas Ellen Junn California State University, Fullerton Shannon Kelly Indiana University Alvin Killough North Carolina University Kerri Kim University of Kansas Mary Kopala Hunter College, CUNY Catherine Koverola University of Alaska Fairbanks Seunghee Kwon Indiana University Robert Lanza Sonnenschein, Nath & Rosenthal, LLP Christine Larson University of Toledo Mark Leach
Contributors ——— xxi
Courtland Lee University of Maryland Matthew Lee University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Richard Lee University of Minnesota John-Paul Legerski University of Kansas Frederick Leong University of Tennessee Paul Leung University of North Texas Jacob Levy University of Tennessee Michael Lewin California State University, San Bernardino Doug Longshore University of California, Los Angeles Tica Lopez Argosy University Christopher MacDonald-Dennis Bryn Mawr College Gerardo Marín University of San Francisco Renata Martins West Virginia University Nausheen Masood University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Daniel McNeil West Virginia University Brian McNeill Washington State University Matthew Miller Jeffery Mio
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Damon Mitchell Central Connecticut State University Marie Miville Teachers College, Columbia University Ruth Montero University of Wisconsin–Madison Ana Montes de Vegas University of Utah Roy Moodley OISE/ University of Toronto Lori Morales University of Toledo Eduardo Morales California School of Professional Psychology at San Francisco Melissa Morgan Loyola University of Chicago
G. Susan Mosley-Howard
Miami University Cheryl Munday University of Detroit Mercy Cristin Murtaugh University of Maryland Nina Nabors Eastern Michigan University Donna Nagata University of Michigan James Nelson Valparaiso University Chee Ng University of Melbourne George Nichols xxii ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
Guerda Nicolas Boston College Sandra Nuñez Diamond Bar, California Carlota Ocampo Trinity University Sumie Okazaki University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Keum Pang Howard University, College of Pharmacy, Nursing and Allied Health Sciences Young-Joo Park Korea University Judy Patacsil San Diego Miramar College Jean Phinney California State University, Los Angeles Jacob Pickard University of South Dakota Nnamdi Pole The University of Michigan Joseph Ponterotto Fordham University Chebon Porter Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center John Powell The University of Kansas Paul Priester University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Stephen Quintana University of Wisconsin Kathleen Ragsdale Fordham University Sheikh Rahim Reece Rahman
University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown Sylvia Ramirez University of Texas–Pan American Pamela Reid Roosevelt University Carla Reyes University of Utah Charles Ridley Indiana University Elwood Robinson North Carolina Central University Scott Roesch San Diego State University Kimberlee Roy University of Kansas Jens Rydgren Stockholm University Vetta Sanders-Thompson Saint Louis University Lewis Schlosser Seton Hall University Kristina Schmukler University of California Santa Cruz Radhika Seghal Eastern Michigan University Theresa Segura-Herrera University of Wisconsin Isis Settles Michigan State University Marie Simonsson University of Texas—Pan American Joshua Singh
Contributors ——— xxiii
Gemma Skillman The University of South Dakota Tracey Smith University of Wisconsin Sueyoung Song University of Minnesota Jessica Soto University of Texas–Pan American Elizabeth Sparks Boston College
University of Texas–Pan American Suzette Speight Loyola University, Chicago Michael Steele The University of Kansas Edward Stephenson Florida Memorial College Michael Stevenson Ball State University Sunita Stewart University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center April Taylor California State University, San Bernardino Jennifer Taylor Humboldt State University Karen Taylor-Crawford University of Illinois at Chicago Thomas Teo York University Amy Tsai University of Michigan
Jennifer Unger University of Southern California Jesse Valdez University of Denver Veronica Vasquez Loyola University, Chicago Elizabeth Vera Loyola University, Chicago Ngan Vuong University of Kansas W. David Wakefield California State University, Northridge Barbara Wallace Teachers College, Columbia University Tamara Warner University of Florida Robert Weisskirch California State University, Monterey Bay Kellee White Columbia University Rebecca Widoe West Virginia University Wendi Williams Georgia State University Diane Willis University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center Kazue Yamaoka National Institute of Public Health Barbara Yee University of Hawaii at Manoa Albert Yeung Massachusetts General Hospital xxiv ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology
G. Scott Sparrow
The study of multicultural psychology has a long and multifaceted history. The field encompasses a wide range of subdisciplines within psychology and includes a multitude of populations both within and outside of the United States. Early efforts to examine issues relevant to people of color in psychology often attempted to describe differences among populations as a way to better understand the influence of culture on the human organism. Unfortunately, the results of the early research were often interpreted in terms of inferiority on the part of one group over another and were usually of little benefit to people of color or nations as a whole. Current efforts include a broad range of methodologies for research and training and a strong desire to produce useful results for under- standing the role of culture in human behavior.
Debates continue over the appropriateness of mod- ern psychological theories to capture the influences of culture. Generally, Western approaches advocate for the universality of human development and behavior and the field as a whole has yet to embrace or under- stand the complexities of cultural styles in modern research and practice. Evidence over the past 30 years, however, suggests that long-standing academic traditions are woefully inadequate and inflexible to accurately measure, interpret, or support a universal approach.
