Titin Suwarso CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW Literatury review that consists of carefulness and accuracy for the

  translation researches which have ever been done to provide empirical evidence about the problems of translation theories and translation concepts to get satisfied result in this research.

A. Analysis of Thematization

  Analysis of theme or structure Theme has been started since 19th century by Weil (1818-1909) as a specialist linguistics, he was examining that the starting point of an utterance is followed by a sequence statement of messages that follow the clause in the discourse. The famous pioneer in the analysis theme is Vilem Mathesius (1882-1945), he discussed about structural analysis on the topic and focus that means same with Theme and Rheme.

  

Theme is the topics discussed and Rheme is the focus of an explanation of

Theme (Sinar, 2009).

  Brown and Yule (1983:133-134) clarify about the thematization in the linearity of text organization. They said that "Thematization and Staging" is as follows :

  ". .. thematization as a discoursal rather than simply a sentential process. What the speaker or writer puts first will influence the interpretation of everything that follows" .

  7 Based on the quotation above,

  „thematization‟ as a discourse is more

  than just the sentence process. What a speaker and author put early will have affected on the subsequent interpretation. While

  „Staging‟ is a more general

  and more inclusive term than thematization (which refers only to the linear organization of texts).

  In this research, thematization which examined is Theme using the theory of “Systemic Functional Linguistics” by Halliday (1994:38) who defines the theme as follows :

  “The Theme is one element in a particular structural configuration which, taken as a whole, organized the clause as a message: this is the configuration of Theme + Rheme. A message consists of a theme combined with a Rheme. Within That configuration, the theme is the starting-point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause is taking off ".

  Thematization analysis arises from the understanding that language has functions to convey the message systematically. This term explains that language has rules in order to convey message organization accurately. Language function is called textual function, when it applies in the English language and Indonesian translation, Themes expressed by the first element of the clause while the element of clause after Theme is called Rheme (Saragih, 2007:8).

Table 2.1 : Theme and Rheme position in the text

  Theme: Point of departure of clause as a message; local context of clause as a piece of text.

• – where the presentation moves after the point of departure, what is presented in the local context set up by theme Position following initial position

  Initial position in the clause Rheme: Non-Theme

B. Review of Related Researches

  Overview of the translation research ever done before is the basis for researcher to guide and assist in reviewing this research. There are some research results that can be collected to be used as theoretical.

  1. Approach of linguistics in the translation research has also been done by Yadnya and Resen (1986). The topic in the research about the case of translation is that the formal shift on the phrase noun in the Inglish language-Indonesian translation. Range of issues identified in this research is limited, how much the form of translation phrases object happens parallels in English language into Indonesian translation and how much happens the formal shift or change form in tangible of units shift, structures, and the class structure filler element in the translation. The findings and analysis of the data in the formal shift presented indicate the shift in the occurrence of units, structures, and classes.

  2. Suparno (1991) focused on determining the Theme-Rheme on the spoken language. Theory used based on the theory of grammar Simon C. Dick, which asserts that distribution of the constituent sentences or clauses on the Theme, Predication, and Tail. Because predication and the tail has similarities with the Rheme, then it is used the term Rheme than the predication and tail. This study focuses on three things that is characteristic intonation, structural features Theme-Rheme and categorization Theme.

  3. Zaoubi and Hasnawi (2001) examine the shift on translation in two different languages. They distinguish two types of shifts that are micro shift and macro shift. Micro shifts may manifest a vertical shift upward if the source language unit is substituted with a higher unit (rank is higher) or downward if the source language unit is substituted with a lower unit (rank is lower), while the horizontal shift is if the equivalent in source language (rank position) is equal to the target language. Macro shift involving all the variables texture, cultural, rhetorical and style that allows a shift in level than the level of syntax.

  4. Lubis (2009) examined the case of ethnographic translation by performing a study case of translation in the text of mangupa from Mandailing language into English language. Lubis identifies differences linguistics in the language source and target languages, identify problems linguistics that arises in the translation source language to target language, cultural differences that exist in the source language and target language, what cultural issues that arise in the translation of the source language to target language and the impact of translation techniques are used for the quality of translation in terms of accuracy, readability and acceptability.

  Another interesting issue is how the form and the tendency of patterns of parable meaning the cultural contexts and the shift it.

  5. Budiman (2009) declares the shift of themetic structure in Obama‟s inaugural address Inglish language-Indonesian translation. He distinguish three types of Theme are Topical Theme, Textual Theme and Interpersonal Theme, he also reveal the shift on the both language have shift of Theme, that are the shift of category Theme and the shift of constituent Theme.

C. Theoritical Framework

1. Theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

  Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centered

  on the notion of language function, which considers language as a social semiotic system. SFL is consider that language study cannot be separated from text and context to explain how language is used.

