Analysis on the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno based on Austin`s speech act theory.
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ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number: 071214012
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
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ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number: 071214012
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number : 071214012
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, May 18, 2012
The Writer
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
071214012
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 071214012
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam
bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan
secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk
kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan
royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal : 18 Mei 2012
Yang menyatakan,
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
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ABSTRACT
Ratnaningganadi, Maria Peny. 2012. Analysis on the Speeches of Martin Luther
King Jr. and Sukarno Based on Austin’s Speech Act Theory. Yogyakarta: English
Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty
of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University
A language has its primary function as the physical message which is to
express meanings and to convey these to someone else. In real communication
process, when a speaker communicates, he/she hopes to influence others to
respond as he/she wants them to (Ross, 1995, p.5). This can be seen in public
speaking. The utterances, the way of uttering them, even the speaker’s motivation
influence the speech and the effect on the audience. Therefore, this study analyzes
the speeches of two influential speakers in the world, Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno. There are two research questions formulated in this study: 1) What are
the speech acts found in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno? 2)
What are the lexical repetition used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno?
This study uses Austin’s speech act theory and public speaking theory.
This study is considered as qualitative research. Thus, in order to be able to
conduct the study well, content analysis is applied. The subjects of this study are
the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches. The transcripts of the speeches
are analyzed based on Austin’s speech act theory related to the locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts performed. Then, the researcher examines
the lexical repetition used. The results of this study are described in words as
descriptive qualitative research.
There are two conclusions gained in this study. The first is the speech acts
found in the speeches of King and Sukarno. The second is the lexical repetition
used in King and Sukarno’s speeches. In this study, the locutionary, illocutionary,
and perlocutionary acts found are varied. Based on the sentence form, King and
Sukarno uttered their points in the form of declaratives, imperatives,
interrogatives, exclamations, even fragments. However, both of them uttered the
locutionary acts mostly in the form of declarative sentences. In King’s speeches,
there are 23 possible illocutionary acts which fall under assertive, directive,
commissive, and expressive categories of illocution. More various, there are 30
possible illocutionary acts found in Sukarno’s transcripts of speeches which fall
under the category of assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and exercitive.
The perlocutionary acts on the audience are varied. They depend on the
illocutionary acts conveyed in King as well as Sukarno’s speeches.
There are three forms of lexical repetitions used in King and Sukarno’s
transcripts of speeches, namely words, phrases, or clauses which are repeated
separately during the speech, in sequenced sentences, as well as within the same
sentence. Through lexical repetition the speakers could clarify and emphasize
their points. The audience could gain the remarkable content of the speeches
better. Repetitions make the speeches more interesting, remarkable, and
significant in style.
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Eventually, the results of this study will be beneficial for scholars, public
speaker, as well as future researchers who are interested in speech acts and lexical
repetition of a speech. Teachers and learners can also draw some benefits for the
teaching and learning process.
Keywords: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary, lexical repetition, King,
Sukarno
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ABSTRAK
Ratnaningganadi, Maria Peny. 2012. Analysis on the Speeches of Martin Luther
King Jr. and Sukarno Based on Austin’s Speech Act Theory. Yogyakarta: Program
Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas
Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma
Bahasa utamanya berfungsi sebagai pesan fisik untuk mengekspresikan
maksud dan menyampaikannya kepada orang lain. Dalam proses komunikasi,
ketika seseorang berkomunikasi, ia berusaha mempengaruhi orang lain agar dapat
merespon sesuai yang diharapkan (Ross, 1995, p.5). Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam
berpidato. Ungkapan yang digunakan, cara mengungkapkannya, bahkan motivasi
pembicara mempengaruhi pidato yang disampaikan dan efeknya terhadap audiens,
Penelitian ini menganalisis pidato-pidato dua orang pembicara yang sangat
berpengaruh, Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno. Ada dua pertanyaan yang
diangkat dalam penelitian ini: 1) Apa saja tindak tutur yang ditemukan dalam
pidato-pidato Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno? 2) Apa saja pengulangan kosa
kata yang digunakan dalam pidato-pidato Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno?
Penelitian ini menggunakan teori tindak tutur dan teori pidato. Penelitian
ini dikategorikan sebagai penelitian kualitatif, khususnya penelitian mengenai isi
sebuah dokumen. Subjek penelitian ini adalah transkrip pidato dari King dan
Sukarno. Tranksrip tersebut dianalisis berdasarkan teori tindak tutur yang
dikemukakan Austin, yaitu mengenai tindak lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi yang
ditampilkan. Kemudian, peneliti menganalisis pengulangan kosa katayang
ditemukan. Hasil penelitian dijabarkan sebagai penelitian kualitatif deskriptif.
Terdapat dua kesimpulan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama adalah tindak tutur
yang ditemukan dalam pidato-pidato King dan Sukarno. Kedua adalah
pengulangan kosa kata yang digunakan dalam pidato-pidato King dan Sukarno.
Dalam penelitian ini, tindak lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi yang ditemukan
beragam. Berdasarkan bentuk kalimatnya, King dan Sukarno mengungkapkan isi
pidato mereka dalam bentuk kalimat pernyataan, kalimat perintah, kalimat tanya,
kalimat seru, bahkan fragmen. Namun, sebagian besar isi pidato-pidato King dan
Sukarno diungkapkan dalam bentuk kalimat-kalimat pernyataan. Dalam pidatopidato King, ditemukan 23 tindak ilokusi yang mungkin dan termasuk dalam
kategori verba asertif, direktif, komisif, dan ekspresif. Dalam pidato-pidato
Sukarno, terdapat 30 tindak ilokusi yang dapat ditemukan dan digolongkan ke
dalam category verba asertif, direktif, komisif, ekspresif, dan eksersitif. Tindak
perlokusi yang ditemukan sangat beragam. Hal tersebut tergantung pada tindak
ilokusi yang diungkapkan dalam pidato-pidato King maupun Sukarno.
Terdapat tiga bentuk pengulangan kosa kata dalam transkrip pidato King
dan Sukarno yaitu kata, frasa, maupun klausa yang diulang dalam kalimat-kalimat
terpisah, dalam urutan kalimat, dan dalam satu kalimat yang sama. Dengan
pengulangan kosa kata, pembicara dapat memperjelas dan menegaskan poin-poin
mereka. Audiens sendiri dapat menangkap isi pokok pidato dengan lebih baik.
Pengulangan kosa kata dalam pidato membuat pidato tersebut lebih menarik dan
berkesan.
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Akhirnya, hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat berguna untuk kalangan
akademis, para pembicara, serta para peneliti yang tertarik dengan tindak tutur
maupun pengulangan kosa kata dalam sebuah pidato. Para pendidik dan pelajar
juga dapat menarik beberapa manfaat demi proses belajar mengajar.
Kata kunci: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary, lexical repetition, King,
Sukarno
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“Hope is the greatest weapon of all”
(Machine Gun Preacher, 2011)
To my parents:
Johanes Bosco Sunardi and Lusia Sri Sudarmini
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to those who helped and
supported me in completing this thesis. This thesis is my means of contrition to
rise from my comfort zone. Therefore, I want to express my praise to Jesus Christ
for blessing me with such a wonderful life and for all chances I got to learn life
lessons to be a better one day by day.
Next, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd.,
M.Hum. for her guidance, suggestions, and valuable feedback during my thesis
writing process. My deepest thanks also go to all PBI lecturers and staff members
who have taught and helped me these years.
Moreover, I thank my wonderful family especially my parents, Johanes
Bosco Sunardi and Lusia Sri Sudarmini for their everlasting love and prayers. Not
to forget, my thankfulness goes to my grandmother Bernadeta Suhartinah and all
family for always reminding me to complete this thesis.
Last but not least, I want to express my special thanks to all my friends in
the play performance group, The Don; my SPD team in ALTA English Course for
teaching me hard work; my PPL friends in SMK 5 Yogyakarta; my wonderful
friends in OMK Somohitan year 2009-2012 for making my life more valuable;
and all teachers and students in SD Tarakanita Tritis-Ngembesan for giving me
chances to have more experiences. Thanks for coloring my process in bringing
this thesis to the final stage of completion.
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................
i
APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................
ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...........................................
iv
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ............................................
v
ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................
vi
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................
viii
DEDICATION PAGE ...............................................................................
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................
xii
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................
xvi
CHAPTER I.
1
INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background ...............................................................
