Biology 4 Volume Set Macmillan Science Library Biology Vol 2 E H pdf

  b i o l o g y

  E D I T O R I A L B O A R D

  Editor in Chief

  Richard Robinson rrobinson@nasw.org

  Tucson, Arizona Advisory Editors

  Peter Bruns, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Rex Chisholm, Northwestern University Medical School Mark A. Davis, Department of Biology, Macalester College Thomas A. Frost, Trout Lake Station, University of Wisconsin Kenneth S. Saladin, Department of Biology, Georgia College and State

  University Editorial Reviewer

  Ricki Lewis, State University of New York at Albany

  Students from the following schools participated as consultants:

  Pocatello High School, Pocatello, Idaho Eric Rude, Teacher

  Swiftwater High School, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania Howard Piltz, Teacher

  Douglas Middle School, Box Elder, South Dakota Kelly Lane, Teacher

  Medford Area Middle School, Medford, Wisconsin Jeanine Staab, Teacher

  E D I T O R I A L A N D P R O D U C T I O N S T A F F Linda Hubbard, Editorial Director Diane Sawinski, Christine Slovey, Senior Editors Shawn Beall, Bernard Grunow, Michelle Harper, Kate Millson, Carol

  Nagel, Contributing Editors Kristin May, Nicole Watkins, Editorial Interns Michelle DiMercurio, Senior Art Director Rhonda Williams, Buyer Robyn V. Young, Senior Image Editor Julie Juengling, Lori Hines, Permissions Assistants Deanna Raso, Photo Researcher

  Macmillan Reference USA

  Elly Dickason, Publisher Hélène G. Potter, Editor in Chief Ray Abruzzi, Editor b i o l o g y

  V O L U M E

  2 E – H Richard Robinson, Editor in Chief

  Copyright © 2002 by Macmillan Reference USA

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the Publisher.

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  Library of Congress Catalog-in-Publication Data Biology / Richard Robinson, editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

  

ISBN 0-02-86551-6 (set: hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-86-5552-4 (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865556-7

(vol. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865554-0 (vol. 3) — ISBN 0-02-865555-9 (vol. 4)

  1. Biology. I. Robinson, Richard, 1956– QH07.2.B556 2001 570-dc21 2001040211

  For Your Reference

  The following section provides information that is applicable to a num- ber of articles in this reference work. Included are a metric measurement and conversion table, geologic timescale, diagrams of an animal cell and a plant cell, illustration of the structure of DNA nucleotides, detail of DNA nucleotides pairing up across the double helix, and a comparison of the mol- ecular structure of DNA and RNA.

  METRIC MEASUREMENT _{Temperature Conversion Hecto = 100 Deka = 10 Deci = 0.10 (1/10) Kilo = 1000 Centi = 0.01 (1/100)} Definitions _{190 200 210 ˚F ˚C 90 100 Micro = 0.000001 (1/1,000,000) Milli = 0.001 (1/1000) Nano = 0.000000001 (1/1,000,000,000) 170} 180 _{140 130 150 160 60 70 80 To convert Into} Conversions _{120 50 Acres Hectares 0.4047 Feet Meters 0.3048 Gallons Liters 3.7853 Grams Ounces 0.0353 Centimeters Inches 0.3937} Multiply by _{110 100 70 80 90 30 20 40 Grams Pounds 0.0022 Kilograms Pounds 2.2046 Meters Feet 3.2808 Liters Gallons] 0.2642 Hectares Acres 2.4710 Kilometers Miles 0.6214 Inches Centimeters 2.5400 20 30}

  60 _{40 50 10 10 10 Pounds Grams 453.59 ˚F ˚C Pounds Kilograms 0.4536 Ounces Grams 28.3495} Miles Kilometers 1.6093 _{10 20} 100˚C water boils 0˚C water freezes

  STARTED _{(millions of years ago)} GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE ERA PERIOD EPOCH