  Theory "Systemic Functional Linguistics" has been developed by Halliday at the University of Sydney, this theory designed and developed based on the relationship of language and context. Language is built upon the elements of meaning are linked or organized by its structure (lexicogrammar) that ultimately realized in the sounds (phonology) or written (graphology).

  Halliday (1991:8) considers that there is a close relationship between language and context.

  According to Saragih (2007:2) language is a human phenomenon, known as 'interorganism', which differs from formal linguistics opinion, Chomsky argued that language as 'phenomenon intraorganism' or things occured within man. Specifically

  “Systemic Functional Linguistics” observes that the structure of the text is determined by elements that exist outside the text, it is the social context. The relationship between text and social context is the construal relationship which determines each other; the social context determines the text and text determine the social context. Social context that affects the language in the theory of "Systemic Functional Linguistics" consists of the context of situation (register) and culture in which the ideological aspects are also listed.

a. Language Metafunctions

  It has been mention previouly, SFL postulates that language is metafunctional, this means enabling us to do many different things with language, that language itself performs three overarching function to instruct our brain to do speak they are as follows :

  1) Ideational function: this metafunction is to do with what

  language (semiosis) is about, what it represents, how it constructs reality (comprises tools for talking about how the language text represents the word).

  2) Interpersonal function: this metafunction is to do with how

  language (semiosis) enacts social reality, wiyh how it positions people in relation to each other, with how language is used to engage in action or to act.

  3) Textual function: this metafunction is to do with how language

  (semiosis) is structured as semiotic construct, with what comes first and what last (in time), what left and what right (in space) and so on. Table 2. 2 : realization of metafunction in the text

  The gave my aunt this yesterday duke teapot

  Actor Process Recipient Goal Circumstance

  Ideational Interpersonal S F P Complement Adjunct Textual Theme Rheme b.

   Textual Function

  Textual function related to closely with the contents of a text as a whole. The same words but different types of text can lead to different meanings. In linguistics, morphology is the science that examines how the morpheme to form a specific meaning.

  As one of the metafunction meanings, textual function is created from the combination between the functions of ideational function and interpersonal functions. Textual meaning is a meaning as a result of realization of the elements of the media leksikogramatika realization of a text, written or oral which coherent and appropriate to the particular circumstances at the time the language used to structure be periodic (Martin, 1992: 10). The text is a unit of the lingual which is written or oral media with organizational procedures to reveal the meaning on the contexts (Wiratno, 2009: 77), it is can be underlined that in the text there are a number of characteristics as follows: (1) is a unit lingual text, (2) text have a cohesive organizational procedures, (3) express the meaning of the text, (4) text created on a context, and (5) text can be written or oral media.

  Textual function also views that a discourse consists of form and meaning, then the discourse relations can be divided into two types, the relationship forms so-called cohesion and relations of meaning or semantic relationship is called coherence.

c. Theme and Rheme

  The theoretical principles underlying the study of Theme and

  

Rheme are derived mainly from the theory of Systemic-Functional

Linguistic , but these issues have been debated in linguistic research as

  early as the eighteen century (Weil, 1844). Theme and Rheme are two terms which represent the way in which information is distributed in a sentence. Halliday (1985: 38) explained that the beginning of a clause or sentence contains its Theme (Theme is the strarting poin of a

  

clause ), then Rheme appear after Theme (as development sentence).

  The function of the theme is to tell the reader or listener what part of the clause or sentence is presumed familiar or known, and the rheme tells the reader or listener what part is not presumed to be familiar. The boundary between Theme and Rheme is simple: Theme is the first element occurring in a clause; the remainder clause is Rheme. This research divided theme becomes two, they are as follows : 1) The theme usually the subjuct of a clause, when Theme and subject are conflated say the Theme is unmarked. For example :

  You are the first one who understands this picture

  S F/P C

  Theme unmarked

  2) When the Theme does not conflate with the subject of the clause say the Theme is marked.

  For example :

  At the time I was all alone in the middle of the Sahara desert

  Adj S F/P C

  Theme marked d.

   Types of Theme

  Theme can be seen from the elements that first appeared in the a clause, Theme can be divided in to two types, they are as follows : 1) Simple Theme, includes only one element clause specifically, it is means that one element of the clause functions (processes, participants, and sirkumstan) as representation of experience is occupied by the word, group, or clause (Halliday, 1994; Saragih: 2003:98). Simple theme can divided become two, they are :

  a)

Theme unmarked, when the theme component is subject.

  b) Theme marked, when the theme is subject excepting.