Culture is important, and the focus of the Ency-
clopedia of Multicultural Psychology is to provide an
index to the terms, concepts, and issues in the main- stream of field. Professional organizations since the 1970s have advocated and demonstrated the need for more comprehensive ideas when it comes to human behavior that include cultural background when study- ing psychological constructs. And, since the 1970s, international and ethnic minority psychologists alike psychology for all peoples. The field of multicultural and cross-cultural psychology has a relatively short history and is making its way into the foundations for training new psychologists. To this end, national accrediting organizations in psychology and licensure boards across the country continue to refine mandates for training that include a focus on multicultural psy- chology. As more multicultural research is compiled and the findings disseminated, the need for compre- hensive texts like the Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology become stronger.
The Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology is meant to be an authoritative guide to the field of multi- cultural psychology. The title is intentional and sup- ports the notion that culture, not race, is the best way to understand differences among individuals. Because the field is expansive and expanding, no one volume can cover all of the important topics germane to the area. Therefore, although this text includes entries on a broad array of issues and topics, it is not meant to be compre- hensive. It is designed to be of particular interest to laypersons, students, and professionals new to the field with an interest in the role of culture in psychology.
The text includes topics that are relevant to social psychology, cognitive psychology, environmen- tal psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and clinical psychology. Because one of the recent concerns in clinical psychology is the application of culture-based findings to multicultural populations, the text includes a focus on treatment or applied issues in multicultural psychology. The text also includes a focus on psy- chopathology and the manner in which it is defined and measured from different cultural perspectives. Folk illnesses or indigenous pathologies are also included so that the reader may explore how mental ill- ness or mental health is perceived from a traditional
Introduction Every effort was made to include all large ethnic groups and subgroups in the United States in this text; however, other cultural groups may not be included due to limited research and knowledge. Even within subgroups, knowledge may be limited as research publication is only beginning to catch up to the need for information on cultural groups with smaller numbers.
One of the objectives of this text was to address culture across a broad spectrum of psychological per- spectives. To this end, the text also includes topics on sociological issues as well as conceptual issues relevant to the field of multicultural psychology. Moreover, the text also addresses how some psycho- logical constructs are measured, as the available data are only as good as the measurement tools used to gather the information. Finally, cultural concerns are also addressed, including, among others, topics on traumatic events that are especially relevant for under- standing the worldviews of people of color.
With the arrival of new journals and professional organizations, the field of multicultural psychology is growing. Clearly the field has a long way to go to meet current empirical and professional standards enjoyed by many other disciplines of psychology. Part of this growth is embodied in the need for the
Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology in that new
and more established psychologists alike will need information and understanding of how cultural issues are relevant to their work.
Culture is not a topic with relevance limited to psychology. The need for greater understanding of the role of culture is at the forefront of national and international relations. It is also not a topic limited in interest to people of color. Although the universal perspective in psychology may no longer be a reason- able position, there is a universal call for increased research, knowledge, and awareness of how culture affects our lives. Public debate on culture seeks to find commonality and insight both within and between people from all cultural backgrounds. It is to this end that this text may highlight the major issues and bring to bear the field’s appreciation for the influence of culture. The Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psycho-
logy presents an introduction to the field for those
interested in improving their awareness and compre- hension of cultural practices prevalent among and between all people.
Completing a volume on a broad and sometimes controversial topic would not be possible without the assistance of many individuals. I would like to acknowledge the tireless efforts of the Assistant Editor, Kimberlee Roy, in making this text a reality. Also, the text would not be possible without the work and expertise of the distinguished list of authors and the members of the advisory board. Finally, I would like to thank my father, James Warren Jackson, and my mother, E. Katherine Eberhard, for their support, guidance, and instruction on how to be a living model for tolerance and cultural appreciation.
—Yo Jackson Lawrence, Kansas xxvi ——— Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology The academic achievement of some minority individ- uals and groups remains a ubiquitous and seemingly intractable problem in the United States. The problem is usually defined in terms of mean differences in standardized achievement test scores between certain racial or ethnic groups. There is good reason for con- cern because on virtually every measure of academic achievement, African American, Latino, and Native American students, as a group, score significantly lower that their peers from European backgrounds. Moreover, it appears that gaps first manifest early in school, broaden during the elementary school years, and remain relatively fixed during the secondary school years.
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM OF MINORITY ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT One source of information that has documented aca- demic achievement trends among minorities for more than three decades is the National Assessment of Educa- tional Progress testing program. If the term “minority” is defined as a racial or ethnic group within a larger population, then the lower performance in achieve- ment is associated with students from certain minor- ity populations defined as African American and Hispanic. If the term “majority” is used to define a racial or ethnic group that characterizes the larger popu- lation, then the higher performance in achievement is associated with students from European back- achievement gaps between certain racial or ethnic groups on standardized tests in different subject areas and across grade levels. Other measures of academic achievement, such as grades and class rankings, show similar differ- ences in minority and majority achievement.
