The Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its Future Challenges.
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE
DEVELOPMENT
Edited by:
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
Foreword by:
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE DEVELOPMENT
© 2015 Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin et. al.
First Published May, 2015
Published By
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
In Cooperation With
Penerbit Samudra Biru (Member of IKAPI)
Jomblangan Gg. Ontoseno Blok B No 15 Rt 12/30
Banguntapan Bantul Yogyakarta Indonesia 55198
Telp. (0274) 9494 558
E-mail/FB: psambiru@gmail.com
ISBN: 978-602-9276-56-5
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
ii
Sociology and Welfare Development
CONTENTS
Contents ...................................................................................
iii
List of Contributors .................................................................
v
Acknowledgement ....................................................................
ix
Foreword ..................................................................................
xi
Introduction .............................................................................
xiii
Welfare Development: Meanings, Issues and
Challenges
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................
1
Poverty and Social Development
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum, Indri
Indarwati ........................................................
19
The Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen,
Forina Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ....
39
Development for Urban Poor Housing
Mohd Haizzan Yahaya, Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Hery Wibowo and Mohd Tauik
Mohammad .....................................................
69
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Sociology and Welfare Development
iii
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
iv
Baitul Mal wat Tamwil: a Sociological
and Social Welfare Movement ?
Hery Wibowo & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........
Environmental Participation among Youth:
Challenges, Issues and Motivating Factors
Lim Jen Zen & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .........
79
97
Indonesian Workers Health Condition:
A Sociological Analysis
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, Desi Yunita
and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........................... 125
he Delivery System of Education Programs
Mahathir Yahaya, Ali Maksum,
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and Azlinda Azman ... 135
Child Brides, Not Our Pride:
Looking Into Child Marriage Incidences in
Malaysia
Mitshel Lino, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and
Azlinda Azman ................................................
143
Concluding Remarks
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................. 151
Sociology and Welfare Development
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, is a PhD candidate at West
Australia University, Perth – Australia. He is a Planning Staf, Directorate
of Spatial Planning and Land Afairs, Indonesia National Development
Planning Agency (Bappenas). He is a Best Graduate Student in Regional
and Planning Department, Bandung Institute of Technology (2006)
and Utrecht Excellence Scholarships Awardee 2007-2009 on Research
Master Human Geography & Planning, Faculy of Geoscience, Utrecht
University.
Ali Maksum, is a Ph.D candidate at the Centre for Policy Research
and International Studies (CenPRIS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
His current project is about the Indonesia-Malaysia relations from
defensive realism perspective. He has written articles have been published
in such publisher as Kajian Malaysia: Journal of Malaysian Studies,
Springer (ISI), Indonesia national newspapers and conferences.
Azlinda Azman, Ph.D is an Associate Professor and Head of Social
Work Programme at the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also the Convenor of the
AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), USM. She was a Fulbright
Scholar and obtained her Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Clinical
Social Work from New York University. Her ields of expertise include
social work education and practice, theory and methods in social work
and social work research. Her areas of research interest include poverty,
Sociology and Welfare Development
v
HIV/AIDS and drug related issues.
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, a leturer at Social Welfare Departement
in Social and Political Sciences Faculty, University of Padjadjaran. She
obtained Bachelor degree, master degree and Doctoral degree from
University of Padjadjaran. Some scientiic papers had been published
at national or international level. Currently, he is focusing on waste
management problem in society who life near the Cikapundung river at
Bandung City.
Desi Yunita, oicially join the Departemen of Sociology at Social
and Political Science Faculty University of Padjadjaran since 2014. She
got Magister degree in Sociology also from University of Padjadjaran and
focusing the research on development and environmental problem.
Forina Lestari, obtained B.Sc.Eng. (ITB, 2006), MSc in Housing,
School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia
(USM, 2008). Lecturer at Indonesian Institute of Technology (ITI). She
has published a book: Alam Takambang Jadi Guru: Merajut Kearifan
Lokal dalam Penanggulangan Bencana di Sumatera. Consultant and
expertise at Directorate of Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National
Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) and Directorate General of
Spatial Planning, Ministry of Public Works (2013), Directorate General
of Regional Development Assistance, Ministry of Home Afairs and
Expert, Deputy of the Area Development, Ministry of Public Housing
(2012), Expert Staf, Commission V (Infrastructure), he Indonesian
House of Representatives (DPR, 2011). Junior Expert, Directorate of
Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National Development Planning
Agency (Bappenas, 2010).
Hery Wibowo, S.Psi, MM, PhD is a leturer at Departement of Social
Welfare Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran University.
Indri Indarwati, is PhD candidate in Social Work at Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM). Since 1999 she has been attached as a civil servant in
the Ministry of Social Afairs. Her research areas are study of social work,
gender and community development.
vi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Mitshel Lino is a Master of Social Sciences (Psychology) candidate
under the supervision of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Intan Hashimah Mohd
Hashim from the Department of Social Work, Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Her research interest surrounds the ield of Social Psychology. She was
a Graduate Assistant, serving as a Psychology tutor in the university.
She was invited to the Golden Key International Honour Society for
academic excellence and awarded Second Upper Class Honours from her
undergraduate. Her past researches included the area of Multicultural
Psychology and Child Marriage in Malaysia, collaboration project with
UNICEF.
Mohd. Haizzan Yahaya MSW is Ph.D scholars from University
Sains Malaysia. He is currently researching on Urban Poor Housing
and being supervised by. Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, PhD and associate
professor Azlinda Azman, PhD
Mohd Tauik Mohammad is a Ph.D scholar at the Social Work
Programme, School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia. His
current Ph.D studies regarding on Specialization Social Work, Forensic
Social Work/Victims’ Studies/Restorative Justice, being supervised by
associate professor Azlinda Azman, PhD.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, MA and Ph.D. from University of
Malaya. He is a leturer at Departement of Social Welfare (1982-2011)
and Departement of Sociology (2011-present), Head Departement
of Sociology in Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran
University (2014- present). Visiting Associate Professor at University
of Malaya (2008) and Visiting Associate Professor at Univerisiti Sains
Malaysia (2012- present).
Tia Devianty, S.IP., MPA, is a PhD candidates at Universitas
Padjadjaran, and a master’s degree graduate from Public Policy, Faculty
of Public Policy and Management, Flinders University, Australia. Now,
a lecturer at Ahmad Yani University, Bandung - from september 1996
– present Teaching, Researching, and Public Servicing. Current Researches
are mainly about Capacity Building For Decentralization (2008-now).
Sociology and Welfare Development
vii
Current Public Services are Facilitator, Comprehensive Maternal Village
Program in West Java, West Java Province Health Department (2006 –
2008), Facilitator for Sustainable Capacity Building for Decentralization
(SCBD) Project in Bau-bau City and Buton Regency (2008 – 2012),
District Advisory Team Capacity Building Program Minimum Service
Standard Basic Education at Sorong West Papua (2014-2016), tdevianty@
rocketmail.com.
Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, S.Ip MA is a researcher at the Department of
International and Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
He is activist in Art Movement in Malaysia.
viii
Sociology and Welfare Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah. hanks to Allah SWT, whom with His willing
giving me the opportunity to complete this book entitled Sociology and
Welfare Development. he publication of this book would not have
been possible without the guidance and knowledge wich I have acquired
from my honourable professors; Professor A.D Saefullah - University of
Padjadjaran and Professor Abd. Hadi Zakaria - University of Malaya. I
would also like to dedicate this book to my beloved wife, Tuty Tohri and
our lovely children Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, Forina Lestari, Fitaha Aini and
Tamal Arief Ihsan - their support in my life.
he publication of this book would not be possible without the
assistance and cooperation that we have received over the years from
the many individuals and organization in various parts of the world.
In particular, we wish to thank our team, all authors - Department of
Sociology Padjadjaran University and Universiti Sains Malaysia. Specially
thanks especially to Ali Maksum for his excellent assistance during the
editorial process of this book. Dr. Arry Bainus the Dean of Faculty of
Social and Political Sciences, Padjadjaran University. All of my MastersPhD students and colleagues at Padjadjaran University as well as USM
whom I would like to thanked for providing continuous support towards
my success.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Sociology and Welfare Development
ix
x
Sociology and Welfare Development
FOREWORD
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
First of all, I am honored to write this foreword and to give my
warm endorsement to this book edited by my colleague Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Ph.D. In my point of view, Indonesian harmony is urgent and
should be achieved soon. he government and all stakeholders are pushed
to react and formulate a strong policy to reach the national goals.
his book provides a comprehensive assessment regarding sociology
and welfare development discourses with a new paradigm and approaches
to build Indonesian future. his compilation chapter divided into ifteen
chapters, conclusion and also given constructive policy recommendations.
Although, all authors in this book are depart from various background
and issues, yet they produce and extent some challenges should become
serious attention especially the government. I can argue that this book is
very multidisciplinary and discussed from various angle.
Personally, as practitioner and based on my professional experiences,
I am strongly recommend this book to be read speciically by civil servant,
professional, academicians and those who engage in the social welfare
tasks. One of the important recomendation given by this book is a good
public policy totally need tough cooperation among individuals, groups,
and institutions. I am also impressed that this book which emphasized on
Sociology and Welfare Development
xi
welfare development discourses is smartly promoting the ideas of “spiritual
development” which in some extent isolated from main discussion. his
is important and also to alerting as well as to underscore that Indonesia
is a religious country.
Finally, I am pleased to congratulate to Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
PhD which successfully publish this book and demonstrated that he
is a productive scholar. As academician, lecturer and researcher he has
more than thirty years professional experiences in the ield of social and
political sciences in Indonesia as well as recognized in the broad. I hope,
the collaboration between the agency of research and development in
the Ministry of Home Afairs of the Republic Indonesia with the Centre
for Socioglobal Studies - Padjadjaran University become more efective,
fruitful and sustain in the future.
hank you and Wassalam.