  2) Complex Themes, shows that the function of the Theme in a single clause is occupied by a number of elements, each element has a different function. Halliday (1994: 53) divided by three metafunction languages, that are: Topical theme, Interpersonal

  Theme and Textual Theme. a) Topical Theme, when the clause starts with an item that has a function in transitivity which describes a world of experience into six set of process types (Halliday, 1994: 106). The six set of process are :

  (1) material process, the process of doing / event. (2) mental process, is called process of feeling, usually the

  mental processes associated with the process of thinking, knowing, believing, and so on.

  (3) verbal process, is process of saying (saying, asking,

  denying, etc).

  (4) relational processes, the process of "being", something is

  an attribute or identity

  (5) behavioral processes, process containing two processes,

  usually happens in material process and mental process, example: crying, smiling, laughing, etc.

  (6) existential process, is process of expressing something

  exists or happens.

  b) Interpersonal Theme is a constituent Theme as part of component interpersonal function analysis of mood structure.

  Mood structure is composed of components is finite and some description of the components of mood.

  (1) Finite is the most important component in the mood

  structure.

  (2) Mood adjunct has three categories, that are; circumstance adjuncts is a realization of the ideational meaning; mood adjunct as a realization of the interpersonal meaning and textual adjunct as a component of textual meaning.

  c) Textual Theme include both continuity adjuncts and conjunctive adjuncts.

  (1) Continuity Adjunct is the words used in spoken language to

  indicate that an association contribution speaker with other speaker in a conversation. The words that often arise usually are 'oh, well, Ok'. 'Yes / no', and so on.

  (2) related to the conjunction cohesion.

   Conjunctive adjuncts is

  This element is the liaison between the sentences, whether in the compound sentence or complex sentence. This statement can be placed at the beginning or in the middle of sentence when used in complex sentences. This element can identified as a Textual Theme when it comes before the Topical Theme .

e. Themes Component

  Structure Theme is formed by the words that are strung on the clause,

  Themes formed because existence elements of the clause that are :

1) is the elements that contributed to or as a perpetrator, that

Subject (S), element of which the verb 'agrees' with.

  

2) is the most important component in the mode structure.

   Finite (F),

  Finite is a constituent that shows when the time / tense, polarity / polarity, modality.

  3) Predicator (P), is that part of the verb which tells us its ideational

  meaning.

  4) Complement (C), is the „direct object‟ can become subject if the clause

  is passivised.

  

5) clauses are elements that contribute to the clause as

Adjunct (Adj).

  additional information, additional or important here is not absolute in nature but it means that the element does not have a potential adjunct to the subject. Adjunct formed not as a nominal element, but is formed from elements of adverbial and prepositional, all of them component able be the Theme when one of them component are appeared as the first clause in a sentence (first massage in the sentence).

Table 2.3 : position of Subject, Finite, Predicator, Complement,

  Adjunct in the sentence Subject Finite Predicator Complement Adjunct

  You go with my car next time don‟t He will buy food tomorrow

  Theory of "Systemic Functional Linguistics", explained that the context is divided into the linguistic context and social context. Linguistic context refers to the language itself, while the social context refers to the context of a situation that includes the 'field', 'tenor' and 'mode', context situation needs to understand a type of text. Context situation is the context that has a text that reveals and represents the environment where the meaning itself is exchanged.

  Halliday and Hasan (1985) in Sinar (2008:56-59) described context situation through three characteristics, that are (1) Field of Discourse, (2)

  Tenor of Discourse , and (3) Mode of Discourse. These features are explained

  by Choliludin (2007:10-13) as follows :

  1) Field of discourse is the nature of activities: what socially recognized

  action the participants engaged in, in which the exchange of verbal meaning has a part, including physical action. Field represents the physical reality on what's happening covering when, where and how the social activity proceeds.

  2) Tenor of discourse is the interaction of roles that are involved in the

  text composition. Tenor refers to the role handled by the participants in a text, focuses on the semiotic relationship.

  3) Mode of discourse is the particular functions assigned to the language

  in the situation, and the rhetorical channel that is, therefore, allotted to it. Mode refers to the role or symbolism played by language in realizing social action.

2. Translation Analysis

  Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. According to Catford (1965:73) translation is “the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent

  textual material in another language (TL)” Catford confirms the concept of a shift can be seen from two different perspectives on the translation: (1) translation as a product, (2) the translation as a process.

  In the process of transferring or translating from source language to target language there is a stage-by-step as proposed by Nida and Taber (1969:33) that there are three stages: the first stage is the analysis of the source language text, the second stage is transfer the source language text into target language and the third stage is the devise or revise the (restructuring) what has been diverted from the source language into the target language.

a. Translation Shift

  As a product, the concept of a formal shift is identical with the concept that refers to a shift of events or cases where comparable by selection from the target language in the translation process does not show the alignment of the text (units, structures, or classes) in the source language. As a process, understanding the formal shift parallel with the terms of transposition proposed by Newmark (1988) is a method or procedure translation by changing the form of grammatical translation of the source language into the target language.