1
B. Problem Formulation ................................................................
3
C. Problem Limitation...................................................................
3
D. Research Objectives .................................................................
4
E. Research Benefits .....................................................................
4
F. Definition of Terms ..................................................................
5
CHAPTER II.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
7
A. Theoretical Description ............................................................
7
1. Language Functions ............................................................
8
a. Micro Functions ............................................................
8
b. Macro Functions ...........................................................
11
2. Pragmatics ..........................................................................
12
3. Speech Acts ........................................................................
14
a. Locutionary Acts...........................................................
15
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b. Illocutionary Acts .........................................................
17
c. Perlocutionary Acts .......................................................
20
4. Public Speaking Communication ........................................
22
a. Speech ..........................................................................
22
b. Audience Interaction .....................................................
24
5. Lexical Repetition...............................................................
25
B. Theoretical Framework.............................................................
26
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
28
A. Research Method ......................................................................
28
B. Research Subjects .....................................................................
29
C. Research Instrument .................................................................
30
D. Data Gathering Technique ........................................................
31
E. Data Analysis Technique ..........................................................
32
F. Research Procedure ..................................................................
33
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
34
A. Speech Acts Found in the Speeches
of King and Sukarno .................................................................
34
1. Locutionary Acts in the Speeches .......................................
34
a. Locutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ............................
35
b. Locutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches .......................
40
2. Illocutionary Acts in the Speeches ......................................
45
a. Illocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ...........................
46
b. Illocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ......................
55
3. Perlocutionary Acts in the Speeches....................................
67
a. Perlocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ........................
68
b. Perlocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ...................
70
B. Lexical Repetition Used in the Speeches
of King and Sukarno .................................................................
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1. Lexical Repetition in King’s Speeches ................................
74
2. Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Speeches ...........................
89
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS 102
A. Conclusions ..............................................................................
102
B. Suggestions ..............................................................................
104
C. Implications on Teaching and Learning ....................................
105
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................
107
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................
111
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Locutionary acts in King’s speeches ............................................
35
Table 2. Locutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches .......................................
40
Table 3. Illocutionary acts in King’s speeches ...........................................
47
Table 4. Illocutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches ......................................
56
Table 5. Possible perlocutionary acts in King’s speeches...........................
69
Table 6. Possible perlocutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches .....................
71
Table 7. Lexical repetition in King’s I Have a Dream ...............................
75
Table 8. Lexical repetition in King’s Nobel Acceptance speech .................
78
Table 9. Lexical repetition in King’s Speech at the Great
March on Detroit.........................................................................
82
Table 10. Lexical repetition in King’s A Realistic Look at the
Question of Progress in the Area of Race Relations .....................
85
Table 11.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s People’s Tri Command ..............
90
Table 12.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Asian African Conference
Opening Speech...........................................................................
95
Table 13.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Dutch Public Acceptance
Condition Sine Qua Non for Resumption of Negotiations .............
97
Table 14.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s The Door is still open
for Peaceful Solution of the West Irian Problem ..........................
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1. The Relationship between Sentence Form
and Illocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches .............................
112
Appendix 2. The Relationship between Sentence Form
and Illocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ........................
140
Appendix 3. List of Lexical Repetition in King’s speeches.........................
182
Appendix 4. List of Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s speeches ...................
188
Appendix 5. Biography of Martin Luther King Jr. ......................................
196
Appendix 6. Biography of Sukarno ............................................................
199
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher introduced and described the nature and
content of proposed study. This chapter consists of six subchapters. Those are
research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research
objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
Language has its primary function which is to express meanings and to
convey these to someone else. A speaker needs to transform his/her idea into form
that can be transferred to someone else and be understood by the addressee.
Bloomfield (1993) stated that by transforming the mental image in speaker’s head
into some physical form that can be transferred to someone else, the addressee
then can decode the physical message, and have the same mental image come into
his/her head. The speaker can encode his/her idea by putting it into signs and
symbols through the language used.
The language used as the physical message to convey meanings can be
expressed in many forms that can vary depending on the situation and involving
various speech communities. It can be in form of written and spoken texts, formal
and informal ones. The meaning of the message that the receiver gets is
influenced by the way in which the message is coded, the medium or channel
chosen for its transmission, and the skill with which it is transmitted (Ross, 1995,
1
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p.5). Thus, communication “is the sharing of meaning by sending and receiving
symbolic cues” using language (Grice & Skinner, 1995, p.5).
Human communication is not only a matter of transferring notion. It
involves common experience and mutual influence. In real communication
process, when a speaker communicates, he/she hopes to influence others to
respond as he/she wants them to (Ross, 1995, p.5). It can be seen from a speech or
public speaking, for instance. The speaker’s choices of words or sentence, even
the way he/she delivers them, are related to the purpose of his/her speech. In other
words, the utterances and the way of uttering them influence the whole speech as
well as the effect on the audience.
Although, effective and interactive speech can be seen from the
organization of the speech itself and the language used, it is the speaker’s own
motivation to use such a kind of word choices and combinations. The speaker’s
idea is expressed in a way that can represent his/her intended message or meaning.
Martin Luther King Jr. and former President of Indonesia Sukarno are two
among many influential speakers in this world. Their speeches have been recorded
and shared all over the world. King inspired people and communicated his
concerns on humanity issues surroundings through his speeches and sermons,
whereas Sukarno arouse, especially, Indonesians’ spirit of struggle through his
speeches. Through their charisma, they influenced many people to take action and
make changes related to issues they proposed in the speeches.
Public speaking or speech is included as public communication that
conveys meaning and ideas of the speaker in specific purpose through language.
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Through public speaking, the speaker may hope he/she can influence the audience
to perform response as he/she wants to, or affect them to take action. Therefore,
this research aimed to study the content of what the speakers did through language
in King and Sukarno’s speeches based on Austin’s speech act theory and the
stylistic element of the speeches through lexical repetition.
B. Problem Formulation
Based on the research background stated above, the researcher formulated
the problems as follows:
1.
What are the speech acts found in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno?
2.
What are the lexical repetitions used in the speeches of Martin Luther King
Jr. and Sukarno?
C. Problem Limitation
Both Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno had given many speeches on
different occasions. Their speeches were about various topics. In accordance with
the variety of topics of the speech given and the occasion, the audience or the
addressees were different as well. It results differences to the language style used
in their speeches.
To be able to conduct the study well, the researcher limited her study on
the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches that were given to the same kind
of audience which were common people or mass meeting during the year of 1955-
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1965. The selection of speeches analyzed was due to the historical events
happened during these years, which were the struggle for racial freedom and the
liberation of a state.
The researcher used the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches that
have similar topic. The topic of speeches selected for this research was related to
freedom and liberation of a race or state. The researcher questioned on the speech
acts used and the lexical repetitions found in the transcripts of speeches. By
narrowing the speeches analyzed, this study would be easier to handle and more
manageable.
D. Research Objectives
There are two objectives that can be obtained. By conducting this study,
the researcher was expected to be able to:
1.
Figure out the speech acts used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno
2.
Find out the lexical repetitions used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.
and Sukarno
E. Research Benefits
The researcher of this study expected that the results can be beneficial for:
1.
Readers of this study
This study is expected to be beneficial for the readers in providing
information related to the topics discussed in this study.
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2.
Scholars
The results of this study can give beneficial information for those who want
to deepen knowledge about Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno.
3.
Public speakers
This study will provide significance to public speakers in making effective,
interactive speech that can be remarkable for the audience.
4.
Future researchers
This study gives future researchers beneficial inputs to conduct similar
research about speech acts and lexical repetitions, in its relation with
speaker’s interaction with the audience.
F. Definition of Terms
This study includes some specific terms. In an attempt to clarify concepts
and avoid misinterpretation, the following explanation defines the key words or
phrases of terms specifically used in this study.
1. Speech
Speech is a way to convey ideas in logical manner and use reliable
evidence to support the speaker’s points (UNC, 2007). Speech communicates
thoughts effectively in public or to the audience. It consists of three main parts
namely introduction to gain the audience’s attention and take them to the topic
issued, body in which the speaker explains the main topic and supports it with
evidences, and conclusion to restate and make remarkable conclusion through
effective closing of the speech. The researcher does not distinguish the term
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speech, public speaking, or public speech. The speeches analyzed in this study are
delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno.