Jakarta, 2014
xii
Sociology and Welfare Development
INTRODUCTION
In the Name of God, the Most Gracioeus, the Most Merciful
his book provides a thematic issues and challenges in the new era,
sociology to develop human welfare. he main objective of the Sociology
and Welfare Development is to present an integrated analysis of how
the discipline of sociology can contribute to our wider understanding
of the variety of welfare development issues, practices and institutions
approachs, policies and philosophy wich exist in our society and countries.
his explanatory chapters expected to examine and understand as well as
ofer choices for human beings in the dinamics world to build a human
welfare.
his book depart from the point of view that sociology is as applied
social science can contribute to the development of human life through
many perspectives. he various theme have been selected are discussed
from philosophy to policy models. Each chapter attempt to understand
with a core idea namely welfare development.
In the irst chapter, the main theme related to welfare development
is regarding the global presence in knowledge body. In this chapter
demonstrate that there have gap and diferences between modern and
spiritual concept of welfare development. Chapter two focus on poverty
phenomena in Indonesia as a serious problem. Some have observed
that poor family are marginalized and obtain small attention, while
many also has seen that the problems are the policy makers. It has to
recognized that some assistants and stimulus packages has given by
government to the poor family. However, it has to recognized also that
there were existed some problems regarding inefective management,
Sociology and Welfare Development
xiii
policy implementation, bureaucracy and corruption. Yet, all indicates
that Indonesian government has taken a serious strategic action in order
to struggle to eradicate poverty as well as eradication policy against
chronic of corruption. Related with poverty phenomena, in the chapter
nine, concern on historical and inherited problems such as the disabled
people, the pursuit of full employment in urban areas and overstaing
in the public sector, were important causes for urban poverty. However,
these historical problems did not result in serious poverty under the well
planned economic system. he number of poor people inherited from
the previous period was also relatively small.
In the third chapter focus on human geography and planning as part
of human life. Sociologically, this study concludes that the relationships
between two adjacent metropolitan centres are two geographical
phenomena occurred in the Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region
(JBMUR). However, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring
in the corridor area between both metropolitan centers. here are both
direct and indirect relations between these two geographical phenomena
which inally lead to the emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban
region. In the fourth chapter, that in addition, the struggle of urban poor
communities in Malaysia for housing and land rights is closely related
to the development and history of the country. After the British colonial
period, Malaysia’s priority was to develop its economy by focusing on
the manufacturing and export industry in urban areas. his resulted
when people from rural areas migrating from village to the city, in search
of opportunities and to ill the workforce demand. Most of the urban
migrants would build their own house near the manufacturing factories,
because the surrounding lands were unoccupied and unused. With hard
work and their own resources they would clean the area (wilderness) and
build houses; this would encourage the development in the area and
hence they are known as urban pioneers.
In the ifth chapter the author analyzes the social-welfare fund
called Baitul Mal wat Tamwil (BMT). he authors believe that BMT in
particular and microinance institutions in general is one of the social
welfare movement, getting stronger if you see the development of BMT
in Indonesia, as have been reported by Reuters. he growth of Islamic
microinance institutions (LKMS) in Indonesia is increasingly signiicant.
he main objective of the micro and super micro which is generally being
located in rural areas, LKMS transformed into a small people mover a
tough economy. Currently, there are about three million customers who
xiv
Sociology and Welfare Development
obtained inancial assistant from micro LKMS or BMT.
Chapter six examines the environmental destruction of young
generation to protect and conserve the natural environment. As such,
the key actors in engaging youth participation in environmental action,
be it the government, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) or
the community, should address the multi-dimensional issues that are
obstacles towards the involvement of the young and come up with
strategies to develop a more intrinsically-motivated participation.
Generally, environmental awareness among youth worldwide is at an
adequate level but it is the translation into action that is still lacking. A
review of the implementation strategies of current environmental action
programs involving youth should be done by the respective organizers
in order to create programs that are fun, hands-on and allows as well
as entrusts youth to apply their environmental knowledge and personal
skills to make key decisions for the future of then environment which
they shall inherit from the present. Hence, there is a need to move
beyond the present, traditional top-down institutionalized approach of
implementing programs towards a more dynamic and lexible approach
in which youth are viewed stakeholders, knowledge sharers and leaders,
and not mere passive participants who carry out the aims dictated by the
organizers.
concentrates on socio-cultural diferences between
hometown and destination areas of Indonesian migrant workers and the
impact towards their health condition. It involves the diferences physical
environment, social, and culture. he diferences of physical environment
involve climate change as well as socio-culture between hometown (Peteuy
Condong Village) and destination (Saudi Arabia). hese diferences
inluence towards the workers health condition related job. Social
diferences are related with social economic status between employers
and workers, that impact to the mental depression of the workers.
Culture diferences are cultures diferentiation between hometown and
destination country. Arabian cultures are introvert and over protected. It
emerge diiculties to access health services. While in the chapter eight,
discuss speciic theme about how to develop any rural community it can
be achieve through the dissemination on the importance of education to
all family members in the rural area. his method is expected to transform
the communities towards appreciating education better. he recognition
of society towards education only, is not enough to enhance the living
standards. Yet, it should be incorporated a the positive attitudes of the
Chapter seven
Sociology and Welfare Development
xv
rural community towards education as a strategy for improving life. At
the same time, the delivery system of the education programs must be
enhanced and it is all depend on the commitment of the school and
teachers of the rural schools as well.
Finally, the last chapter focus on the incidences of child marriage are
no longer pertinent only for less developed country; it actually happens
extensively in diferent parts of the world. Due to psychological and
biological immaturity, children are insuiciently mature to make an
informed decision about a life partner.
his book examines the welfare development issues in the broader
“sociology of welfare development” perspective. It is compiled from
travelers and knowledge experiences in international seminars, talks and
forum of researchers, supervisions and other discussion with my PhD and
Master students. hat experiences, together with their personal values and
interests extremely inluence to all authors in this book. Personally, I hope
that those who engage and read this book will obtain fruitful knowledge.
All errors are the author’s responsibility.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
xvi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Chapter
3
The Emergence of
Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its
Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, Forina
Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Readers Guide
his chapter explains on human geography
and planning as part of human life. his study
explores the relationships between two adjacent
metropolitan centers, Jakarta and Bandung, over
the past ten years. he merging process between
both of the metropolitan areas has been forecasted
by many studies, yet the variables that lead to
the process are still not very clear. his present
study will try to ill the gap by undertaking two
approaches. First, “measure” the relationships
between Jakarta and Bandung by looking at
the lows of people, investment and commodity.
Secondly, step a bit further by examining the
implications of the relationships between both
centers to the corridor area between them. his
present study ends up with indings that over the
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
39
past ten years there have been an intensifying relationship between Jakarta
and Bandung in the lows of people, investment and commodity. On the same
period, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring in the corridor
area between both metropolitan centers. here are both direct and indirect
relations between these two geographical phenomena which inally lead to the
emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban region.
Introduction
here are already several studies on how both Jakarta and Bandung
are connected and interacting (for example: Firman [8], Firman &
Dharmapatni [9], Hidayati & Kuncoro [13], Manaf [22]); however, none
of them have described concretely and comprehensively the consequences
of the connection between the two metropolitan areas. Hidayati & Kuncoro
[13] did well in highlighting the process of industrial agglomeration along
the corridor between Jakarta and Bandung, however, they only focused
on the labor impacts and industrial activities, whereas changes in other
activities and types of land use may also happen in the corridor (e.g.
housing). Manaf [22] identiied the implications of commuting activities
between Jakarta-Bandung in relation to the role of the toll road that
connects both metropolitan areas. However, as argued by McGee [24],
commuting is only one aspect in identifying the emergence of megaurban regions. Both studies by Firman & Dharmapatni [9] and Firman
[8], whereas the later is a continuation study of the former, try to put
the development in the “Jakarta Bandung region” [9] in the appropriate
framework, however, it rather discusses Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA)
and Bandung Metropolitan Area (BMA) as separate entities.
Considering these limitations in the available studies, this present
study will try to give a more comprehensive picture of the emergence of
the Jakarta-Bandung Mega Urban Region (JBMUR) by using data and
processes identiied by the former studies. First, the relationships between
both metropolitan centers, Jakarta and Bandung, shall be examined; in
terms of the lows of people, investments and, to some extent, commodities.
Recent developments in the region, such as the establishment of the new
toll road that connect directly Bandung and Jakarta (the Cipularang toll
road) in 2005 are also being taken into account. Secondly, the impacts of
those relationships to the socio-spatial restructuration (such as industrial
agglomeration, land use change, housing demand and population growth)
of the corridor area will also be probed. Yet to further clarify the merging
40
Sociology and Welfare Development
process of Jakarta and Bandung, the corridor areas between these two
cities become important. If a megalopolis (or mega-urban regions) refers
to continuous urbanized areas that connect metropolitan centers, and
if there is an intensiied relationship between Bandung and Jakarta, the
implications of that relationship to the corridor areas need to be explored.
For this matter, a ield trip in Purwakarta District has been conducted. he
analysis of this research applies especially to the period after the monetary
crisis, which is 1997 until present. he conceptual model below (igure 1)
will guide the steps in our study.
Interaction Between
Metropolitan Areas
Corridor Development
Jakarta
The Jakarta
Metropolitan Area
Industrial
agglomeration
Flow of
people
Flow of
commodity
The Corridor
Affect
between Jakarta and
Bandung
Land use
change
The Emergence of JBMUR
Housing
demand
Flow of
capital
Population
growth
Bandung
The Bandung
Metropolitan Area
Figure 1 The conceptual model
he conceptual model also leads to the main research questions to
be answered:
Is there any intensiied relationship between Jakarta and Bandung
that can lead to the merging process of both metropolitan areas over the
past ten years? If it is the case, in what sense the relationships can be
measured?