  Catford (1965: 82) declared the shift in the translational as follows :

  a) Level shift that appears on the surface in the form of item source language on the linguistics level certain has an equivalent in the different levels. For example, the level of grammar harmonized to lexis.

  b) Category shift that is a generic term that refers to the shift which includes four categories as follows :

   (1) structure-shifts, the shift of grammatical structures, relating to changes in the structure of the source and target languages.

  (2) class-shifts, the shift in class when the word in the source

  language paired with the target languages have different grammatical classes.

  (3) unit-shifts, the shift unit relating to changes in the 'rank' instance of the word translated into phrases.

  (4) intra-system-shifts, intra-system shifts that occur when the

  formal source language and the target language has a condition that appearances equal but have different constituencies. For example: single forms in the source language become plural form in the target language.

b. Translation Category

  Halliday (1956) explained that the ideal translation may be thought of as

  “contextual one” it is that in which the form in the

  language 2 operates with identical effect in the identical context of situation as the form in language 1. Jacobson (1971: 261) in his article

  

“On Linguistic Aspect of Ttranslation” Translation term has several

  meanings which the first is the subject of a study, the second is the product in the form of a translated text, and the third is to produce a translation activity. He assert translation can divided become three categories as follows : a) Intralingual translation, (translation in the same language), which translate the source text into the target text in the same language.

  Translation is often called a paraphrase or uses other words to express the same message. The translation which involves only one language in the process it.

  b) Interlingual translation, (translation between languages), which translate the source text into the target text in different languages (English language into Indonesian language), this translation can divided become several kinds are :

  1) Word by word translation, it is used if the sentence is very

  simple or elementary, translation based on the order of

  this

  words in the original language and useful if people want to know the form of wording in the original language, line by line without learning the purpose of source language. Generally this type of translation is very difficult to understand meaning, because the vocabulary comes from Sl but the wording and the sentence following the Tl.

  2) Literal translation, is the traditional translation which transfers

  manuscript in Tl without regard to the specificity of Sl and more emphasis on the Tl, so the meaning is often felt awkward in the Sl. This translation carries on equivalent between Tl and Sl in the level of lexical and syntax, and the emphasis is still on the structure of the word.

  

3) is often called adaptation (translation adapted)

Free translation,

  concerned with the message but is expressed in their own words. There are two types of adaptation: 1) because they have adapted to the media, such as music, poetry, drama, film, and video (to match the approach stage) and 2) because the view translator about what he thinks is most important for the reader.

  Included in this second type is the translation of literary works, which emphasize emotive connotations and stylistic; pragmatic translations, which prioritizes analyzing the accuracy of the facts; and paraphrase that emphasizes understanding of the mandate in the living language and is easy to understand.

  4) is a diversion lanaguage that maintain Dynamic translation,

  meaning contained in the Sl, as well as attention to the specificity of Tl. So, this translation is very serious in seeking a fair equivalent, and as close as perhaps in the Tl that can reveal the meaning and information in the Tl.

  c) Intersemiotic translation, (translation of the symbol system / non- verbal) that translates a symbol / sign / image / translation written language from into another media that is used to convey a message, with words or verbally (music, advertisement).

c. Translation Equivalence

  Translations as a result of the process of translating have the targets to be achieved, the target is commonly known by the term equivalence. Whereas the meaning of equivalence is an equivalent that shows how close the meaning in target language with the meaning delivered by the source language. Here is the equivalence expressed by some experts (Wikipedia, accessed February 2010) include :

  1) Equivalence in word level is an approach that seeks to obtain the

  equivalence of the meaning of words through the study of words in the text.

  2) Formal equivalence is the translation of the source language to

  target language with a focus on the message as close as possible to the source language.

  3) Dynamic equivalence is the translation of the source language to

  target language by focusing on similarities of the source text message with the message received from the target text. This translation consider to the flexibility of the language and the function / message of the form of text grammar.

  4) Pragmatic equivalence is an approach that seeks to obtain the

  equivalence through the study of how texts are used in communication situations involving writers, readers, and cultural context. Zellermeyer (1987) explains that the shift in the translation as

  'metamessages' , the shift in the translation occurs for a variety of aspects,

  depending on the context. In this case, the shift can occured because existences of the addition, substitution, disappearances (deletion), and rearrangement (reordering), as follows :

  1) Addition is the combination (incorporation) of the few words to get good result.

  2)

Substitution is replacement the language elements by other

  elements of a larger unit to get distinguishing elements.

  3)

Disappearances are the process blotting out of the few word to get

  correspondence meaning.

  4)

Rearrangement is the process of restoring the objects in the

  standard sequence (corresponding provision) or a rearrangement of a set of objects in a different order than the original sequence.