2. Speech acts
Speech acts are defined as particular kinds of action that performed when
uttering the expressions or speech such as by stating, promising, warning,
ordering, and so on (Cruse, 2000, p.331). Speech acts consists of three separate
acts (Searle, 1974) namely an act of saying something (locutionary act), an act of
doing something (illocutionary act), and an act of affecting something
(perlocutionary act). In this study, the researcher uses the term speech act,
locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act as proposed by Austin
and Searle.
3. Lexical repetition
Lexical repetition is repeating fully words, or word-phrases, in a
subsequent sentence, either referring to the same object or to another example of
object variation e.g. its close synonym within the text. Besides making the speech
to be more significant in style, repetition aims to emphasize point as well as to
make speech more effective and interesting (Buehler, 1950, p.103; Fowler, 1986,
p.64; Nicholls, 1999).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of related theory contextualized to the topic
being studied. This chapter includes two subchapters: theoretical description and
theoretical framework. The theoretical description will discuss theories related
and theoretical framework will summarize and synthesize all relevant theories to
analyze the research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher elaborated related theories to analyze the data.
The related theories used are theory of language function, theory of pragmatics,
theory of speech acts, theory of speech in public speaking communication, and the
lexical repetition.
The consideration of using these theories as the basis of analyzing the data
was because the topic of this study is arisen from a phenomenon in language study
in which language use in speeches conveys particular function in communication
and in addressing meaning. This study focused on the analysis of speech acts in
the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno. Thus, the theory of
pragmatics, especially theory of speech acts which is under this linguistic field,
would be discussed. Besides, since the data of this study were gathered from
transcripts of speeches, the theory of public speaking communication is needed to
support the analysis and give descriptions on language used in speeches.
7
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1. Language Functions
It is a natural phenomenon to use language as a primary means of
communicating one’s thoughts (Wisniewski, 2007). It results difficulty for some
people to define the language functions. Bloomfield (1993) noted “perhaps
because of its familiarity, we rarely observe it, taking it rather for granted, as we
do breathing or walking”. Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) divided the
language functions into two categories. These categories are micro functions
which refer to specific individual uses, and macro functions that deal with more
overall aims.
a. Micro Functions
1) Physiological function
The function of a language use in this view is to release physical and
nervous energy. The language use rarely conveys meaning. Therefore it is used
only to make the speaker feels better for releasing repressed energy. For example,
when watching football match in the TV, fans often shout instructions, express
support, disappointment, or curse words to the player for example: Go! Go! Go!
Goal! Meanwhile, as a means of communication to the players, these expressions
are useless. The speaker’s expressions will not give any influence to the players.
2) Phatic function
Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) stated that the language use in
this function is characterized by lack of any informative content and is intended to
link people and make the coexistence peaceful and pleasant. In short, it brings
sociability function of language. It can be found mainly in speech, by greeting the
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addressees through phrases as ‘nice day today’ or ‘how do you do’; and in certain
types of writing as in letter, for instance in the salutation Dear Sir/Madam and
ending Yours faithfully.
3) Recording function
Finch (1998) mentioned “recording function denotes using language to
make a durable record of things that ought to be remembered. Owing to its
omnipresence writing is probably the most significant function of language.” The
recording function of language can be illustrated in the use of language as a mean
to note particular, chronological event in the past. Before being developed into
alphabets in present times, the first writing system in form of pictures, developed
in the Middle East in 4000 BC to represent something, can be included as the
recording function of language.
4) Identifying function
Language is used also to identify the objects and events in the world
(Wisniewski, 2007). People might have a concept of an object in their mind. To
let other people understand what object a speaker is referring to, language is
needed to put this concept of an object into words. By naming the object both the
speaker and the addressee will be able to signify and identify it. In other words, it
is related to the function of language to name things or objects so that the speaker
could identify the object being discussed and the addressee could refer to it. “We
use names to classify different types of things, whether we call a car
anautomobile, a lorry, a van or a truck makes a big difference” (Wisniewski,
2007).
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5) Reasoning function
Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski called it as instruments of thought. In
human thinking process, language use is necessarily needed. Because human brain
works in processing information, it will be very difficult to think without any use
of words. Thus language provides with concepts formulated by means of
language. When someone thinks about something or a concept, words referred to
it will come in mind. For example when someone thinks about stationery, what
comes his/her mind must be words related to it such as pencil, books, ruler,
eraser, pen, etc. It must be impossible to think about it without any use of words.
6) Communicating function
Most speakers view communicating as the major function of language.
“Requesting, apologizing, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing
are all reasons for communicating our ideas” (Wisniewski, 2007). For example
when someone says can you tell me what time is this? She/he is performing
language communicating function of requesting. Or, by uttering Jane will be
home at 5, the speaker is communicating her thoughts of informing something to
the addressee.
7) Pleasure function
Language can give pleasure for both the speakers and listeners. It can be
felt for instance through the use of assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia in
poetry, the mild sound of English, unusual use of syntactic rules, as well as
novelties of meaning juxtapositions and language games (Wisniewski, 2007). In
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speech, the use alliteration can be illustrated in the use of words “to dream, to
dare, to do” by repeating its beginning sounds (Grice & Skinner, 1995, 237).
b. Macro Functions
1) Ideational function
According to Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) in his website,
“Ideational function refers to the conceptualizing process involved in our mental
activities.” Through language, people can figure out what happens around them.
For example someone is reporting that the tsunami happened 5 minutes after the
8.9 Richter scale earthquakes. To be able to report what happened after other
thing happened, people performs the ideational function of language.
2) Interpersonal function
As a social phenomenon, not only can language enable people to
communicate each other, it also enables the speaker to transfer ideas in the desired
way and to represent the speaker (Wisniewski, 2007). It is because a concept in
one’s mind cannot be understood by the addressee without transferring his/her
ideas into a language. One of the ways, this function can be seen when people
delivering a speech. Through the speech, he/she is transferring his/her ideas to
others.
3) Poetic function
Through the words and meaning, language can be manipulated in a
creative way as in jokes or metaphors for pleasure. For example: Life is a box of
chocolate, you never know what you are going to get. This metaphor compares
life and a box of chocolate.
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4) Textual function
Using certain linguistic devices, people are able to create long utterances
or cohesive and coherence piece of writing. According to Jakobson as cited by
Hebert (2007),
any act of verbal communication is composed of six elements, or factors
(the terms of the model): (1) a context (the co-text, that is, the other verbal
signs in the same message, and the world in which the message takes
place), (2) an addresser or a sender (3) an addressee or a receiver, (4) a
contact between an addresser and addressee, (5) a common code and (6) a
message
From the elaboration of language functions above, it can be found that
generally language functions are divided into two broad categories which are
transactional and interactional function. According to Brown and Yule (1983),
transactional refers to the function of language to express content. While
interactional refers to the use of interpersonal language that is related to social
relationships and individual feelings (Brown & Yule, 1983, p.1). Thus, language
itself is a social phenomenon as well as a mental phenomenon that can be studied
(Leech, 1983, p.3).
2. Pragmatics
As one of branches in linguistics, pragmatics studies about the
relationships between language and its users. Fowler (1986) defined pragmatics as
“the conventional relationship between linguistics constructions and the users and
the uses of language”. There are three aspects involved in this definition. Those
are linguistics construction, the users or speakers of the language, and the
language use.
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Fromkin and Rodman (2002, p.207) wrote that pragmatics is concerned
with the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context. According to Fromkin and
Rodman (2002), there are two contexts which are relevant to interpret meaning,
namely linguistic context and situational context. The linguistics context deals
with the discourse that precedes the phrase or sentence to be interpreted (Fromkin
& Rodman, 2002, p.207). Interpreting the meaning through the discourse, the
sentence or utterances delivered, leads to the second context, situational context.
Situational context involves the knowledge of the real world referents of the
discourse. It allows the speaker, hearer, and any third parties present (Fromkin &
Rodman, 2002, p.208).
Different from syntax which concerns with words order and a study of
words literal meaning called semantics, pragmatics also involves the language
users. Yule (1996, p.4) as cited by Meidaratika (2008) stated that in this three-part
distinction, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics; only pragmatics allows human into
the analysis.
Leech (1983) redefined pragmatics to be more than meaning that relatives
to a speaker or user of language but also to the speech situations, “I shall redefine
pragmatics for the purpose of linguistics, as the study of meaning in relation to
speech situations” (Leech, 1983, p.6). Pragmatics concerns on the use of language
in communication, particularly in the relationship between sentence or utterances
and the context or the situation in which they are used which depends on the
knowledge of the real world.