What are the implications of such intensiied relations between
Jakarta and Bandung for the corridor of the JBMUR? Particularly, what are
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
41
the implications for the socio-spatial restructuration of the municipalities
and districts located in the corridor area?
he JBMUR is a unique case, particularly in Southeast Asia. he
mega-urban region can be diferentiated from other metropolitan areas
such as Singapore and Kuala Lumpur in terms of population density. he
JBMUR, particularly the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA) has higher
population density compared to both of them. Compared to Bangkok
and Manila Metropolitan Areas, the JBMUR is slightly diferent in terms
of cities primacy. In both Bangkok and Manila, the capital city of the
country is the primate city of the metropolitan areas. As for the JBMUR,
Jakarta may still be the main international gate to the global network;
however, adjacent metropolitan area, the Bandung Metropolitan Area
(BMA), has also inluences in the development of the JBMUR as a whole,
as indicated by Firman & Dharmapatni [9] and Firman [8]. Furthermore,
the country is in the early period of implementing the regional autonomy
(since 2001). Fragmented administrative authorities will deinitely be a
main challenge for the development of inter-regional areas, such as the
JBMUR. his research aims to shed light on these issues by unravelling
the socio-spatial restructuration happened in the corridor area between
Jakarta and Bandung.
Secondary data collection, interviews with key informant oicials
(and other related stakeholders), and a ield trip in Purwakarta District1
have been conducted; however, due to the data and time limitation, it
should be admitted that not all of the plans outlined by the conceptual
model can be answered and be explained. here are no precise data on
the lows of commodities and capital (investments) between Jakarta
and Bandung. herefore, this present study uses several approaches to
explain the phenomena, i.e. by using interviews with key informant
oicials and the structure of Gross Regional Domestic Products (GRDP)
of both centers. Also, due to the data limitation, several igures (i.e.
housing demand) related to the corridor development cannot be properly
presented and will be accompanied by several interviews to complete the
picture. Finally, this thesis tries as much as possible to collect the data for
the last 10 years (1997-2007), however, due to the data limitation, not all
of the data could be presented in that timeframe.
To answer the research questions formulated above, this present
study will be structured as follows. he second section will discuss the
concept of “megalopolis” or “mega-urban regions”. his section will focus
42
Sociology and Welfare Development
mainly on how such regions develop in Asian countries by outlining their
diferences from Western countries. he third section will give an overview
on the study area and reveal how Bandung and Jakarta inluence each
other as well as the type of their interaction. In this section it will also
be made clear that whether there is an intensiied relationship between
these two cities or not. he ifth section will probe what the impacts
of the Bandung-Jakarta relationship are on the corridor areas between
them. A full report of the ield survey conducted in one of these areas,
Purwakarta District, will be presented. From the result of these sections,
it will be possible to test whether the “mega-urban region development”
hypotheses presented in this study are real or not. he inal section, the
conclusion, will discuss indings from other sections and answer the
research questions posted before.
heoretical Framework
It is possible for two or more adjacent metropolitan areas to become
connected with each other. Over time, the inluence of each metropolitan
area’s core center is increasing; therefore, the size of each metropolitan
area is also getting bigger. he potentials of the area or the corridor
between two metropolitan areas are thus being tapped by both of them.
One can identify this phenomenon by looking at the change of the land
use and the urbanization process alongside the corridor. In the end, both
metropolitan areas and the corridor between them are merging into one
big conurbation. his big conurbation was irst identiied by a French
geographer, Jean Gottmann, in late 1950s. He referred to an extensive
urbanized area along the northeastern seaboard of the United States as
“megalopolis”. Other scholars, like McGee [24], deined it as “Mega
Urban Regions” (MURs) areas consisting of a city core, a metropolitan
area spreading out from the city core and “extended metropolitan regions”,
where rural and urban activities intermingled in the distant area and are
inluenced by the power of functions in the city core. As argued by McGee
[24], considerable improvements in transportation and communication
have increased the accessibility of regions close to the urban cores, and in
some cases have led to corridor development between two major urban
centers, which in the end will form new MURs or megalopolises.
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
43
Major Cities
Peri Urban
Desakota
Densely Populated Rural
Sparsely Populated Frontier
Smaller Cities and Towns
Communication Routes
Figure 2 Spatial coniguration of a hypothetical Asian urban
system (adapted from McGee, [23], p.6)
For the purpose of this study, it is of importance to explain further the
nature of mega-urban regions in Asian countries. As observed by McGee
[23], in the Asian context the conventional view of the urban transition,
“which assumes that the widely accepted distinction between rural and
urban will persist as the urbanization process advances, needs to be reevaluated” (p. 4). he conventional view is drawn from the experience of
Western countries. In fact, what is happening in the Asian countries is
slightly diferent. here are no clear diferences between rural and urban
areas. In the extended metropolitan regions, people are being urbanized in
the way of life and in the way they work; however, most of the people do
not move to the city centers (urbanization without dislocation). McGee,
in referring to this hinterland area, used the terms “desakotasi”, in which
rural-urban characteristics and agricultural and non-agricultural activities
are being mixed intensely. hus, rural-urban boundaries are becoming
blurry and along the corridor between two (or more) urban cores, there
are intermingled activities carried out by the residents. his framework
of analysis is particularly important in deining the urbanized areas along
the corridor between Jakarta and Bandung. In general, McGee [23]
identiied ive main regions of spatial coniguration in Asian countries:
44
Sociology and Welfare Development
(1) the major cities; (2) the peri-urban regions, which are areas within
a daily commuting reach of the city core; (3) the “desakota” regions; (4)
densely populated rural regions, and (5) the sparsely populated frontier
regions. All of these are clearly outlined in the igure 2.
Looking underneath the emergence of mega-urban regions, Douglass
[6] pointed at two interwoven processes as the main causes. he irst one
is “globalization”, deined in economic terms as “accumulation of the
three major circuits of capital; production, commodity trade and inance;
at the global scale” (p. 2316). his leads to the international division
of labor marked by the shift of labor-intensive assembly operations to
a select number of newly industrializing economies. Globalization of
production, commerce and inance requires “a physical geography of cities,
urban networks and transport and communication linkages to efect its
expanding spatial reach” ([6], p. 2318). Hence, the second process, which
involves urban agglomeration, also plays a role. Urban agglomerations
in the MURs ofer perfect sites for the accumulation of those circuits of
capital, e.g. manufacturing sectors [31]. he MURs, thus, are becoming
“the sites of major tensions between the economics of globalization and
local politics over the quality of the city for daily living” ([6], p. 2320).
Consequently, many of the MURs are reported to dominate a large
share of their national economies. MURs, along with the international
development corridors and trans-border regions, are part of what can be
called “a trans-nationalization of territorial space through an accelerated
urban transition organized into extensive spatial networks that transcend
the nation-state in all forms of economic interaction” ([6], p. 2321).
hese forces of globalization and urban agglomeration are reinforced by
international competition of metropolitan centers in several ields (cf.
[10]).
Several physical characteristics of MURs can be identiied. MURs
can be easily identiied in two or more regions in a country that contain
15%-40% of the total population on less than 5% of the total area
of the country ([11], p.154). Gottmann also set 25 million as a basic
standard for the population size of the megalopolis/MURs. Besides
these physical characteristics, two other prominent characteristics of the
megalopolis/MURs can also be outlined. he irst one is a constant series
of transactions lowing through national and international space, in the
form of people, commodities, capital and information [24]. Rimmer
[28], in following Kobayashi and Okada (1989), argued that “a tri-level
structural arrangement is envisaged to accommodate interdependent
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
45
movements of goods, people and information on a global network” (p.
155). It consists of:
Low-speed transportation to accommodate commercial transactions
(i.e. shipping, trucks);
High-speed transportation to accommodate the movements of
individuals and the transfer of complicated information that needs a faceto-face contact (i.e. cars, airplanes, trains);
Telecommunication networks for the transmission of uncomplicated
oral and written information.
Although Rimmer [28] talked about global networks, a similar
network could also be established between two or more major metropolitan
centers in the megalopolitan areas. Intensiied relations between the
major centers of two or more metropolitan areas can be measured in
terms of people movements (commuting), commodities trading (i.e.
freight volume), capital low (i.e. bank transfers) and information lows,
for which Staple [33] proposed the use of Minutes of Telecommunication
Traic (MiTT) to measure the low’s volume. Otherwise, Rimmer [29]
also argued that the low of information can also be assumed to be
embodied in goods or people movement. For the purpose of this study,
we shall use the lows of people (approached by average daily low of
vehicles between Jakarta and Bandung), capital (approached by domestic
investment igures) and commodity (approached by GRDP structures of
both centers).
he size and composition of the lows of commodities and capital
lead to the second characteristic of MURs, which is their function as
a hinge for the national economy in the global networks ([11], [13]).
he corridor between two metropolitan areas is the best location to see
how this economic function is performed. Industrial agglomeration, land
use change and the increasing demand for residential areas will likely be
spreading along the corridor. he corridor will likely also attract either
domestic or foreign investments. In the end, the corridor, together with its
adjacent metropolitan areas, is becoming one of the biggest contributors
to the national economy as relected by their share in the Gross National
Products (GNPs) or Gross Regional Domestic Products (GRDPs).
All of these characteristics have made the megalopolis a special
area with special potentials and problems as well. Megalopolises, for
example, may act as the “incubator of new trends” [11] in the economy
46
Sociology and Welfare Development
and technology because of the composition of their population and
their dynamic character, which can also inluence other cities. On the
other hand, as also noted by Douglass [7], MURs are currently facing
the contradictory issues of environment sustainability and economic
resilience. Mutually reinforcing linkages between these two important
aspects should be established in order to maintain the sustainability of
the MURs.