  57.8

  Middle Early Late Early Late Middle Early Late

  Late Middle Early Late Early Late Early Late

  Early Late Middle Early

  Oligocene Eocene Paleocene Late

  Holocene Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene

  97.5 144 163 187 208 230 240 245 258 286 320 360 374 387 408 421 438 458 478 505 523 540 570 4500

  66.4

  36.6

  Cambrian Tertiary

  23.7

  5.3

  1.6

  0.01

  Precambrian time: 4500–570 millions of years ago Devonian

  Neogene Paleogene Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Pennsylvanian

  Cenozoic: 66.4 millions of years ago–present time Mesozoic: 245–66.4 millions of years ago Paleozoic: 570–245 millions of years ago Quaternary

  Middle Early ^{Carboniferous} Mississippian Ordovician Silurian Permian

  _{Smooth endoplasmic reticulum} A TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL _{Stalk Golgi apparatus} Basal body Cilium _{Rootlet Peroxisome} Ribosomes _{endoplasmic Rough Mitochondrion Vacuole reticulum Chromosome} Centrioles _{Nucleus Nuclear membrane Plasma membrane Lysosome} Nucleolus

  A TYPICAL PLANT CELL _Chloroplast Endoplasmic reticulum _{Golgi apparatus Chromosome Nuclear membrane} Nucleolus _{Nucleus Ribosomes} Vacuole _{Plasma membrane Cell wall Leucoplast} Mitochondrion

  O _{O OH H} ^{– O P O O – CH} ₂ ^{NH C N 2 C C N C N N C H H} _H O _{O OH H} ^{– O P O O – CH} _{H 2} ^{O C C N C N C N N C H} _H ^{H NH 2 H O C C N C N C O H O 3 C H H O OH H – O P O O – CH 2 H H NH C N 2 C C N C} _{O O OH H} ^– _{O P O} ^{O –} _CH ^Adenine _{2 H H} ^{O H H Purine-containing nucleotides Guanine Pyrimidine-containing nucleotides Thymine Cytosine Nitrogenous base Phosphate Sugar Components of a nucleotide} STRUCTURE OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES H H ^{H H} H H _{H H}

  O H H H H CH ₂ H O ^– O P O O ^– N N N

  O H O CH ₃ O ^– O P O O

H

H

N N N N H H O H ^{3' end} H

  H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O H N H O ^– O

  P O O

H

H

O N N N H H O H H H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– H H N H O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O O CH ₃ O ^– O P

  O O

H

H

H O H H H H H ₂ C O O P O O ^– H N N H N N N H O H H H H CH ₂ H N N N O N H

H

H O H H H H H ₂ C O ^– O

  P O O ^– H N N N O N N H

H

H _{3' end}

  H H 5'

  H H N N ^{5' end Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)} Adenine (A) _{Thymine (T)}

  Guanine (G) _{Cytosine (C)} 5' end ^{3' 5 ' to 3 ' d ir ect io n 5' 5 ' to 5' 3 ' d ir ect io n 3'} _{Sugar-phosphate backbone of one DNA strand}

_{Nitrogenous bases of the}

_{two DNA strands connected}

_{by hydrogen bonds}

_{Sugar-phosphate backbone of complementary DNA strand} ^{3' 5'}

  H 3'

  

O

H H

H H HOCH ₂ OH H OH

_Deoxyribose

O H H OH H HOCH ₂ OH H OH _Ribose

  O C C N C N C O H ₃ C H H H _Thymine O C C N C N C O H H H H

  Uracil ^{DNA RNA A T C G G C T A A C G U} COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA V O L U M E 1

  P REFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii L

  70 Bioinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  96 Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  95 Botanist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  IST OF C ONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

  93 Bony Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Behavior Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  63 Biochemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  65 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  66 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  71 Biological Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Leclerc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

  74 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  76 Biology of Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  79 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Bird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  82 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  84 Blood Clotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  86 Blood Sugar Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  87 Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  97 Bryophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Buffon, Count (Georges-Louis

  Table of Contents

A Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  3 Adrenal Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  5 Aging, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  10 Agronomist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  14 Alcohol and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  17 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  20 Alternation of Generations . . . . . . . . . . . .