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Speech situations that influence the meaning of language use studied in
pragmatics are related to these following criteria (Leech, 1983, p.13-14):
a. Addresser and addressee
b. The context of an utterance
c. The goal(s) of an utterance
d. The utterance as a form of act or activity (speech act)
e. The utterance as a product of a verbal act
Thus, “pragmatics is distinguished from semantics in being concerned with
meaning in relation to a speech situation” (Leech, 1983, p.15) mentioned above.
In other words, pragmatics focuses on “how people use language within a context
and why they use language in particular ways” (McManis, Stollenwerk, Zhang &
Bissantz, 1987, p.197).
3. Speech Acts
Parker (1986, p.11-24) as cited by Darma (2005), wrote that there are five
branches discussed in the field of pragmatics. The five branches discussed in
pragmatics are performatives, felicity condition, speech acts, implicature, and
conversational maxims. Whereas Fromkin and Rodman (2002, p.221) mentioned
that pragmatics includes speech acts, presuppositions, and deixis. Since this
research focused on the speech acts used in the speeches of King and Sukarno, the
researcher would further discuss on the theory of speech acts used to analyze the
data.
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As a branch of study under the field of pragmatics, speech act theory
studies what an utterance does beyond just saying something (Fromkin &
Rodman, 2002, p.221). It is related with the communicating function of language
in which speakers can use language to do things. Searle (1974, p.16) wrote:
The reason for concentrating on the study of speech acts is simply this: all
linguistics communication involves linguistics acts. The unit of linguistics
communication is not, as has generally been supposed, the symbol, word
or sentence, or even the token of the symbol, word or sentence, but rather
the production or issuance of the symbol or word or sentence in the
performance of the speech acts.
Speech acts then becomes the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication.
The utterance of the sentence actually constitutes the action referred to (Parker,
1986). The focus is on the action speakers do by performing the language.
Austin (1963) pointed out that when people use language, they are
performing a kind of action. Speech acts then can be explained as acts that
performed when uttering the expressions or speech. Austin proposed three levels
of speech act related to the acts a sentence may perform. They are:
a. Locutionary Acts
Austin (1963) differentiated locutionary acts from the two other by
defining it as performing act of saying something. A locutionary act is “the
utterance of certain noises, certain words in a certain construction, and the
utterance of them with a certain sense and certain reference” (Austin, 1963). From
his definition, it can be stated that the focus of locutionary act is on the production
of an utterance with certain condition. Lyons as cited by Cruse (2000, p.331)
distinguished this act as follows.
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1) Produce an utterance through physical act of speaking: producing certain type
of noise (or in the case of written language, a set of written symbols),
2) Compose a sentence: composing a string of words conforming to the grammar
of some language,
3) Contextualized which is related to speaker’s intention.
Leech (1983, p.199) added “We may provisionally identify the locutionary
act with the transmission of the message (ideational communication)”. It can be
illustrated as follow:
LOCUTION
: speaker says to hearer that X
(X being certain words spoken with a certain sense and reference)
Thus the transmission of the message in performing locutionary acts involves
composing sentence in certain form. That is why locutionary act refers to a
particular person as the hearer. It comprises the production of sounds and words
with meaning by the speaker (Schiffrin, 1994) to the hearer.
In this study, the sentence forms analyzed are declarative, imperative,
interrogative, exclamation, and fragment. The primary role of declarative is in
making statements (Matthews, “Declarative”) as in Kate has left. Imperative
sentence has its primary function to give orders (Matthews, “Imperative”).
Sentence Get out now! is considered as imperative. Whereas interrogative is used
when asking questions (Matthews, “Interrogative”), for example is he here? or
what time is it? which marks in the use of interrogative word. While exclamation
is “characteristically used in emotional reactions, as opposed to questions,
statements, requests, etc” (Matthews, “Exclamation”) for example how wonderful
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that would be! or what a great day! Lastly, fragment is usually of a sentence
reduced by the omission of one or more elements from the construction to an
incomplete form (Matthews, “Fragment”). When these forms are distinguished
from speaker’s intention and context, then it leads into the so-called illocutionary
acts.
b. Illocutionary Acts
While locutionary act is the act of saying something, illocutionary act is
the transmission of the discourse (interpersonal communication) in which the
speaker performs an act in saying something (Leech, 1983, p.199). In other words,
illocutionary act is performing an act of doing something. It is defined as the
action of communication like asserting a fact, asking questions, requesting an
action, making a promise, or giving a warning (Fromkin & Rodman, 2002).
If locutionary act or uttering the words is performed in appropriate
contextual condition, illocutionary act has been performed. However, the same
illocutionary act can be performed in different locution (Cruse, 2000, p.332). For
example in I saw Jane this morning and I saw your wife this morning. These
sentences can refer to the same meaning on the assumption that the addressee’s
wife is called Jane. On the other hand, “the same locutionary act can realize
different illocutionary act” (Cruse, 2000, p.332). For instance when a speaker says
I’ll be there, this utterance can function as a promise, a prediction, or a warning.
Searle (1979) as cited by Leech (1983, p.105-106) classified illocutionary
acts into five categories.
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1) Assertives
Assertives are ways of asserting a proposition in order to put it forward as
true. In other words, this act commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed
proposition for example in stating, suggesting, boasting, complaining, claiming or
reporting. Performative verbs commonly used to assert certain proposition are
report, insist, claim, maintain, answer, agree, remark, mention, announce, testify,
remind, admit, disclose, deny, complain, or predict (Alston, 2000). The utterance
That door is open can constitute an act of asserting that the door is now open.
2) Directives
Directives are intended to produce some effect through action by the
hearer. It commonly appears in ordering, commanding, requesting, advising, and
recommending. According to Alston (2000, p.34), “Directives are concerned with
guiding the behavior of others.” It commonly expressed through the use of these
following verbs: ask, request, tell, command, order, forbid, advise, recommend,
suggest, or propose. To illustrate, when a mother says to her child Take your feet
off the table, this act constitutes an act of ordering. The effect expected by uttering
this order is the child taking his feet off the table (Parker, 1986, p.15).
3) Commissives
Commissives commit the speaker (to a greater or lesser degree) to some
feature actions; e.g. promising, vowing, offering (Alston, 2000, p.34; Leech,
1983, p.106). Mostly, commisives appear with verbs like promise, bet, guarantee,
invite, and offer. For example, I hereby promise that I’ll come.
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4) Expressives
This is considered as the acts of expressing or making known something
which is related to the speaker’s psychological attitude towards the state of affairs
the illocution presupposed. In short, it expresses some psychological state of the
speaker (Alston, 2000, p.34). It exists in thanking, congratulating, pardoning,
blaming, praising, condoling, etc. for example:
(I) thank you for your help.
I congratulate you for your promotion.
Or, I apologize for stepping on your toe.
Verbs that commonly used to perform this act are thank, apologize, commiserate,
compliment, or congratulate. Those are used to express: enthusiasm, contempt,
relief, desire, willingness, intention, opinion, opposition, determination,
unhappiness, and delight (Alston, 2000, p.34).
5) Declarations
Austin (1963) called it as exercitives. It is considered as the giving of a
decision in favor of or against a certain course of action (Austin, 1963, p.154)
performed as “a verbal exercise of authority, verbal ways of altering the ‘social
status’ of something, or an act that is made possible by one’s social or institutional
role or status” (Alston, 2000, p.34).
Exercitives or declarations are performed by someone who is authorized to
do so within institutional framework which corresponds with the propositional
content and reality. It is used in resigning, dismissing, christening, naming,
excommunicating, appointing, sentencing, etc. for example, I (hereby) pronounce
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you as husband and wife. Some performative verbs used to indicate declaratives
are adjourn, appoint, pardon, name, nominate, sentence, hire, fire, and approve
(Alston, 2000, p.34).
The existence of illocutionary performative verbs justifies the existence of
illocutionary categories (Leech, 1983, p.196).