Bandung and Jakarta: Bridging the Two Centers
Bandung and Jakarta are connected by toll roads as well as artery
roads; and as mentioned before in the irst section, in the year 2005 a
new toll road was constructed, shortens time travel between two centers
(from 3.5-4 hours to 2-2.5 hours). he toll road, namely Cipularang,
gives a hint that perhaps there has already been increasing lows between
two centers so that demands of a new toll road also arise. his research
then will measure the low of vehicles between Jakarta and Bandung over
the past ten years by using data collected from Jasa Marga (Indonesia
Highway Corporation). he data set provides the number of the vehicles
(cars, buses and trucks) that use the toll roads.
here are two toll roads that connect Jakarta-Bandung, which are:
Jakarta-Cikampek and Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi (Purbaleunyi). he
irst one has been built since the year of 1988, connecting Jakarta to the
sub-district Cikampek (Karawang District). he second one, Purbaleunyi,
consists of two sections. he irst section, Padaleunyi toll road, is the toll
road that connects two sub-districts under the jurisdiction of Bandung
District; Padalarang and Cileunyi. he toll-road is by-passing the city of
Bandung with several interchanges. he Padaleunyi (Padalarang-Cileunyi)
toll road is built on the year of 1991. he second section, which is built
on the year 2005, is the toll road that connects Cikampek to Purwakarta
District until Padalarang (sub-district under the jurisdiction of Bandung
District), thus it is named Cipularang (Cikampek-Purwakarta-Padalarang)
toll road. he Cikampek toll road made the continuous toll-road access
from Jakarta to Bandung complete (see igure 3 overleaf ). Before 2005,
people would have to exit at Cikampek and then continue their journey
through artery roads before entering the Padaleunyi toll road.
he data set provided by Jasa Marga allows us to know the numbers of
vehicles in and out from every gate in the toll roads. he journey between
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
47
Bandung and Jakarta can be divided into two sections, as illustrated in
igure 4 (overleaf ). here are also more alternatives for the journey after
the construction of the Cipularang toll road in 2005. his present study
calculates the growth of average daily low (ADF) between toll gates that
correspond to the Bandung-Jakarta journey. he calculation is done on
the basis of three points of observation: May 1998, March 2003 and
April 2007. Based on the calculation, it is found that over the past ten
years there has been a huge increase in the ADF in every pair of toll gates
that correspond to the Bandung-Jakarta journey (see igure 52 overleaf )
over the past ten years. he growth averagely reaches more than 100%.
It is also can be seen, particularly in toll gate pairs A and B that the ADF
increase higher after 2003. Both pairs are the main gates for BandungJakarta journey. Preliminary conclusion is perhaps people preferred to
go through the main gates after the establishment of the Cipularang toll
road.
In the ADF report from Jasa Marga, the types of vehicle can be
divided into three. Type I are cars, small buses and pickups; type II are big
buses and trucks with four pairs of wheels; type III are bigger trucks (more
than four pairs of wheels). Despite the increase of ADF in all of these
three types, type I dominate the ADF with more than 80%. his indicates
that the traic low between Bandung and Jakarta is dominated by the
individual purposes or matters that do not relate to the transportation
of goods and commodities, which can only be handled by vehicles type
II and III. It is becoming important, therefore, to know the motives of
those travelers and to ensure whether they are really coming from Jakarta
to Bandung, and vice versa, or not. A study on the identiication of the
Cipularang toll road’s3 users by Umbou [35] revealed that most of the
travelers came to Bandung for the purposes of leisure and business.
48
Sociology and Welfare Development
Figure 3 Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region (Inset Map Source: htp://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:IndonesiaWestJava.png (assessed July 25, 2009))
Figure 4 (Left) Illustration of Jakarta-Bandung, and vice versa, journey
Figure 5 (Right) The growth of average daily low (ADF) at toll gates that
correspond to the Jakarta- Bandung (up) and vice versa (below) journey ([19],
[20], [21])
Travelling between Bandung and Jakarta for doing business or
working has already been one of the main purposes since the 1980s. A
study by Rosmiyati [31] revealed that during the period of 1983-1987
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
49
there is an average of 3.3 million people who made annual trips between
the two cities. hese people used airplanes, trains, private cars or buses.
From those means of transportation, the proportion of the people who
traveled for the purpose of business or working were 71.3%, 43.9%,
60% and 31.7% respectively. Business tends to correlate strongly with
investments. Indeed, at least for the last 6 years, investments in Bandung
have been growing tremendously, especially in the investment sectors that
correspond with services and tourism, which is the tertiary sector4. his
can be seen from two tables below (table 1 and 2) that explain the growth
of domestic investments1 for the last 10 years as well as of non- facility
investments for the last 6 years in Bandung.
Domestic investments in Bandung (in million Rupiahs)
Table 1
Sectors
1997
1998
2000
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Primary
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Secondary
37,829
191,706
6,489
24,213
10,553
52,693
19,202
10,500
Tertiary
108,319
32,876
21,764
20,308
1,133,200
-
7,611
-
Total
146,148
224,582
28,253
44,521
1,143,753
52,693
26,813
10,500
Source: [16], [1]
Table 2
Non-facility investments in Bandung (in million Rupiahs)
Sectors
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Primary
n.a.
n.a.
765
-
-
-
Secondary
n.a.
n.a.
114,846
193,715
488,471
316,950
Tertiary
n.a.
n.a.
1,566,282
3,225,415
3,441,860
4,857,593
Total
538,963
808,002
1,681,892
3,419,130
3,930,331
5,174,543
Source: [16], [1]
Since either the Indonesian Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM)
or the Bandung Investment Coordinating Board (BPMMPT) did not
record the origin of the investments, our study conducted interviews with
the BPMPPT’s oicials and the head of KADIN (Indonesia Chamber of
Commerce and Industry) Bandung. From these interviews it was revealed
that among six economic categories under the tertiary sector of investment,
the tourism and the oices sectors were the two top contributors for the
yearly investment in Bandung. he activities classiied under the oices
sector is including building new branch or headquarter company oices
in Bandung. he investment comes from municipalities/regencies nearby
1
50
Sociology and Welfare Development
Bandung, i.e.: Bandung District, Purwakarta and Jakarta. he tourism
sub-sector is including building hotels, shopping facilities, and attraction
places. From these investments, according to the head of KADIN
Bandung, the majority came from Jakarta with a proportion averagely
around 60-70% for the last 10 years. For these investments, he referred
to the newly-built and on-going constructions of 26 hotels in Bandung.
All of them built by investors who came from Jakarta. Especially for the
last 5 years, since Bandung is oicially designated as a tourist destination
city and after the establishment of the Cipularang toll road, investments
in services and tourism have been increasing more quickly than before.
here are several reasons why Jakarta investors dominate investments
in the tourism (and services) sub-sectors. he irst reason is because
of decreasing distance. Since Jakarta and Bandung are neighboring
metropolitan cities and Bandung is now easily accessible, it becomes
easier for the investors to see the locations and opportunities, to decide
whether to invest or not. he second reason is due to technical aspects.
Investors from Jakarta are considered easier to deal with administration
procedures such as applying for permits to the BKPM, which is located
in Jakarta. Moreover, Jakarta entrepreneurs/investors are considered to
perform better than other investors in Indonesia.
Despite for business, Bandung has also been long pictured as one of
the favorite tourism destinations. A lot of attractions, places of interest and,
especially after the year of 2000, shopping facilities have been established
in Bandung. Soewondo [33] found, by observing the traic low on the
Pasteur gate (which is considered as the main gate for tourists), that after
the establishment of the Cipularang toll road, the traic low has been
increasing from around 600,000 vehicles per month in July 2004 until
more than 750,000 vehicles per month in July 2005. In fact, the number
of either domestic or foreign tourists has been continuously increasing
for about 162.81% during the last 7 years, i.e. from 1,021,751 (2002)
to 2,685,241 (2008), with an average annual growth rate of 18.87%
[4]. he impact on the regional income of Bandung is quite evident. Two
sectors that are related to tourism have been in the top-four sectors (out
of nine) which contributed to the Bandung Gross Regional Domestic
Product (GRDP) for the period of 1996-2006. hose two sectors are
the Trade, Hotel, Restaurant sector and the Services sector ([36], [37]).
he Trade, Hotel and Restaurant sector contributed for about 32.57%
(1996), 36.14% (1998) and 37.87% (2006), while the Services sector
contributed for about 11.98% (1996), 11.74% (1998), and 9.8% (2006)
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
51
of the Bandung GRDP. he prominence of the tourism is becoming clearer
when we look at the income generated by taxes from hotels, restaurants,
entertainments as well as regional tourism retributions. From the year of
2001 until 2007, income from those sources has been increasing 130.4%,
136.54% and 72.11 % respectively ([2], [3], [4]).
In the context of the Bandung-Jakarta relationships, it becomes
important to know more about the origin of these tourists. Where are
they coming from? Are domestic tourists coming mainly from Jakarta?
Soewondo [33] conducted a survey of 150 people who stayed overnight
on several hotels in Bandung during long and short weekends and on
weekdays. She came up with the result that around 81.3% respondents
were coming from Jakarta. Another inding comes from the Bandung
Tourism Oice. In 2007 it conducted a study called he Proiles of Bandung
Tourists 2007. he study aimed at gaining a macro picture regarding
geographical distribution, psychographic and behavioral characteristics of
Bandung tourists. he study was conducted on the 12 places of interests
all around Bandung and one of its results came up with similar indings
as Soewondo [33], the largest domestic tourist group (45.3%) came from
Jakarta. In both studies, tourists who came to
DEVELOPMENT
Edited by:
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
Foreword by:
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE DEVELOPMENT
© 2015 Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin et. al.