  22 Amino Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  24 Amniote Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  25 Amphibian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Anabolic Steroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Anatomy of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  29 Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Animalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  34 Annelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  36 Antibodies in Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Antibody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  39 Antisense Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  41 Arachnid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Body Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C

  59 Behavior, Genetic Basis of . . . . . . . . . . . .

  53 Bacterial Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Bacterial Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  48 Bacterial Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  46 Autoimmune Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  C4 and CAM Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Cambrian Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Cardiovascular Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Carson, Rachel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Cartilaginous Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Cell Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

  43 Arthropod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  58 Beer-making, Biology of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Cell Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Cell Motility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Cell Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Chemoreception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Chloroplast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Chordata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Chromosome Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chromosome, Eukaryotic . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Circulatory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Clinical Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Clone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Cnidarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Coffee, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 College Professor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Conifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Control of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . 170 Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Convergent Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Coral Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Creationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Crick, Francis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Crocodilians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Crustacean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Cyanobacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

E Echinoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D

  52 Evolution of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Ethnobotany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  40 Eubacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  41 Eudicots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  43 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  44 Evolution, Evidence for . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  55 Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  29 Epidemiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Exocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  64 Extracellular Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Extreme Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  69 Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  72

  36 Epithelium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Darwin, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 De Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore . . . . . . . 199 Dentist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Differentiation in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

  DNA Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 DNA Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Doctor, Family Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Doctor, Specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Drug Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Dubos, René . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 P HOTO AND

  5 Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

  V O L U M E 2

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  1 Ecological Research, Long-Term . . . . . . .

  3 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Ecology, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Environmental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  10 Electrophoresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 Emergency Medical Technician . . . . . . . .

  15 Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  16 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  18 Endocytosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  22 Endoplasmic Reticulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  25 Entomologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  28 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F Feeding Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  74 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Fetal Development, Human . . . . . . . . . . .

G

  21

  20 Lakes and Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  18 L Laboratory Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  17 Krebs Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  15 Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  12 K Kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  10 Ion Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Invasive Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Ingenhousz, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  V O L U M E 3

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

  93 Forensic DNA Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  81 Field Studies in Animal Behavior . . . . . . .

  85 Field Studies in Plant Ecology . . . . . . . . .

  87 Fire Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Forest, Boreal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

  97 Forest, Temperate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  99 Forest, Tropical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Forester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fungal Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

  Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Gene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Gene Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Genetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Genetic Control of Development . . . . . 131 Genetic Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Genetic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Genome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Glycolysis and Fermentation . . . . . . . . . 148 Golgi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Gray, Asa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

  Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium . . . . . . . . 164 Harvey, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Health and Safety Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Heart and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Herbal Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

  Herbivory and Plant Defenses . . . . . . . . 178 High School Biology Teacher . . . . . . . . 180 History of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 History of Biology: Biochemistry . . . . . . 182 History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell

  Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 History of Biology: Inheritance . . . . . . . 189 History of Evolutionary Thought . . . . . 192 History of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 History of Plant Physiology . . . . . . . . . . 198 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Hormones, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Horticulturist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Human Genome Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Human Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Human Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Hybridization, Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Hypothalamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 P HOTO AND

I Imaging in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H

  Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N

O

  90 Microscopist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  66 Membrane Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  70 Membrane Sructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  73 Membrane Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  76 Mendel, Gregor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  80 Meristems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  81 Metabolism, Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  84 Metabolism, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  87 Microbiologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  92 Mimicry, Camouflage, and Warning Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  65 Medical/Science Illustrator . . . . . . . . . . . .

  93 Mitochondrion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  98 Model Organisms: Cell Biology and Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

  Model Organisms: Physiology and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

  Mollusk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Monocots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Monotreme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Mycorrhizae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

  Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Nematode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Neurologic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Nitrogen Fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Nonspecific Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Nuclear Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Nucleolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Nucleotides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Nurse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nurse Practitioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nutritionist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

  Ocean Ecosystems: Hard Bottoms . . . . . 150 Ocean Ecosystems: Open Ocean . . . . . . 151 Ocean Ecosystems: Soft Bottoms . . . . . . 153 Oncogenes and Cancer Cells . . . . . . . . . 154 Organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Organelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Organic Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Origin of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Osmoregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . 168

  Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Paleontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Parasitic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Pasteur, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Pauling, Linus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Pedigrees and Modes of Inheritance . . . 186 Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . 189 Peroxisomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

  65 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  64 Medical Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  23 Landscape Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Limnologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  24 Leakey Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  28 Leeuwenhoek, Antony von . . . . . . . . . . . .