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ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number: 071214012
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
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ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number: 071214012
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2012
i
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
ii
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
By
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Student Number : 071214012
iii
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, May 18, 2012
The Writer
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
071214012
iv
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 071214012
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECHES OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND
SUKARNO BASED ON AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam
bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan
secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk
kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan
royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal : 18 Mei 2012
Yang menyatakan,
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
v
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ABSTRACT
Ratnaningganadi, Maria Peny. 2012. Analysis on the Speeches of Martin Luther
King Jr. and Sukarno Based on Austin’s Speech Act Theory. Yogyakarta: English
Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty
of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University
A language has its primary function as the physical message which is to
express meanings and to convey these to someone else. In real communication
process, when a speaker communicates, he/she hopes to influence others to
respond as he/she wants them to (Ross, 1995, p.5). This can be seen in public
speaking. The utterances, the way of uttering them, even the speaker’s motivation
influence the speech and the effect on the audience. Therefore, this study analyzes
the speeches of two influential speakers in the world, Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno. There are two research questions formulated in this study: 1) What are
the speech acts found in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno? 2)
What are the lexical repetition used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno?
This study uses Austin’s speech act theory and public speaking theory.
This study is considered as qualitative research. Thus, in order to be able to
conduct the study well, content analysis is applied. The subjects of this study are
the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches. The transcripts of the speeches
are analyzed based on Austin’s speech act theory related to the locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts performed. Then, the researcher examines
the lexical repetition used. The results of this study are described in words as
descriptive qualitative research.
There are two conclusions gained in this study. The first is the speech acts
found in the speeches of King and Sukarno. The second is the lexical repetition
used in King and Sukarno’s speeches. In this study, the locutionary, illocutionary,
and perlocutionary acts found are varied. Based on the sentence form, King and
Sukarno uttered their points in the form of declaratives, imperatives,
interrogatives, exclamations, even fragments. However, both of them uttered the
locutionary acts mostly in the form of declarative sentences. In King’s speeches,
there are 23 possible illocutionary acts which fall under assertive, directive,
commissive, and expressive categories of illocution. More various, there are 30
possible illocutionary acts found in Sukarno’s transcripts of speeches which fall
under the category of assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, and exercitive.
The perlocutionary acts on the audience are varied. They depend on the
illocutionary acts conveyed in King as well as Sukarno’s speeches.
There are three forms of lexical repetitions used in King and Sukarno’s
transcripts of speeches, namely words, phrases, or clauses which are repeated
separately during the speech, in sequenced sentences, as well as within the same
sentence. Through lexical repetition the speakers could clarify and emphasize
their points. The audience could gain the remarkable content of the speeches
better. Repetitions make the speeches more interesting, remarkable, and
significant in style.
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Eventually, the results of this study will be beneficial for scholars, public
speaker, as well as future researchers who are interested in speech acts and lexical
repetition of a speech. Teachers and learners can also draw some benefits for the
teaching and learning process.
Keywords: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary, lexical repetition, King,
Sukarno
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ABSTRAK
Ratnaningganadi, Maria Peny. 2012. Analysis on the Speeches of Martin Luther
King Jr. and Sukarno Based on Austin’s Speech Act Theory. Yogyakarta: Program
Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas
Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma
Bahasa utamanya berfungsi sebagai pesan fisik untuk mengekspresikan
maksud dan menyampaikannya kepada orang lain. Dalam proses komunikasi,
ketika seseorang berkomunikasi, ia berusaha mempengaruhi orang lain agar dapat
merespon sesuai yang diharapkan (Ross, 1995, p.5). Hal ini dapat dilihat dalam
berpidato. Ungkapan yang digunakan, cara mengungkapkannya, bahkan motivasi
pembicara mempengaruhi pidato yang disampaikan dan efeknya terhadap audiens,
Penelitian ini menganalisis pidato-pidato dua orang pembicara yang sangat
berpengaruh, Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno. Ada dua pertanyaan yang
diangkat dalam penelitian ini: 1) Apa saja tindak tutur yang ditemukan dalam
pidato-pidato Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno? 2) Apa saja pengulangan kosa
kata yang digunakan dalam pidato-pidato Martin Luther King Jr. dan Sukarno?
Penelitian ini menggunakan teori tindak tutur dan teori pidato. Penelitian
ini dikategorikan sebagai penelitian kualitatif, khususnya penelitian mengenai isi
sebuah dokumen. Subjek penelitian ini adalah transkrip pidato dari King dan
Sukarno. Tranksrip tersebut dianalisis berdasarkan teori tindak tutur yang
dikemukakan Austin, yaitu mengenai tindak lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi yang
ditampilkan. Kemudian, peneliti menganalisis pengulangan kosa katayang
ditemukan. Hasil penelitian dijabarkan sebagai penelitian kualitatif deskriptif.
Terdapat dua kesimpulan dalam penelitian ini. Pertama adalah tindak tutur
yang ditemukan dalam pidato-pidato King dan Sukarno. Kedua adalah
pengulangan kosa kata yang digunakan dalam pidato-pidato King dan Sukarno.
Dalam penelitian ini, tindak lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi yang ditemukan
beragam. Berdasarkan bentuk kalimatnya, King dan Sukarno mengungkapkan isi
pidato mereka dalam bentuk kalimat pernyataan, kalimat perintah, kalimat tanya,
kalimat seru, bahkan fragmen. Namun, sebagian besar isi pidato-pidato King dan
Sukarno diungkapkan dalam bentuk kalimat-kalimat pernyataan. Dalam pidatopidato King, ditemukan 23 tindak ilokusi yang mungkin dan termasuk dalam
kategori verba asertif, direktif, komisif, dan ekspresif. Dalam pidato-pidato
Sukarno, terdapat 30 tindak ilokusi yang dapat ditemukan dan digolongkan ke
dalam category verba asertif, direktif, komisif, ekspresif, dan eksersitif. Tindak
perlokusi yang ditemukan sangat beragam. Hal tersebut tergantung pada tindak
ilokusi yang diungkapkan dalam pidato-pidato King maupun Sukarno.
Terdapat tiga bentuk pengulangan kosa kata dalam transkrip pidato King
dan Sukarno yaitu kata, frasa, maupun klausa yang diulang dalam kalimat-kalimat
terpisah, dalam urutan kalimat, dan dalam satu kalimat yang sama. Dengan
pengulangan kosa kata, pembicara dapat memperjelas dan menegaskan poin-poin
mereka. Audiens sendiri dapat menangkap isi pokok pidato dengan lebih baik.
Pengulangan kosa kata dalam pidato membuat pidato tersebut lebih menarik dan
berkesan.
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Akhirnya, hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat berguna untuk kalangan
akademis, para pembicara, serta para peneliti yang tertarik dengan tindak tutur
maupun pengulangan kosa kata dalam sebuah pidato. Para pendidik dan pelajar
juga dapat menarik beberapa manfaat demi proses belajar mengajar.
Kata kunci: locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary, lexical repetition, King,
Sukarno
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“Hope is the greatest weapon of all”
(Machine Gun Preacher, 2011)
To my parents:
Johanes Bosco Sunardi and Lusia Sri Sudarmini
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to those who helped and
supported me in completing this thesis. This thesis is my means of contrition to
rise from my comfort zone. Therefore, I want to express my praise to Jesus Christ
for blessing me with such a wonderful life and for all chances I got to learn life
lessons to be a better one day by day.
Next, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Carla Sih Prabandari, S.Pd.,
M.Hum. for her guidance, suggestions, and valuable feedback during my thesis
writing process. My deepest thanks also go to all PBI lecturers and staff members
who have taught and helped me these years.
Moreover, I thank my wonderful family especially my parents, Johanes
Bosco Sunardi and Lusia Sri Sudarmini for their everlasting love and prayers. Not
to forget, my thankfulness goes to my grandmother Bernadeta Suhartinah and all
family for always reminding me to complete this thesis.
Last but not least, I want to express my special thanks to all my friends in
the play performance group, The Don; my SPD team in ALTA English Course for
teaching me hard work; my PPL friends in SMK 5 Yogyakarta; my wonderful
friends in OMK Somohitan year 2009-2012 for making my life more valuable;
and all teachers and students in SD Tarakanita Tritis-Ngembesan for giving me
chances to have more experiences. Thanks for coloring my process in bringing
this thesis to the final stage of completion.
Maria Peny Ratnaningganadi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................
i
APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................
ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...........................................
iv
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ............................................
v
ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................
vi
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................
viii
DEDICATION PAGE ...............................................................................
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................
xii
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................
xvi
CHAPTER I.
1
INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background ...............................................................