First Published May, 2015
Published By
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
In Cooperation With
Penerbit Samudra Biru (Member of IKAPI)
Jomblangan Gg. Ontoseno Blok B No 15 Rt 12/30
Banguntapan Bantul Yogyakarta Indonesia 55198
Telp. (0274) 9494 558
E-mail/FB: psambiru@gmail.com
ISBN: 978-602-9276-56-5
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
ii
Sociology and Welfare Development
CONTENTS
Contents ...................................................................................
iii
List of Contributors .................................................................
v
Acknowledgement ....................................................................
ix
Foreword ..................................................................................
xi
Introduction .............................................................................
xiii
Welfare Development: Meanings, Issues and
Challenges
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................
1
Poverty and Social Development
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum, Indri
Indarwati ........................................................
19
The Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen,
Forina Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ....
39
Development for Urban Poor Housing
Mohd Haizzan Yahaya, Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Hery Wibowo and Mohd Tauik
Mohammad .....................................................
69
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Sociology and Welfare Development
iii
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
iv
Baitul Mal wat Tamwil: a Sociological
and Social Welfare Movement ?
Hery Wibowo & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........
Environmental Participation among Youth:
Challenges, Issues and Motivating Factors
Lim Jen Zen & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .........
79
97
Indonesian Workers Health Condition:
A Sociological Analysis
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, Desi Yunita
and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........................... 125
he Delivery System of Education Programs
Mahathir Yahaya, Ali Maksum,
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and Azlinda Azman ... 135
Child Brides, Not Our Pride:
Looking Into Child Marriage Incidences in
Malaysia
Mitshel Lino, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and
Azlinda Azman ................................................
143
Concluding Remarks
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................. 151
Sociology and Welfare Development
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, is a PhD candidate at West
Australia University, Perth – Australia. He is a Planning Staf, Directorate
of Spatial Planning and Land Afairs, Indonesia National Development
Planning Agency (Bappenas). He is a Best Graduate Student in Regional
and Planning Department, Bandung Institute of Technology (2006)
and Utrecht Excellence Scholarships Awardee 2007-2009 on Research
Master Human Geography & Planning, Faculy of Geoscience, Utrecht
University.
Ali Maksum, is a Ph.D candidate at the Centre for Policy Research
and International Studies (CenPRIS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
His current project is about the Indonesia-Malaysia relations from
defensive realism perspective. He has written articles have been published
in such publisher as Kajian Malaysia: Journal of Malaysian Studies,
Springer (ISI), Indonesia national newspapers and conferences.
Azlinda Azman, Ph.D is an Associate Professor and Head of Social
Work Programme at the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also the Convenor of the
AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), USM. She was a Fulbright
Scholar and obtained her Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Clinical
Social Work from New York University. Her ields of expertise include
social work education and practice, theory and methods in social work
and social work research. Her areas of research interest include poverty,
Sociology and Welfare Development
v
HIV/AIDS and drug related issues.
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, a leturer at Social Welfare Departement
in Social and Political Sciences Faculty, University of Padjadjaran. She
obtained Bachelor degree, master degree and Doctoral degree from
University of Padjadjaran. Some scientiic papers had been published
at national or international level. Currently, he is focusing on waste
management problem in society who life near the Cikapundung river at
Bandung City.
Desi Yunita, oicially join the Departemen of Sociology at Social
and Political Science Faculty University of Padjadjaran since 2014. She
got Magister degree in Sociology also from University of Padjadjaran and
focusing the research on development and environmental problem.
Forina Lestari, obtained B.Sc.Eng. (ITB, 2006), MSc in Housing,
School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia
(USM, 2008). Lecturer at Indonesian Institute of Technology (ITI). She
has published a book: Alam Takambang Jadi Guru: Merajut Kearifan
Lokal dalam Penanggulangan Bencana di Sumatera. Consultant and
expertise at Directorate of Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National
Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) and Directorate General of
Spatial Planning, Ministry of Public Works (2013), Directorate General
of Regional Development Assistance, Ministry of Home Afairs and
Expert, Deputy of the Area Development, Ministry of Public Housing
(2012), Expert Staf, Commission V (Infrastructure), he Indonesian
House of Representatives (DPR, 2011). Junior Expert, Directorate of
Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National Development Planning
Agency (Bappenas, 2010).
Hery Wibowo, S.Psi, MM, PhD is a leturer at Departement of Social
Welfare Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran University.
Indri Indarwati, is PhD candidate in Social Work at Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM). Since 1999 she has been attached as a civil servant in
the Ministry of Social Afairs. Her research areas are study of social work,
gender and community development.
vi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Mitshel Lino is a Master of Social Sciences (Psychology) candidate
under the supervision of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Intan Hashimah Mohd
Hashim from the Department of Social Work, Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Her research interest surrounds the ield of Social Psychology. She was
a Graduate Assistant, serving as a Psychology tutor in the university.
She was invited to the Golden Key International Honour Society for
academic excellence and awarded Second Upper Class Honours from her
undergraduate. Her past researches included the area of Multicultural
Psychology and Child Marriage in Malaysia, collaboration project with
UNICEF.
Mohd. Haizzan Yahaya MSW is Ph.D scholars from University
Sains Malaysia. He is currently researching on Urban Poor Housing
and being supervised by. Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, PhD and associate
professor Azlinda Azman, PhD
Mohd Tauik Mohammad is a Ph.D scholar at the Social Work
Programme, School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia. His
current Ph.D studies regarding on Specialization Social Work, Forensic
Social Work/Victims’ Studies/Restorative Justice, being supervised by
associate professor Azlinda Azman, PhD.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, MA and Ph.D. from University of
Malaya. He is a leturer at Departement of Social Welfare (1982-2011)
and Departement of Sociology (2011-present), Head Departement
of Sociology in Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran
University (2014- present). Visiting Associate Professor at University
of Malaya (2008) and Visiting Associate Professor at Univerisiti Sains
Malaysia (2012- present).
Tia Devianty, S.IP., MPA, is a PhD candidates at Universitas
Padjadjaran, and a master’s degree graduate from Public Policy, Faculty
of Public Policy and Management, Flinders University, Australia. Now,
a lecturer at Ahmad Yani University, Bandung - from september 1996
– present Teaching, Researching, and Public Servicing. Current Researches
are mainly about Capacity Building For Decentralization (2008-now).
Sociology and Welfare Development
vii
Current Public Services are Facilitator, Comprehensive Maternal Village
Program in West Java, West Java Province Health Department (2006 –
2008), Facilitator for Sustainable Capacity Building for Decentralization
(SCBD) Project in Bau-bau City and Buton Regency (2008 – 2012),
District Advisory Team Capacity Building Program Minimum Service
Standard Basic Education at Sorong West Papua (2014-2016), tdevianty@
rocketmail.com.
Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, S.Ip MA is a researcher at the Department of
International and Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
He is activist in Art Movement in Malaysia.
viii
Sociology and Welfare Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah. hanks to Allah SWT, whom with His willing
giving me the opportunity to complete this book entitled Sociology and
Welfare Development. he publication of this book would not have
been possible without the guidance and knowledge wich I have acquired
from my honourable professors; Professor A.D Saefullah - University of
Padjadjaran and Professor Abd. Hadi Zakaria - University of Malaya. I
would also like to dedicate this book to my beloved wife, Tuty Tohri and
our lovely children Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, Forina Lestari, Fitaha Aini and
Tamal Arief Ihsan - their support in my life.
he publication of this book would not be possible without the
assistance and cooperation that we have received over the years from
the many individuals and organization in various parts of the world.
In particular, we wish to thank our team, all authors - Department of
Sociology Padjadjaran University and Universiti Sains Malaysia. Specially
thanks especially to Ali Maksum for his excellent assistance during the
editorial process of this book. Dr. Arry Bainus the Dean of Faculty of
Social and Political Sciences, Padjadjaran University. All of my MastersPhD students and colleagues at Padjadjaran University as well as USM
whom I would like to thanked for providing continuous support towards
my success.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Sociology and Welfare Development
ix
x
Sociology and Welfare Development
FOREWORD
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
First of all, I am honored to write this foreword and to give my
warm endorsement to this book edited by my colleague Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Ph.D. In my point of view, Indonesian harmony is urgent and
should be achieved soon. he government and all stakeholders are pushed
to react and formulate a strong policy to reach the national goals.
his book provides a comprehensive assessment regarding sociology
and welfare development discourses with a new paradigm and approaches
to build Indonesian future. his compilation chapter divided into ifteen
chapters, conclusion and also given constructive policy recommendations.
Although, all authors in this book are depart from various background
and issues, yet they produce and extent some challenges should become
serious attention especially the government. I can argue that this book is
very multidisciplinary and discussed from various angle.
Personally, as practitioner and based on my professional experiences,
I am strongly recommend this book to be read speciically by civil servant,
professional, academicians and those who engage in the social welfare
tasks. One of the important recomendation given by this book is a good
public policy totally need tough cooperation among individuals, groups,
and institutions. I am also impressed that this book which emphasized on
Sociology and Welfare Development
xi
welfare development discourses is smartly promoting the ideas of “spiritual
development” which in some extent isolated from main discussion. his
is important and also to alerting as well as to underscore that Indonesia
is a religious country.
Finally, I am pleased to congratulate to Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
PhD which successfully publish this book and demonstrated that he
is a productive scholar. As academician, lecturer and researcher he has
more than thirty years professional experiences in the ield of social and
political sciences in Indonesia as well as recognized in the broad. I hope,
the collaboration between the agency of research and development in
the Ministry of Home Afairs of the Republic Indonesia with the Centre
for Socioglobal Studies - Padjadjaran University become more efective,
fruitful and sustain in the future.
hank you and Wassalam.