Beyond the consistency of the disparities in minor- ity and majority achievement, it is by no means clear what these discrepant scores really mean. To character- ize racial and ethnic differences as minority differences suggests that these groups have had similar experiences and that these experiences influence their behavior in a similar way. However, this is not the case. There is tremendous variability within and across racial and ethnic groups even though they are ascribed minority status in U.S. society. For example, native-born African Americans and immigrants of African ancestry are sim- ilar in terms of race and minority status, but they have had different culturally mediated socialization experi- ences that affect their achievement motivation and aca- demic performance differently. However, because academic achievement is usually reported as a mean score for African Americans, it is difficult to differenti- ate the nature of the performance of either minority group. But it is important to know which minority groups are performing high or low because such infor- mation is critical for informing appropriate intervention for both groups.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LOW MINORITY ACHIEVEMENT Since the 1960s, numerous perspectives have been advanced about the differences in academic achieve- ment among minority and majority students and
A
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND MINORITY INDIVIDUALS
learn, limited access to educationally relevant resources, ethnic and racial stereotyping, and cultural incompat- ibility between the home and school culture. Each will be discussed briefly.
Limited Opportunities to Learn
In reviewing the literature on who gets access to rigorous curricula in schools, it appears that, on the basis of standardized test results, a disproportionate number of racial and ethnic minority individuals, par- ticularly those from low-income backgrounds, are judged as “low ability” and assigned to low-track or remedial classes. In contrast, individuals of European descent, particularly those from high-income back- grounds, are more likely to be considered “gifted and talented” and placed in enriched or accelerated pro- grams. Because track enrollment determines the level of courses students take and the quality of the cur- riculum and instruction to which they are exposed, this means that minority students, on average, are less likely than their majority peers to engage in high- caliber curricula. Diminished opportunity to learn high- level material results in low academic achievement.
Limited Access to Institutional and Other Resources
Well-equipped libraries, mentoring, tutoring, qual- ity teaching, rigorous curricula, low counselor– student and teacher–student ratios, small class sizes, extracurricular experiences, and computer and other technologies are examples of key resources in educa- tion that may be viewed as preconditions for enabling high levels of academic achievement. Unfortunately, a disproportionate number of individuals from certain minority groups (e.g., African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans), particularly those from low- income backgrounds, are likely to attend schools with limited access to these resources, thus minimizing their opportunity to do well academically. Moreover, many of these individuals live in economically dis- tressed communities where they experience poor health and inadequate nutrition, factors that place them further at risk educationally.
The Effects of Racial Stereotyping
Racial stereotyping is a deeply held, stigmatizing belief in unalterable genetic or cultural inferiority that many members of a majority population hold about individuals and groups who have been assigned minority status in society. In the United States, the effects of racial stereotyping have a particularly devastating effect on the academic motivation and achievement of some individuals from racial and ethnic minority groups, particularly those who have been brought into society involuntarily through slav- ery and conquest (e.g., African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans). In the education sphere, some individuals from these ascribed caste- like minority groups have rejected this form of stereo- typing by developing coping mechanisms to protect their identity. In so doing, these identity-protection strategies serve to dampen their achievement moti- vation, which, in turn, results in low academic achievement.
Cultural Incompatibility Between Home and School Culture
Schooling is ineffective for some children from racial and ethnic minority groups because classroom practices may be incompatible with their cultural back- ground. Cultural incompatibilities include a lack of respect for children’s conversational style and collabo- rative participation structures. Such misunderstandings can contribute to diminished commitment to academic engagement and academic underachievement.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
IMPROVING MINORITY ACHIEVEMENT Reducing or eliminating the minority achievement gap remains one of the most serious challenges in U.S. education today. Efforts to close the gap should take the following considerations into account.
Disaggregation of Data
Individuals from minority groups have different socialization experiences that have a differential impact on their academic motivation and perfor- mance. Disaggregation of achievement data is neces- sary to identify which minority individuals and groups are doing poorly and which are doing well. Such information on the variability in minority achievement may then be used to target appropriate instruction for different individuals and groups.
2 ——— Academic Achievement and Minority Individuals
Adequate Exposure to Supplementary Education
School alone cannot ensure high academic achieve- ment. Indeed, parents or significant others of high- achieving students recognize the importance of supplementary education and routinely make it available to their children over the course of their schooling. Examples of supplementary education include academic summer camps, after-school and weekend tutoring, use of libraries and museums as resources for learning, and access to mentors and models who are themselves high achievers. Low-achieving minority students must have adequate exposure to supplementary education.
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Accessibility of Health Care ———
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved July 27, 2004, from http://nces.ed.gov Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52 (6), 613–629.
O’Sullivan, C. Y., Lauko, M. A., Grigg, W. S., Qian, J., & Zhang, J. (2003). The nation’s report card: Reading 2002.
Ogbu, J. N. (1987). Variability in minority responses to schooling: Nonimmigrant vs. immigrants. In G. Spindler & L. Spindler (Eds.), Interpretative ethnography of education: At home and abroad (pp. 255–278). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
ACCESSIBILITY OF HEALTH CARE
Braswell, J. S., Lutkus, A. D., Grigg, W. S., Santapau, S. L., Tay-Lim, B., & Johnson, M. (2001). The nation’s report card: Mathematics 2000.