1
B. Problem Formulation ................................................................
3
C. Problem Limitation...................................................................
3
D. Research Objectives .................................................................
4
E. Research Benefits .....................................................................
4
F. Definition of Terms ..................................................................
5
CHAPTER II.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
7
A. Theoretical Description ............................................................
7
1. Language Functions ............................................................
8
a. Micro Functions ............................................................
8
b. Macro Functions ...........................................................
11
2. Pragmatics ..........................................................................
12
3. Speech Acts ........................................................................
14
a. Locutionary Acts...........................................................
15
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b. Illocutionary Acts .........................................................
17
c. Perlocutionary Acts .......................................................
20
4. Public Speaking Communication ........................................
22
a. Speech ..........................................................................
22
b. Audience Interaction .....................................................
24
5. Lexical Repetition...............................................................
25
B. Theoretical Framework.............................................................
26
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
28
A. Research Method ......................................................................
28
B. Research Subjects .....................................................................
29
C. Research Instrument .................................................................
30
D. Data Gathering Technique ........................................................
31
E. Data Analysis Technique ..........................................................
32
F. Research Procedure ..................................................................
33
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
34
A. Speech Acts Found in the Speeches
of King and Sukarno .................................................................
34
1. Locutionary Acts in the Speeches .......................................
34
a. Locutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ............................
35
b. Locutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches .......................
40
2. Illocutionary Acts in the Speeches ......................................
45
a. Illocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ...........................
46
b. Illocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ......................
55
3. Perlocutionary Acts in the Speeches....................................
67
a. Perlocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches ........................
68
b. Perlocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ...................
70
B. Lexical Repetition Used in the Speeches
of King and Sukarno .................................................................
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1. Lexical Repetition in King’s Speeches ................................
74
2. Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Speeches ...........................
89
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS 102
A. Conclusions ..............................................................................
102
B. Suggestions ..............................................................................
104
C. Implications on Teaching and Learning ....................................
105
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................
107
APPENDICES ...........................................................................................
111
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1. Locutionary acts in King’s speeches ............................................
35
Table 2. Locutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches .......................................
40
Table 3. Illocutionary acts in King’s speeches ...........................................
47
Table 4. Illocutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches ......................................
56
Table 5. Possible perlocutionary acts in King’s speeches...........................
69
Table 6. Possible perlocutionary acts in Sukarno’s speeches .....................
71
Table 7. Lexical repetition in King’s I Have a Dream ...............................
75
Table 8. Lexical repetition in King’s Nobel Acceptance speech .................
78
Table 9. Lexical repetition in King’s Speech at the Great
March on Detroit.........................................................................
82
Table 10. Lexical repetition in King’s A Realistic Look at the
Question of Progress in the Area of Race Relations .....................
85
Table 11.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s People’s Tri Command ..............
90
Table 12.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Asian African Conference
Opening Speech...........................................................................
95
Table 13.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s Dutch Public Acceptance
Condition Sine Qua Non for Resumption of Negotiations .............
97
Table 14.Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s The Door is still open
for Peaceful Solution of the West Irian Problem ..........................
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1. The Relationship between Sentence Form
and Illocutionary Acts in King’s Speeches .............................
112
Appendix 2. The Relationship between Sentence Form
and Illocutionary Acts in Sukarno’s Speeches ........................
140
Appendix 3. List of Lexical Repetition in King’s speeches.........................
182
Appendix 4. List of Lexical Repetition in Sukarno’s speeches ...................
188
Appendix 5. Biography of Martin Luther King Jr. ......................................
196
Appendix 6. Biography of Sukarno ............................................................
199
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher introduced and described the nature and
content of proposed study. This chapter consists of six subchapters. Those are
research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research
objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
Language has its primary function which is to express meanings and to
convey these to someone else. A speaker needs to transform his/her idea into form
that can be transferred to someone else and be understood by the addressee.
Bloomfield (1993) stated that by transforming the mental image in speaker’s head
into some physical form that can be transferred to someone else, the addressee
then can decode the physical message, and have the same mental image come into
his/her head. The speaker can encode his/her idea by putting it into signs and
symbols through the language used.
The language used as the physical message to convey meanings can be
expressed in many forms that can vary depending on the situation and involving
various speech communities. It can be in form of written and spoken texts, formal
and informal ones. The meaning of the message that the receiver gets is
influenced by the way in which the message is coded, the medium or channel
chosen for its transmission, and the skill with which it is transmitted (Ross, 1995,
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p.5). Thus, communication “is the sharing of meaning by sending and receiving
symbolic cues” using language (Grice & Skinner, 1995, p.5).
Human communication is not only a matter of transferring notion. It
involves common experience and mutual influence. In real communication
process, when a speaker communicates, he/she hopes to influence others to
respond as he/she wants them to (Ross, 1995, p.5). It can be seen from a speech or
public speaking, for instance. The speaker’s choices of words or sentence, even
the way he/she delivers them, are related to the purpose of his/her speech. In other
words, the utterances and the way of uttering them influence the whole speech as
well as the effect on the audience.
Although, effective and interactive speech can be seen from the
organization of the speech itself and the language used, it is the speaker’s own
motivation to use such a kind of word choices and combinations. The speaker’s
idea is expressed in a way that can represent his/her intended message or meaning.
Martin Luther King Jr. and former President of Indonesia Sukarno are two
among many influential speakers in this world. Their speeches have been recorded
and shared all over the world. King inspired people and communicated his
concerns on humanity issues surroundings through his speeches and sermons,
whereas Sukarno arouse, especially, Indonesians’ spirit of struggle through his
speeches. Through their charisma, they influenced many people to take action and
make changes related to issues they proposed in the speeches.
Public speaking or speech is included as public communication that
conveys meaning and ideas of the speaker in specific purpose through language.
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Through public speaking, the speaker may hope he/she can influence the audience
to perform response as he/she wants to, or affect them to take action. Therefore,
this research aimed to study the content of what the speakers did through language
in King and Sukarno’s speeches based on Austin’s speech act theory and the
stylistic element of the speeches through lexical repetition.
B. Problem Formulation
Based on the research background stated above, the researcher formulated
the problems as follows:
1.
What are the speech acts found in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno?
2.
What are the lexical repetitions used in the speeches of Martin Luther King
Jr. and Sukarno?
C. Problem Limitation
Both Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno had given many speeches on
different occasions. Their speeches were about various topics. In accordance with
the variety of topics of the speech given and the occasion, the audience or the
addressees were different as well. It results differences to the language style used
in their speeches.
To be able to conduct the study well, the researcher limited her study on
the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches that were given to the same kind
of audience which were common people or mass meeting during the year of 1955-
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1965. The selection of speeches analyzed was due to the historical events
happened during these years, which were the struggle for racial freedom and the
liberation of a state.
The researcher used the transcripts of King and Sukarno’s speeches that
have similar topic. The topic of speeches selected for this research was related to
freedom and liberation of a race or state. The researcher questioned on the speech
acts used and the lexical repetitions found in the transcripts of speeches. By
narrowing the speeches analyzed, this study would be easier to handle and more
manageable.
D. Research Objectives
There are two objectives that can be obtained. By conducting this study,
the researcher was expected to be able to:
1.
Figure out the speech acts used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and
Sukarno
2.
Find out the lexical repetitions used in the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.
and Sukarno
E. Research Benefits
The researcher of this study expected that the results can be beneficial for:
1.
Readers of this study
This study is expected to be beneficial for the readers in providing
information related to the topics discussed in this study.
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2.
Scholars
The results of this study can give beneficial information for those who want
to deepen knowledge about Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno.
3.
Public speakers
This study will provide significance to public speakers in making effective,
interactive speech that can be remarkable for the audience.
4.
Future researchers
This study gives future researchers beneficial inputs to conduct similar
research about speech acts and lexical repetitions, in its relation with
speaker’s interaction with the audience.
F. Definition of Terms
This study includes some specific terms. In an attempt to clarify concepts
and avoid misinterpretation, the following explanation defines the key words or
phrases of terms specifically used in this study.
1. Speech
Speech is a way to convey ideas in logical manner and use reliable
evidence to support the speaker’s points (UNC, 2007). Speech communicates
thoughts effectively in public or to the audience. It consists of three main parts
namely introduction to gain the audience’s attention and take them to the topic
issued, body in which the speaker explains the main topic and supports it with
evidences, and conclusion to restate and make remarkable conclusion through
effective closing of the speech. The researcher does not distinguish the term
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speech, public speaking, or public speech. The speeches analyzed in this study are
delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno.