Jakarta, 2014
xii
Sociology and Welfare Development
INTRODUCTION
In the Name of God, the Most Gracioeus, the Most Merciful
his book provides a thematic issues and challenges in the new era,
sociology to develop human welfare. he main objective of the Sociology
and Welfare Development is to present an integrated analysis of how
the discipline of sociology can contribute to our wider understanding
of the variety of welfare development issues, practices and institutions
approachs, policies and philosophy wich exist in our society and countries.
his explanatory chapters expected to examine and understand as well as
ofer choices for human beings in the dinamics world to build a human
welfare.
his book depart from the point of view that sociology is as applied
social science can contribute to the development of human life through
many perspectives. he various theme have been selected are discussed
from philosophy to policy models. Each chapter attempt to understand
with a core idea namely welfare development.
In the irst chapter, the main theme related to welfare development
is regarding the global presence in knowledge body. In this chapter
demonstrate that there have gap and diferences between modern and
spiritual concept of welfare development. Chapter two focus on poverty
phenomena in Indonesia as a serious problem. Some have observed
that poor family are marginalized and obtain small attention, while
many also has seen that the problems are the policy makers. It has to
recognized that some assistants and stimulus packages has given by
government to the poor family. However, it has to recognized also that
there were existed some problems regarding inefective management,
Sociology and Welfare Development
xiii
policy implementation, bureaucracy and corruption. Yet, all indicates
that Indonesian government has taken a serious strategic action in order
to struggle to eradicate poverty as well as eradication policy against
chronic of corruption. Related with poverty phenomena, in the chapter
nine, concern on historical and inherited problems such as the disabled
people, the pursuit of full employment in urban areas and overstaing
in the public sector, were important causes for urban poverty. However,
these historical problems did not result in serious poverty under the well
planned economic system. he number of poor people inherited from
the previous period was also relatively small.
In the third chapter focus on human geography and planning as part
of human life. Sociologically, this study concludes that the relationships
between two adjacent metropolitan centres are two geographical
phenomena occurred in the Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region
(JBMUR). However, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring
in the corridor area between both metropolitan centers. here are both
direct and indirect relations between these two geographical phenomena
which inally lead to the emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban
region. In the fourth chapter, that in addition, the struggle of urban poor
communities in Malaysia for housing and land rights is closely related
to the development and history of the country. After the British colonial
period, Malaysia’s priority was to develop its economy by focusing on
the manufacturing and export industry in urban areas. his resulted
when people from rural areas migrating from village to the city, in search
of opportunities and to ill the workforce demand. Most of the urban
migrants would build their own house near the manufacturing factories,
because the surrounding lands were unoccupied and unused. With hard
work and their own resources they would clean the area (wilderness) and
build houses; this would encourage the development in the area and
hence they are known as urban pioneers.
In the ifth chapter the author analyzes the social-welfare fund
called Baitul Mal wat Tamwil (BMT). he authors believe that BMT in
particular and microinance institutions in general is one of the social
welfare movement, getting stronger if you see the development of BMT
in Indonesia, as have been reported by Reuters. he growth of Islamic
microinance institutions (LKMS) in Indonesia is increasingly signiicant.
he main objective of the micro and super micro which is generally being
located in rural areas, LKMS transformed into a small people mover a
tough economy. Currently, there are about three million customers who
xiv
Sociology and Welfare Development
obtained inancial assistant from micro LKMS or BMT.
Chapter six examines the environmental destruction of young
generation to protect and conserve the natural environment. As such,
the key actors in engaging youth participation in environmental action,
be it the government, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) or
the community, should address the multi-dimensional issues that are
obstacles towards the involvement of the young and come up with
strategies to develop a more intrinsically-motivated participation.
Generally, environmental awareness among youth worldwide is at an
adequate level but it is the translation into action that is still lacking. A
review of the implementation strategies of current environmental action
programs involving youth should be done by the respective organizers
in order to create programs that are fun, hands-on and allows as well
as entrusts youth to apply their environmental knowledge and personal
skills to make key decisions for the future of then environment which
they shall inherit from the present. Hence, there is a need to move
beyond the present, traditional top-down institutionalized approach of
implementing programs towards a more dynamic and lexible approach
in which youth are viewed stakeholders, knowledge sharers and leaders,
and not mere passive participants who carry out the aims dictated by the
organizers.
concentrates on socio-cultural diferences between
hometown and destination areas of Indonesian migrant workers and the
impact towards their health condition. It involves the diferences physical
environment, social, and culture. he diferences of physical environment
involve climate change as well as socio-culture between hometown (Peteuy
Condong Village) and destination (Saudi Arabia). hese diferences
inluence towards the workers health condition related job. Social
diferences are related with social economic status between employers
and workers, that impact to the mental depression of the workers.
Culture diferences are cultures diferentiation between hometown and
destination country. Arabian cultures are introvert and over protected. It
emerge diiculties to access health services. While in the chapter eight,
discuss speciic theme about how to develop any rural community it can
be achieve through the dissemination on the importance of education to
all family members in the rural area. his method is expected to transform
the communities towards appreciating education better. he recognition
of society towards education only, is not enough to enhance the living
standards. Yet, it should be incorporated a the positive attitudes of the
Chapter seven
Sociology and Welfare Development
xv
rural community towards education as a strategy for improving life. At
the same time, the delivery system of the education programs must be
enhanced and it is all depend on the commitment of the school and
teachers of the rural schools as well.
Finally, the last chapter focus on the incidences of child marriage are
no longer pertinent only for less developed country; it actually happens
extensively in diferent parts of the world. Due to psychological and
biological immaturity, children are insuiciently mature to make an
informed decision about a life partner.
his book examines the welfare development issues in the broader
“sociology of welfare development” perspective. It is compiled from
travelers and knowledge experiences in international seminars, talks and
forum of researchers, supervisions and other discussion with my PhD and
Master students. hat experiences, together with their personal values and
interests extremely inluence to all authors in this book. Personally, I hope
that those who engage and read this book will obtain fruitful knowledge.
All errors are the author’s responsibility.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
xvi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Chapter
3
The Emergence of
Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its
Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, Forina
Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Readers Guide
his chapter explains on human geography
and planning as part of human life. his study
explores the relationships between two adjacent
metropolitan centers, Jakarta and Bandung, over
the past ten years. he merging process between
both of the metropolitan areas has been forecasted
by many studies, yet the variables that lead to
the process are still not very clear. his present
study will try to ill the gap by undertaking two
approaches. First, “measure” the relationships
between Jakarta and Bandung by looking at
the lows of people, investment and commodity.
Secondly, step a bit further by examining the
implications of the relationships between both
centers to the corridor area between them. his
present study ends up with indings that over the
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
39
past ten years there have been an intensifying relationship between Jakarta
and Bandung in the lows of people, investment and commodity. On the same
period, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring in the corridor
area between both metropolitan centers. here are both direct and indirect
relations between these two geographical phenomena which inally lead to the
emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban region.
Introduction
here are already several studies on how both Jakarta and Bandung
are connected and interacting (for example: Firman [8], Firman &
Dharmapatni [9], Hidayati & Kuncoro [13], Manaf [22]); however, none
of them have described concretely and comprehensively the consequences
of the connection between the two metropolitan areas. Hidayati & Kuncoro
[13] did well in highlighting the process of industrial agglomeration along
the corridor between Jakarta and Bandung, however, they only focused
on the labor impacts and industrial activities, whereas changes in other
activities and types of land use may also happen in the corridor (e.g.
housing). Manaf [22] identiied the implications of commuting activities
between Jakarta-Bandung in relation to the role of the toll road that
connects both metropolitan areas. However, as argued by McGee [24],
commuting is only one aspect in identifying the emergence of megaurban regions. Both studies by Firman & Dharmapatni [9] and Firman
[8], whereas the later is a continuation study of the former, try to put
the development in the “Jakarta Bandung region” [9] in the appropriate
framework, however, it rather discusses Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA)
and Bandung Metropolitan Area (BMA) as separate entities.
Considering these limitations in the available studies, this present
study will try to give a more comprehensive picture of the emergence of
the Jakarta-Bandung Mega Urban Region (JBMUR) by using data and
processes identiied by the former studies. First, the relationships between
both metropolitan centers, Jakarta and Bandung, shall be examined; in
terms of the lows of people, investments and, to some extent, commodities.
Recent developments in the region, such as the establishment of the new
toll road that connect directly Bandung and Jakarta (the Cipularang toll
road) in 2005 are also being taken into account. Secondly, the impacts of
those relationships to the socio-spatial restructuration (such as industrial
agglomeration, land use change, housing demand and population growth)
of the corridor area will also be probed. Yet to further clarify the merging
40
Sociology and Welfare Development
process of Jakarta and Bandung, the corridor areas between these two
cities become important. If a megalopolis (or mega-urban regions) refers
to continuous urbanized areas that connect metropolitan centers, and
if there is an intensiied relationship between Bandung and Jakarta, the
implications of that relationship to the corridor areas need to be explored.
For this matter, a ield trip in Purwakarta District has been conducted. he
analysis of this research applies especially to the period after the monetary
crisis, which is 1997 until present. he conceptual model below (igure 1)
will guide the steps in our study.
Interaction Between
Metropolitan Areas
Corridor Development
Jakarta
The Jakarta
Metropolitan Area
Industrial
agglomeration
Flow of
people
Flow of
commodity
The Corridor
Affect
between Jakarta and
Bandung
Land use
change
The Emergence of JBMUR
Housing
demand
Flow of
capital
Population
growth
Bandung
The Bandung
Metropolitan Area
Figure 1 The conceptual model
he conceptual model also leads to the main research questions to
be answered:
Is there any intensiied relationship between Jakarta and Bandung
that can lead to the merging process of both metropolitan areas over the
past ten years? If it is the case, in what sense the relationships can be
measured?