  30 Lichen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Life Cycle, Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  32 Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  34 Life, What Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  37 Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Linkage and Gene Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 McClintock, Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  42 Linnaeus, Carolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  47 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  48 Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  50 Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  50 Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Lysosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  56 Mammal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  59 Marine Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  60 Marsupial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Mating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P

  Pharmaceutical Sales Representative . . . 192 Pharmacologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Pheromone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Photoperiodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Physical Therapist and Occupational

  78 S Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  62 Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  63 Retrovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  66 Reverse Transcriptase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  68 Rhythms of Plant Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  69 Ribosome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  71 Rivers and Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  73 RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  75 RNA Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  77 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  81 Science Writer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  52 Reproductive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .

  83 Secondary Metabolites in Plants . . . . . . .

  84 Seed Germination and Dormancy . . . . . .

  86 Seedless Vascular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  88 Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  89 Senescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  91 Separation and Purification of Biomolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  93 Sex Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  94 Sex Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  96 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  98 Sexual Reproduction, Evolution of . . . . 101 Sexual Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . 106 Shoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Signaling and Signal Transduction . . . . 112 Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Slime Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

  60 Reptile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  47 Reproduction in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  Therapist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Physician Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Physiological Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Pituitary Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Plant Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Plant Pathogens and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Plant Pathologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Plasma Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Platyhelminthes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Poisonous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Poisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Pollination and Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . 227 Pollution and Bioremediation . . . . . . . . 228 Polymerase Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . 232 Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Porifera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Porter, Keith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 P HOTO AND

  F OR Y OUR R EFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

  38 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  38 Recombinant DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  36 Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  35 R Radiation Hybrid Mapping . . . . . . . . . . .

  33 Public Health Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  31 Pteridophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  30 Psychoactive Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  27 Psychiatrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  26 Psychiatric Disorders, Biology of . . . . . . .

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

  46 Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

  V O L U M E 4

P Predation and Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  6 Protein Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  5 Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  4 Prion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  1 Primate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  7 Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  13 Protein Targeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  19 Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  23 Protozoan Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

  21 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smoking and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Social Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Sociobiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Stress Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Structure Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Symbiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Synaptic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

V Vaccines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

  T Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Taxonomy, History of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Temperature Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Theoretical Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Thyroid Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Torrey, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Touch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Transfer RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Transgenic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Translocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Transplant Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Transposon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Tropisms and Nastic Movements . . . . . 175 Tuatara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Tunicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

  Vacuole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 van Helmont, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vavilov, Nikolay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vesalius, Andreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Veterinarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Viral Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Vitamins and Coenzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 von Humboldt, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . 192

T

W

  Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Water Movement in Plants . . . . . . . . . . 193 Watson, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Wildlife Biologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Wine-making, Botany of . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Wood and Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . 201

Z

  Zoology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Zoology Researcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 P HOTO AND

  I LLUSTRATION C REDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 T OPIC O UTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 C UMULATIVE

  I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 b i o l o g y

  Echinoderm

  The echinoderms (echino means “spiny;” derm means “skin”) are large, con-

  E

  spicuous, entirely marine invertebrates. Today, this group inhabits virtually every conceivable oceanic environment, from sandy beaches and coral reefs to the greatest depths of the sea. They are also common as fossils dating back 500 million years. These less-familiar fossil types are represented by a bizarre variety of animals, some of which reveal their relationship to the liv- ing echinoderms only at close inspection.

Diversity

  The species living today are generally regarded as belonging to five sub- groups: sea lilies and feather stars (Crinoidea, 650 species); starfish (Aster- oidea, 1,500 species), brittlestars and basket stars (Ophiuroidea, 1,800 species), sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea, 1,200 species); and sea urchins and sand dollars (Echinoidea, 1,200 species).