2. Speech acts
Speech acts are defined as particular kinds of action that performed when
uttering the expressions or speech such as by stating, promising, warning,
ordering, and so on (Cruse, 2000, p.331). Speech acts consists of three separate
acts (Searle, 1974) namely an act of saying something (locutionary act), an act of
doing something (illocutionary act), and an act of affecting something
(perlocutionary act). In this study, the researcher uses the term speech act,
locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act as proposed by Austin
and Searle.
3. Lexical repetition
Lexical repetition is repeating fully words, or word-phrases, in a
subsequent sentence, either referring to the same object or to another example of
object variation e.g. its close synonym within the text. Besides making the speech
to be more significant in style, repetition aims to emphasize point as well as to
make speech more effective and interesting (Buehler, 1950, p.103; Fowler, 1986,
p.64; Nicholls, 1999).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of related theory contextualized to the topic
being studied. This chapter includes two subchapters: theoretical description and
theoretical framework. The theoretical description will discuss theories related
and theoretical framework will summarize and synthesize all relevant theories to
analyze the research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher elaborated related theories to analyze the data.
The related theories used are theory of language function, theory of pragmatics,
theory of speech acts, theory of speech in public speaking communication, and the
lexical repetition.
The consideration of using these theories as the basis of analyzing the data
was because the topic of this study is arisen from a phenomenon in language study
in which language use in speeches conveys particular function in communication
and in addressing meaning. This study focused on the analysis of speech acts in
the speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Sukarno. Thus, the theory of
pragmatics, especially theory of speech acts which is under this linguistic field,
would be discussed. Besides, since the data of this study were gathered from
transcripts of speeches, the theory of public speaking communication is needed to
support the analysis and give descriptions on language used in speeches.
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1. Language Functions
It is a natural phenomenon to use language as a primary means of
communicating one’s thoughts (Wisniewski, 2007). It results difficulty for some
people to define the language functions. Bloomfield (1993) noted “perhaps
because of its familiarity, we rarely observe it, taking it rather for granted, as we
do breathing or walking”. Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) divided the
language functions into two categories. These categories are micro functions
which refer to specific individual uses, and macro functions that deal with more
overall aims.
a. Micro Functions
1) Physiological function
The function of a language use in this view is to release physical and
nervous energy. The language use rarely conveys meaning. Therefore it is used
only to make the speaker feels better for releasing repressed energy. For example,
when watching football match in the TV, fans often shout instructions, express
support, disappointment, or curse words to the player for example: Go! Go! Go!
Goal! Meanwhile, as a means of communication to the players, these expressions
are useless. The speaker’s expressions will not give any influence to the players.
2) Phatic function
Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) stated that the language use in
this function is characterized by lack of any informative content and is intended to
link people and make the coexistence peaceful and pleasant. In short, it brings
sociability function of language. It can be found mainly in speech, by greeting the
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addressees through phrases as ‘nice day today’ or ‘how do you do’; and in certain
types of writing as in letter, for instance in the salutation Dear Sir/Madam and
ending Yours faithfully.
3) Recording function
Finch (1998) mentioned “recording function denotes using language to
make a durable record of things that ought to be remembered. Owing to its
omnipresence writing is probably the most significant function of language.” The
recording function of language can be illustrated in the use of language as a mean
to note particular, chronological event in the past. Before being developed into
alphabets in present times, the first writing system in form of pictures, developed
in the Middle East in 4000 BC to represent something, can be included as the
recording function of language.
4) Identifying function
Language is used also to identify the objects and events in the world
(Wisniewski, 2007). People might have a concept of an object in their mind. To
let other people understand what object a speaker is referring to, language is
needed to put this concept of an object into words. By naming the object both the
speaker and the addressee will be able to signify and identify it. In other words, it
is related to the function of language to name things or objects so that the speaker
could identify the object being discussed and the addressee could refer to it. “We
use names to classify different types of things, whether we call a car
anautomobile, a lorry, a van or a truck makes a big difference” (Wisniewski,
2007).
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5) Reasoning function
Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski called it as instruments of thought. In
human thinking process, language use is necessarily needed. Because human brain
works in processing information, it will be very difficult to think without any use
of words. Thus language provides with concepts formulated by means of
language. When someone thinks about something or a concept, words referred to
it will come in mind. For example when someone thinks about stationery, what
comes his/her mind must be words related to it such as pencil, books, ruler,
eraser, pen, etc. It must be impossible to think about it without any use of words.
6) Communicating function
Most speakers view communicating as the major function of language.
“Requesting, apologizing, informing, ordering as well as promising and refusing
are all reasons for communicating our ideas” (Wisniewski, 2007). For example
when someone says can you tell me what time is this? She/he is performing
language communicating function of requesting. Or, by uttering Jane will be
home at 5, the speaker is communicating her thoughts of informing something to
the addressee.
7) Pleasure function
Language can give pleasure for both the speakers and listeners. It can be
felt for instance through the use of assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia in
poetry, the mild sound of English, unusual use of syntactic rules, as well as
novelties of meaning juxtapositions and language games (Wisniewski, 2007). In
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speech, the use alliteration can be illustrated in the use of words “to dream, to
dare, to do” by repeating its beginning sounds (Grice & Skinner, 1995, 237).
b. Macro Functions
1) Ideational function
According to Finch (1998) as cited by Wisniewski (2007) in his website,
“Ideational function refers to the conceptualizing process involved in our mental
activities.” Through language, people can figure out what happens around them.
For example someone is reporting that the tsunami happened 5 minutes after the
8.9 Richter scale earthquakes. To be able to report what happened after other
thing happened, people performs the ideational function of language.
2) Interpersonal function
As a social phenomenon, not only can language enable people to
communicate each other, it also enables the speaker to transfer ideas in the desired
way and to represent the speaker (Wisniewski, 2007). It is because a concept in
one’s mind cannot be understood by the addressee without transferring his/her
ideas into a language. One of the ways, this function can be seen when people
delivering a speech. Through the speech, he/she is transferring his/her ideas to
others.
3) Poetic function
Through the words and meaning, language can be manipulated in a
creative way as in jokes or metaphors for pleasure. For example: Life is a box of
chocolate, you never know what you are going to get. This metaphor compares
life and a box of chocolate.
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4) Textual function
Using certain linguistic devices, people are able to create long utterances
or cohesive and coherence piece of writing. According to Jakobson as cited by
Hebert (2007),
any act of verbal communication is composed of six elements, or factors
(the terms of the model): (1) a context (the co-text, that is, the other verbal
signs in the same message, and the world in which the message takes
place), (2) an addresser or a sender (3) an addressee or a receiver, (4) a
contact between an addresser and addressee, (5) a common code and (6) a
message
From the elaboration of language functions above, it can be found that
generally language functions are divided into two broad categories which are
transactional and interactional function. According to Brown and Yule (1983),
transactional refers to the function of language to express content. While
interactional refers to the use of interpersonal language that is related to social
relationships and individual feelings (Brown & Yule, 1983, p.1). Thus, language
itself is a social phenomenon as well as a mental phenomenon that can be studied
(Leech, 1983, p.3).
2. Pragmatics
As one of branches in linguistics, pragmatics studies about the
relationships between language and its users. Fowler (1986) defined pragmatics as
“the conventional relationship between linguistics constructions and the users and
the uses of language”. There are three aspects involved in this definition. Those
are linguistics construction, the users or speakers of the language, and the
language use.
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Fromkin and Rodman (2002, p.207) wrote that pragmatics is concerned
with the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context. According to Fromkin and
Rodman (2002), there are two contexts which are relevant to interpret meaning,
namely linguistic context and situational context. The linguistics context deals
with the discourse that precedes the phrase or sentence to be interpreted (Fromkin
& Rodman, 2002, p.207). Interpreting the meaning through the discourse, the
sentence or utterances delivered, leads to the second context, situational context.
Situational context involves the knowledge of the real world referents of the
discourse. It allows the speaker, hearer, and any third parties present (Fromkin &
Rodman, 2002, p.208).
Different from syntax which concerns with words order and a study of
words literal meaning called semantics, pragmatics also involves the language
users. Yule (1996, p.4) as cited by Meidaratika (2008) stated that in this three-part
distinction, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics; only pragmatics allows human into
the analysis.