What are the implications of such intensiied relations between
Jakarta and Bandung for the corridor of the JBMUR? Particularly, what are
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
41
the implications for the socio-spatial restructuration of the municipalities
and districts located in the corridor area?
he JBMUR is a unique case, particularly in Southeast Asia. he
mega-urban region can be diferentiated from other metropolitan areas
such as Singapore and Kuala Lumpur in terms of population density. he
JBMUR, particularly the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA) has higher
population density compared to both of them. Compared to Bangkok
and Manila Metropolitan Areas, the JBMUR is slightly diferent in terms
of cities primacy. In both Bangkok and Manila, the capital city of the
country is the primate city of the metropolitan areas. As for the JBMUR,
Jakarta may still be the main international gate to the global network;
however, adjacent metropolitan area, the Bandung Metropolitan Area
(BMA), has also inluences in the development of the JBMUR as a whole,
as indicated by Firman & Dharmapatni [9] and Firman [8]. Furthermore,
the country is in the early period of implementing the regional autonomy
(since 2001). Fragmented administrative authorities will deinitely be a
main challenge for the development of inter-regional areas, such as the
JBMUR. his research aims to shed light on these issues by unravelling
the socio-spatial restructuration happened in the corridor area between
Jakarta and Bandung.
Secondary data collection, interviews with key informant oicials
(and other related stakeholders), and a ield trip in Purwakarta District1
have been conducted; however, due to the data and time limitation, it
should be admitted that not all of the plans outlined by the conceptual
model can be answered and be explained. here are no precise data on
the lows of commodities and capital (investments) between Jakarta
and Bandung. herefore, this present study uses several approaches to
explain the phenomena, i.e. by using interviews with key informant
oicials and the structure of Gross Regional Domestic Products (GRDP)
of both centers. Also, due to the data limitation, several igures (i.e.
housing demand) related to the corridor development cannot be properly
presented and will be accompanied by several interviews to complete the
picture. Finally, this thesis tries as much as possible to collect the data for
the last 10 years (1997-2007), however, due to the data limitation, not all
of the data could be presented in that timeframe.
To answer the research questions formulated above, this present
study will be structured as follows. he second section will discuss the
concept of “megalopolis” or “mega-urban regions”. his section will focus
42
Sociology and Welfare Development
mainly on how such regions develop in Asian countries by outlining their
diferences from Western countries. he third section will give an overview
on the study area and reveal how Bandung and Jakarta inluence each
other as well as the type of their interaction. In this section it will also
be made clear that whether there is an intensiied relationship between
these two cities or not. he ifth section will probe what the impacts
of the Bandung-Jakarta relationship are on the corridor areas between
them. A full report of the ield survey conducted in one of these areas,
Purwakarta District, will be presented. From the result of these sections,
it will be possible to test whether the “mega-urban region development”
hypotheses presented in this study are real or not. he inal section, the
conclusion, will discuss indings from other sections and answer the
research questions posted before.
heoretical Framework
It is possible for two or more adjacent metropolitan areas to become
connected with each other. Over time, the inluence of each metropolitan
area’s core center is increasing; therefore, the size of each metropolitan
area is also getting bigger. he potentials of the area or the corridor
between two metropolitan areas are thus being tapped by both of them.
One can identify this phenomenon by looking at the change of the land
use and the urbanization process alongside the corridor. In the end, both
metropolitan areas and the corridor between them are merging into one
big conurbation. his big conurbation was irst identiied by a French
geographer, Jean Gottmann, in late 1950s. He referred to an extensive
urbanized area along the northeastern seaboard of the United States as
“megalopolis”. Other scholars, like McGee [24], deined it as “Mega
Urban Regions” (MURs) areas consisting of a city core, a metropolitan
area spreading out from the city core and “extended metropolitan regions”,
where rural and urban activities intermingled in the distant area and are
inluenced by the power of functions in the city core. As argued by McGee
[24], considerable improvements in transportation and communication
have increased the accessibility of regions close to the urban cores, and in
some cases have led to corridor development between two major urban
centers, which in the end will form new MURs or megalopolises.
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
43
Major Cities
Peri Urban
Desakota
Densely Populated Rural
Sparsely Populated Frontier
Smaller Cities and Towns
Communication Routes
Figure 2 Spatial coniguration of a hypothetical Asian urban
system (adapted from McGee, [23], p.6)
For the purpose of this study, it is of importance to explain further the
nature of mega-urban regions in Asian countries. As observed by McGee
[23], in the Asian context the conventional view of the urban transition,
“which assumes that the widely accepted distinction between rural and
urban will persist as the urbanization process advances, needs to be reevaluated” (p. 4). he conventional view is drawn from the experience of
Western countries. In fact, what is happening in the Asian countries is
slightly diferent. here are no clear diferences between rural and urban
areas. In the extended metropolitan regions, people are being urbanized in
the way of life and in the way they work; however, most of the people do
not move to the city centers (urbanization without dislocation). McGee,
in referring to this hinterland area, used the terms “desakotasi”, in which
rural-urban characteristics and agricultural and non-agricultural activities
are being mixed intensely. hus, rural-urban boundaries are becoming
blurry and along the corridor between two (or more) urban cores, there
are intermingled activities carried out by the residents. his framework
of analysis is particularly important in deining the urbanized areas along
the corridor between Jakarta and Bandung. In general, McGee [23]
identiied ive main regions of spatial coniguration in Asian countries:
44
Sociology and Welfare Development
(1) the major cities; (2) the peri-urban regions, which are areas within
a daily commuting reach of the city core; (3) the “desakota” regions; (4)
densely populated rural regions, and (5) the sparsely populated frontier
regions. All of these are clearly outlined in the igure 2.
Looking underneath the emergence of mega-urban regions, Douglass
[6] pointed at two interwoven processes as the main causes. he irst one
is “globalization”, deined in economic terms as “accumulation of the
three major circuits of capital; production, commodity trade and inance;
at the global scale” (p. 2316). his leads to the international division
of labor marked by the shift of labor-intensive assembly operations to
a select number of newly industrializing economies. Globalization of
production, commerce and inance requires “a physical geography of cities,
urban networks and transport and communication linkages to efect its
expanding spatial reach” ([6], p. 2318). Hence, the second process, which
involves urban agglomeration, also plays a role. Urban agglomerations
in the MURs ofer perfect sites for the accumulation of those circuits of
capital, e.g. manufacturing sectors [31]. he MURs, thus, are becoming
“the sites of major tensions between the economics of globalization and
local politics over the quality of the city for daily living” ([6], p. 2320).
Consequently, many of the MURs are reported to dominate a large
share of their national economies. MURs, along with the international
development corridors and trans-border regions, are part of what can be
called “a trans-nationalization of territorial space through an accelerated
urban transition organized into extensive spatial networks that transcend
the nation-state in all forms of economic interaction” ([6], p. 2321).
hese forces of globalization and urban agglomeration are reinforced by
international competition of metropolitan centers in several ields (cf.
[10]).
Several physical characteristics of MURs can be identiied. MURs
can be easily identiied in two or more regions in a country that contain
15%-40% of the total population on less than 5% of the total area
of the country ([11], p.154). Gottmann also set 25 million as a basic
standard for the population size of the megalopolis/MURs. Besides
these physical characteristics, two other prominent characteristics of the
megalopolis/MURs can also be outlined. he irst one is a constant series
of transactions lowing through national and international space, in the
form of people, commodities, capital and information [24]. Rimmer
[28], in following Kobayashi and Okada (1989), argued that “a tri-level
structural arrangement is envisaged to accommodate interdependent
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
45
movements of goods, people and information on a global network” (p.
155). It consists of:
Low-speed transportation to accommodate commercial transactions
(i.e. shipping, trucks);
High-speed transportation to accommodate the movements of
individuals and the transfer of complicated information that needs a faceto-face contact (i.e. cars, airplanes, trains);
Telecommunication networks for the transmission of uncomplicated
oral and written information.
Although Rimmer [28] talked about global networks, a similar
network could also be established between two or more major metropolitan
centers in the megalopolitan areas. Intensiied relations between the
major centers of two or more metropolitan areas can be measured in
terms of people movements (commuting), commodities trading (i.e.
freight volume), capital low (i.e. bank transfers) and information lows,
for which Staple [33] proposed the use of Minutes of Telecommunication
Traic (MiTT) to measure the low’s volume. Otherwise, Rimmer [29]
also argued that the low of information can also be assumed to be
embodied in goods or people movement. For the purpose of this study,
we shall use the lows of people (approached by average daily low of
vehicles between Jakarta and Bandung), capital (approached by domestic
investment igures) and commodity (approached by GRDP structures of
both centers).
he size and composition of the lows of commodities and capital
lead to the second characteristic of MURs, which is their function as
a hinge for the national economy in the global networks ([11], [13]).
he corridor between two metropolitan areas is the best location to see
how this economic function is performed. Industrial agglomeration, land
use change and the increasing demand for residential areas will likely be
spreading along the corridor. he corridor will likely also attract either
domestic or foreign investments. In the end, the corridor, together with its
adjacent metropolitan areas, is becoming one of the biggest contributors
to the national economy as relected by their share in the Gross National
Products (GNPs) or Gross Regional Domestic Products (GRDPs).
All of these characteristics have made the megalopolis a special
area with special potentials and problems as well. Megalopolises, for
example, may act as the “incubator of new trends” [11] in the economy
46
Sociology and Welfare Development
and technology because of the composition of their population and
their dynamic character, which can also inluence other cities. On the
other hand, as also noted by Douglass [7], MURs are currently facing
the contradictory issues of environment sustainability and economic
resilience. Mutually reinforcing linkages between these two important
aspects should be established in order to maintain the sustainability of
the MURs.