  Sea lilies have a central body, or calyx, surrounded by feathery, usually heavily branched arms. This whole arrangement sits at the end of a stem- like stalk attached to the sea bottom. The feather stars lack this stalk. Starfish (also called sea stars) have a central disk that is not marked off from the un- branched arms, of which there are usually five. Occasionally, one will en- counter starfish species with more than five arms. Brittlestars also typically have five relatively long, flexible arms, but these are well differentiated from the central disk.

  Sea cucumbers are soft-bodied and wormlike, with a cluster of tentacles around the mouth at one end. Sea urchins usually have a rigid body of joined plates upon which is mounted a dense forest of spines. The sea urchin body can be almost spherical, with long spines, or flattened to varying degrees with very short spines in types such as the sand dollars.

  Anatomy and Physiology

  In general, echinoderms are characterized by several unique features not found

  phylum taxonomic level

  in any other animal phylum. They have a limestone (calcium carbonate) skele-

  below kingdom, e.g.,

  tal meshwork called “stereom” in their tissues, especially the body wall. The

  arthropod or chordate

  porous structure of stereom makes the skeleton light yet resistant to break- age. Echinoderms possess a special kind of ligament that can be stiffened or

  Sea lily (crinoid) Starfish (asteroid) Brittlestar (ophiuroid)

  Sea cucumber (holothuroid) Sea urchin (echinoid) Echinoderms are marine

  loosened at will so that these animals can maintain a posture without expending

  invertebrates that inhabit

  energy by muscular contraction. Echinoderms have an internal set of plumb-

  every conceivable ocean

  ing tubes, the “water vascular system” that manipulate flexible external tube

  environment. They are divided into five feet. Tube feet are the “hands” and “feet” of echinoderms, and are involved subgroups: Crinoidea, in sensory, locomotory, feeding, and respiratory activities. Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Holothuroidea, and

  Males and females are separate, and fertilized eggs develop into a typi- Echinoidea. cally free-swimming larva that changes (or “metamorphoses”) from a bilat-

  erally symmetric form to an adult possessing a body structure with the five bilaterally symmetric radiating rays that makes adult echinoderms so distinctive. Even the worm- symmetric, or similar,

  like sea cucumbers and sea lilies show this five-part structure because the

  across a central line feeding tentacles and arms are usually present in multiples of five.

  Echinoderms are relatives, although distant ones, of the vertebrates. Like vertebrates, and unlike other animal phyla, echinoderms are “denteros- tomes,” meaning the mouth pore forms after the anal pore during early de- velopment. This makes them ideal subjects for studies that shed light on human development and evolution. In addition, the ecological importance of echinoderms, combined with their sensitivity to environmental degrada-

  S E E A L S O An- tion, gives them a key role to play in environmental research.

  imalia; Coral Reef; Development

  Richard Mooi Bibliography Hyman, Libbie Henrietta. The Invertebrates, Vol. 4: Echinodermata. New York, Mc- Graw-Hill, 1955.

  Lawrence John M. A Functional Biology of Echinoderms. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hop- kins, 1987. Mooi, R., and B. David. “Skeletal Homologies of Echinoderms.” Paleontological Soci- ety Papers 3: 305–335. Nichols, David. Echinoderms. London: Hutchinson, 1962.

Ecological Research, Long-Term

  Many ecological studies last just one or a few years. There are many rea- sons for this. Sometimes people are doing the study as part of their research in graduate school and they want a project they can finish in a few years. Much ecological research is funded by various federal and state agencies, and these grants are normally for only one to three years. The problem with this approach is many important ecological processes occur over longer time frames than this. For example, droughts and fires play a very important role in determining what trees can grow in certain environments, such as

  savanna open grass- savannas. If one studied a savanna for three years, and no drought or fire land with sparse trees

  occurred during this time, one would never discover the importance of fire and drought in that habitat. Some animals such as snow shoe hares and ruffed grouse experience dramatic fluctuations in the size of their popula- tions. If one conducted a study of just a few years on these species, one would never learn the fascinating fact that these populations experience reg- ular population cycles approximately ten years in length.