Leech (1983) redefined pragmatics to be more than meaning that relatives
to a speaker or user of language but also to the speech situations, “I shall redefine
pragmatics for the purpose of linguistics, as the study of meaning in relation to
speech situations” (Leech, 1983, p.6). Pragmatics concerns on the use of language
in communication, particularly in the relationship between sentence or utterances
and the context or the situation in which they are used which depends on the
knowledge of the real world.
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Speech situations that influence the meaning of language use studied in
pragmatics are related to these following criteria (Leech, 1983, p.13-14):
a. Addresser and addressee
b. The context of an utterance
c. The goal(s) of an utterance
d. The utterance as a form of act or activity (speech act)
e. The utterance as a product of a verbal act
Thus, “pragmatics is distinguished from semantics in being concerned with
meaning in relation to a speech situation” (Leech, 1983, p.15) mentioned above.
In other words, pragmatics focuses on “how people use language within a context
and why they use language in particular ways” (McManis, Stollenwerk, Zhang &
Bissantz, 1987, p.197).
3. Speech Acts
Parker (1986, p.11-24) as cited by Darma (2005), wrote that there are five
branches discussed in the field of pragmatics. The five branches discussed in
pragmatics are performatives, felicity condition, speech acts, implicature, and
conversational maxims. Whereas Fromkin and Rodman (2002, p.221) mentioned
that pragmatics includes speech acts, presuppositions, and deixis. Since this
research focused on the speech acts used in the speeches of King and Sukarno, the
researcher would further discuss on the theory of speech acts used to analyze the
data.
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As a branch of study under the field of pragmatics, speech act theory
studies what an utterance does beyond just saying something (Fromkin &
Rodman, 2002, p.221). It is related with the communicating function of language
in which speakers can use language to do things. Searle (1974, p.16) wrote:
The reason for concentrating on the study of speech acts is simply this: all
linguistics communication involves linguistics acts. The unit of linguistics
communication is not, as has generally been supposed, the symbol, word
or sentence, or even the token of the symbol, word or sentence, but rather
the production or issuance of the symbol or word or sentence in the
performance of the speech acts.
Speech acts then becomes the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication.
The utterance of the sentence actually constitutes the action referred to (Parker,
1986). The focus is on the action speakers do by performing the language.
Austin (1963) pointed out that when people use language, they are
performing a kind of action. Speech acts then can be explained as acts that
performed when uttering the expressions or speech. Austin proposed three levels
of speech act related to the acts a sentence may perform. They are:
a. Locutionary Acts
Austin (1963) differentiated locutionary acts from the two other by
defining it as performing act of saying something. A locutionary act is “the
utterance of certain noises, certain words in a certain construction, and the
utterance of them with a certain sense and certain reference” (Austin, 1963). From
his definition, it can be stated that the focus of locutionary act is on the production
of an utterance with certain condition. Lyons as cited by Cruse (2000, p.331)
distinguished this act as follows.
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1) Produce an utterance through physical act of speaking: producing certain type
of noise (or in the case of written language, a set of written symbols),
2) Compose a sentence: composing a string of words conforming to the grammar
of some language,
3) Contextualized which is related to speaker’s intention.
Leech (1983, p.199) added “We may provisionally identify the locutionary
act with the transmission of the message (ideational communication)”. It can be
illustrated as follow:
LOCUTION
: speaker says to hearer that X
(X being certain words spoken with a certain sense and reference)
Thus the transmission of the message in performing locutionary acts involves
composing sentence in certain form. That is why locutionary act refers to a
particular person as the hearer. It comprises the production of sounds and words
with meaning by the speaker (Schiffrin, 1994) to the hearer.
In this study, the sentence forms analyzed are declarative, imperative,
interrogative, exclamation, and fragment. The primary role of declarative is in
making statements (Matthews, “Declarative”) as in Kate has left. Imperative
sentence has its primary function to give orders (Matthews, “Imperative”).
Sentence Get out now! is considered as imperative. Whereas interrogative is used
when asking questions (Matthews, “Interrogative”), for example is he here? or
what time is it? which marks in the use of interrogative word. While exclamation
is “characteristically used in emotional reactions, as opposed to questions,
statements, requests, etc” (Matthews, “Exclamation”) for example how wonderful
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that would be! or what a great day! Lastly, fragment is usually of a sentence
reduced by the omission of one or more elements from the construction to an
incomplete form (Matthews, “Fragment”). When these forms are distinguished
from speaker’s intention and context, then it leads into the so-called illocutionary
acts.
b. Illocutionary Acts
While locutionary act is the act of saying something, illocutionary act is
the transmission of the discourse (interpersonal communication) in which the
speaker performs an act in saying something (Leech, 1983, p.199). In other words,
illocutionary act is performing an act of doing something. It is defined as the
action of communication like asserting a fact, asking questions, requesting an
action, making a promise, or giving a warning (Fromkin & Rodman, 2002).
If locutionary act or uttering the words is performed in appropriate
contextual condition, illocutionary act has been performed. However, the same
illocutionary act can be performed in different locution (Cruse, 2000, p.332). For
example in I saw Jane this morning and I saw your wife this morning. These
sentences can refer to the same meaning on the assumption that the addressee’s
wife is called Jane. On the other hand, “the same locutionary act can realize
different illocutionary act” (Cruse, 2000, p.332). For instance when a speaker says
I’ll be there, this utterance can function as a promise, a prediction, or a warning.
Searle (1979) as cited by Leech (1983, p.105-106) classified illocutionary
acts into five categories.
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1) Assertives
Assertives are ways of asserting a proposition in order to put it forward as
true. In other words, this act commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed
proposition for example in stating, suggesting, boasting, complaining, claiming or
reporting. Performative verbs commonly used to assert certain proposition are
report, insist, claim, maintain, answer, agree, remark, mention, announce, testify,
remind, admit, disclose, deny, complain, or predict (Alston, 2000). The utterance
That door is open can constitute an act of asserting that the door is now open.
2) Directives
Directives are intended to produce some effect through action by the
hearer. It commonly appears in ordering, commanding, requesting, advising, and
recommending. According to Alston (2000, p.34), “Directives are concerned with
guiding the behavior of others.” It commonly expressed through the use of these
following verbs: ask, request, tell, command, order, forbid, advise, recommend,
suggest, or propose. To illustrate, when a mother says to her child Take your feet
off the table, this act constitutes an act of ordering. The effect expected by uttering
this order is the child taking his feet off the table (Parker, 1986, p.15).
3) Commissives
Commissives commit the speaker (to a greater or lesser degree) to some
feature actions; e.g. promising, vowing, offering (Alston, 2000, p.34; Leech,
1983, p.106). Mostly, commisives appear with verbs like promise, bet, guarantee,
invite, and offer. For example, I hereby promise that I’ll come.
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4) Expressives
This is considered as the acts of expressing or making known something
which is related to the speaker’s psychological attitude towards the state of affairs
the illocution presupposed. In short, it expresses some psychological state of the
speaker (Alston, 2000, p.34). It exists in thanking, congratulating, pardoning,
blaming, praising, condoling, etc. for example:
(I) thank you for your help.
I congratulate you for your promotion.
Or, I apologize for stepping on your toe.
Verbs that commonly used to perform this act are thank, apologize, commiserate,
compliment, or congratulate. Those are used to express: enthusiasm, contempt,
relief, desire, willingness, intention, opinion, opposition, determination,
unhappiness, and delight (Alston, 2000, p.34).
5) Declarations
Austin (1963) called it as exercitives. It is considered as the giving of a
decision in favor of or against a certain course of action (Austin, 1963, p.154)
performed as “a verbal exercise of authority, verbal ways of altering the ‘social
status’ of something, or an act that is made possible by one’s social or institutional
role or status” (Alston, 2000, p.34).
Exercitives or declarations are performed by someone who is authorized to
do so within institutional framework which corresponds with the propositional
content and reality. It is used in resigning, dismissing, christening, naming,
excommunicating, appointing, sentencing, etc. for example, I (hereby) pronounce
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you as husband and wife. Some performative verbs used to indicate declaratives
are adjourn, appoint, pardon, name, nominate, sentence, hire, fire, and approve
(Alston, 2000, p.34).
The existence of illocutionary performative verbs justifies the existence of
illocutionary categories (Leech, 1983, p.196).