Bandung and Jakarta: Bridging the Two Centers
Bandung and Jakarta are connected by toll roads as well as artery
roads; and as mentioned before in the irst section, in the year 2005 a
new toll road was constructed, shortens time travel between two centers
(from 3.5-4 hours to 2-2.5 hours). he toll road, namely Cipularang,
gives a hint that perhaps there has already been increasing lows between
two centers so that demands of a new toll road also arise. his research
then will measure the low of vehicles between Jakarta and Bandung over
the past ten years by using data collected from Jasa Marga (Indonesia
Highway Corporation). he data set provides the number of the vehicles
(cars, buses and trucks) that use the toll roads.
here are two toll roads that connect Jakarta-Bandung, which are:
Jakarta-Cikampek and Purwakarta-Bandung-Cileunyi (Purbaleunyi). he
irst one has been built since the year of 1988, connecting Jakarta to the
sub-district Cikampek (Karawang District). he second one, Purbaleunyi,
consists of two sections. he irst section, Padaleunyi toll road, is the toll
road that connects two sub-districts under the jurisdiction of Bandung
District; Padalarang and Cileunyi. he toll-road is by-passing the city of
Bandung with several interchanges. he Padaleunyi (Padalarang-Cileunyi)
toll road is built on the year of 1991. he second section, which is built
on the year 2005, is the toll road that connects Cikampek to Purwakarta
District until Padalarang (sub-district under the jurisdiction of Bandung
District), thus it is named Cipularang (Cikampek-Purwakarta-Padalarang)
toll road. he Cikampek toll road made the continuous toll-road access
from Jakarta to Bandung complete (see igure 3 overleaf ). Before 2005,
people would have to exit at Cikampek and then continue their journey
through artery roads before entering the Padaleunyi toll road.
he data set provided by Jasa Marga allows us to know the numbers of
vehicles in and out from every gate in the toll roads. he journey between
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
47
Bandung and Jakarta can be divided into two sections, as illustrated in
igure 4 (overleaf ). here are also more alternatives for the journey after
the construction of the Cipularang toll road in 2005. his present study
calculates the growth of average daily low (ADF) between toll gates that
correspond to the Bandung-Jakarta journey. he calculation is done on
the basis of three points of observation: May 1998, March 2003 and
April 2007. Based on the calculation, it is found that over the past ten
years there has been a huge increase in the ADF in every pair of toll gates
that correspond to the Bandung-Jakarta journey (see igure 52 overleaf )
over the past ten years. he growth averagely reaches more than 100%.
It is also can be seen, particularly in toll gate pairs A and B that the ADF
increase higher after 2003. Both pairs are the main gates for BandungJakarta journey. Preliminary conclusion is perhaps people preferred to
go through the main gates after the establishment of the Cipularang toll
road.
In the ADF report from Jasa Marga, the types of vehicle can be
divided into three. Type I are cars, small buses and pickups; type II are big
buses and trucks with four pairs of wheels; type III are bigger trucks (more
than four pairs of wheels). Despite the increase of ADF in all of these
three types, type I dominate the ADF with more than 80%. his indicates
that the traic low between Bandung and Jakarta is dominated by the
individual purposes or matters that do not relate to the transportation
of goods and commodities, which can only be handled by vehicles type
II and III. It is becoming important, therefore, to know the motives of
those travelers and to ensure whether they are really coming from Jakarta
to Bandung, and vice versa, or not. A study on the identiication of the
Cipularang toll road’s3 users by Umbou [35] revealed that most of the
travelers came to Bandung for the purposes of leisure and business.
48
Sociology and Welfare Development
Figure 3 Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region (Inset Map Source: htp://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:IndonesiaWestJava.png (assessed July 25, 2009))
Figure 4 (Left) Illustration of Jakarta-Bandung, and vice versa, journey
Figure 5 (Right) The growth of average daily low (ADF) at toll gates that
correspond to the Jakarta- Bandung (up) and vice versa (below) journey ([19],
[20], [21])
Travelling between Bandung and Jakarta for doing business or
working has already been one of the main purposes since the 1980s. A
study by Rosmiyati [31] revealed that during the period of 1983-1987
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
49
there is an average of 3.3 million people who made annual trips between
the two cities. hese people used airplanes, trains, private cars or buses.
From those means of transportation, the proportion of the people who
traveled for the purpose of business or working were 71.3%, 43.9%,
60% and 31.7% respectively. Business tends to correlate strongly with
investments. Indeed, at least for the last 6 years, investments in Bandung
have been growing tremendously, especially in the investment sectors that
correspond with services and tourism, which is the tertiary sector4. his
can be seen from two tables below (table 1 and 2) that explain the growth
of domestic investments1 for the last 10 years as well as of non- facility
investments for the last 6 years in Bandung.
Domestic investments in Bandung (in million Rupiahs)
Table 1
Sectors
1997
1998
2000
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Primary
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Secondary
37,829
191,706
6,489
24,213
10,553
52,693
19,202
10,500
Tertiary
108,319
32,876
21,764
20,308
1,133,200
-
7,611
-
Total
146,148
224,582
28,253
44,521
1,143,753
52,693
26,813
10,500
Source: [16], [1]
Table 2
Non-facility investments in Bandung (in million Rupiahs)
Sectors
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Primary
n.a.
n.a.
765
-
-
-
Secondary
n.a.
n.a.
114,846
193,715
488,471
316,950
Tertiary
n.a.
n.a.
1,566,282
3,225,415
3,441,860
4,857,593
Total
538,963
808,002
1,681,892
3,419,130
3,930,331
5,174,543
Source: [16], [1]
Since either the Indonesian Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM)
or the Bandung Investment Coordinating Board (BPMMPT) did not
record the origin of the investments, our study conducted interviews with
the BPMPPT’s oicials and the head of KADIN (Indonesia Chamber of
Commerce and Industry) Bandung. From these interviews it was revealed
that among six economic categories under the tertiary sector of investment,
the tourism and the oices sectors were the two top contributors for the
yearly investment in Bandung. he activities classiied under the oices
sector is including building new branch or headquarter company oices
in Bandung. he investment comes from municipalities/regencies nearby
1
50
Sociology and Welfare Development
Bandung, i.e.: Bandung District, Purwakarta and Jakarta. he tourism
sub-sector is including building hotels, shopping facilities, and attraction
places. From these investments, according to the head of KADIN
Bandung, the majority came from Jakarta with a proportion averagely
around 60-70% for the last 10 years. For these investments, he referred
to the newly-built and on-going constructions of 26 hotels in Bandung.
All of them built by investors who came from Jakarta. Especially for the
last 5 years, since Bandung is oicially designated as a tourist destination
city and after the establishment of the Cipularang toll road, investments
in services and tourism have been increasing more quickly than before.
here are several reasons why Jakarta investors dominate investments
in the tourism (and services) sub-sectors. he irst reason is because
of decreasing distance. Since Jakarta and Bandung are neighboring
metropolitan cities and Bandung is now easily accessible, it becomes
easier for the investors to see the locations and opportunities, to decide
whether to invest or not. he second reason is due to technical aspects.
Investors from Jakarta are considered easier to deal with administration
procedures such as applying for permits to the BKPM, which is located
in Jakarta. Moreover, Jakarta entrepreneurs/investors are considered to
perform better than other investors in Indonesia.
Despite for business, Bandung has also been long pictured as one of
the favorite tourism destinations. A lot of attractions, places of interest and,
especially after the year of 2000, shopping facilities have been established
in Bandung. Soewondo [33] found, by observing the traic low on the
Pasteur gate (which is considered as the main gate for tourists), that after
the establishment of the Cipularang toll road, the traic low has been
increasing from around 600,000 vehicles per month in July 2004 until
more than 750,000 vehicles per month in July 2005. In fact, the number
of either domestic or foreign tourists has been continuously increasing
for about 162.81% during the last 7 years, i.e. from 1,021,751 (2002)
to 2,685,241 (2008), with an average annual growth rate of 18.87%
[4]. he impact on the regional income of Bandung is quite evident. Two
sectors that are related to tourism have been in the top-four sectors (out
of nine) which contributed to the Bandung Gross Regional Domestic
Product (GRDP) for the period of 1996-2006. hose two sectors are
the Trade, Hotel, Restaurant sector and the Services sector ([36], [37]).
he Trade, Hotel and Restaurant sector contributed for about 32.57%
(1996), 36.14% (1998) and 37.87% (2006), while the Services sector
contributed for about 11.98% (1996), 11.74% (1998), and 9.8% (2006)
he Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region and Its Future Challenges
51
of the Bandung GRDP. he prominence of the tourism is becoming clearer
when we look at the income generated by taxes from hotels, restaurants,
entertainments as well as regional tourism retributions. From the year of
2001 until 2007, income from those sources has been increasing 130.4%,
136.54% and 72.11 % respectively ([2], [3], [4]).
In the context of the Bandung-Jakarta relationships, it becomes
important to know more about the origin of these tourists. Where are
they coming from? Are domestic tourists coming mainly from Jakarta?
Soewondo [33] conducted a survey of 150 people who stayed overnight
on several hotels in Bandung during long and short weekends and on
weekdays. She came up with the result that around 81.3% respondents
were coming from Jakarta. Another inding comes from the Bandung
Tourism Oice. In 2007 it conducted a study called he Proiles of Bandung
Tourists 2007. he study aimed at gaining a macro picture regarding
geographical distribution, psychographic and behavioral characteristics of
Bandung tourists. he study was conducted on the 12 places of interests
all around Bandung and one of its results came up with similar indings
as Soewondo [33], the largest domestic tourist group (45.3%) came from
Jakarta. In both studies, tourists who came to