Inductive Inquiry Deductive Narrative

12 studies into the relationship between teaching, learning, and testing. This is highly related to this study.

b. The Definition and Scope of Washback

Washback is a term commonly used in language testing, yet it is seldom found in dictionaries. However, the term backwash can be found in certain dictionaries. New Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language defines it as “the unwelcome repercussions of some social action”. Meanwhile, the Collin’s Cobuild Dictionary of English Language defines it as the “unpleasant after- effects of an event or situation”. Washback, commonly used in the field of applied linguistics, refers to the impact of a test on teaching Alderson Wall, 1993. It refers to the extent to which a test influences language teachers and learners to do things they will not necessarily otherwise do because of the test Alderson Wall, 1993. Messick 1996 notices that washback, a concept prominent in applied linguistics, refers to the extent to which the introduction and the use of a test influences language teachers and learners to do thing they will not otherwise do that promote or inhabit language learning. He continues to comment that some proponents have even maintained that a test’s validity should be appraised by the degree to which if it manifests positive or negative washback, a notion to akin to the proposal of “system validity” Frederiksen Collins, 1989 in the education measurement literature. Shohamy 1992 notes that this phenomenon is the result of the strong authority of external testing and the major impact it has on the lives of test takers. 13 Biggs 1995 uses the term backwash to refer to the fact that testing drives not only the curriculum, but also teaching methods and students’ approaches to learning Crooks, 1988; Frederiksen, 1984; Frederiksen Collins, 1989. However, after reviewing the definitions of the term backwash from the Collin’s Cobuild Dictionary of English Language , Spolsky 1994 comments that backwash is better applied only to accidental side effects of examinations, and not to those effects intended when the first purpose of the examination is control of curriculum. According to Alderson and Wall 1993, the notion that testing influences teaching is referred to as backwash in general educational circles, but it has come to be known as washback among British applied linguistics, though they see no reason, semantic or pragmatic, for preferring either term. Pearson 1988 notices that public examinations influence the attitude, behaviours, and motivation of teachers, learners and parents, and because examinations often come at the end of a course, this influence is seen working in a backward direction, hence the term washback. He further emphasizes that the direction in which washback actually works must be forwards in time. Alderson and Wall 1993 also emphasize the fact that evidence of washback is typically demonstrated in behavioral and attitudinal changes in teachers and learners that are associated with the introduction of tests bearing important educational consequences. Meanwhile, Spratt 2005 points out that washback effects on various aspects of classroom, which can be categorized as curriculum, teaching materials, teaching methods, feelings and attitudes, and learning. In relation to curriculum, Alderson and Wall 1993, from their Sri Lanka study, note that the 14 examination has had a demonstrable effect on the content of language learning. This effect is the narrowing down the curriculum to those areas most likely to be tested. It is similar to what Lam 1994 notes that he reports an emphasis in teaching on those parts of exam carrying the most marks. In the teaching materials, Alderson and Wall 1993 point out the rising use of past papers and commercial exam-public publications, as the exam is getting closer. Teaching methods refer to the teaching approaches and techniques. Shohamy 1996 states that teaching toward high-stakes EFL exam lead the teachers to teach through simulating the exam tasks or carrying out other activities directly aiming at the developing exam skills or strategies. Engaging with feelings and attitudes, Cheng 1998b mentions that students show mixed feelings towards the examination itself, recognizing on one hand that examination makes students work to achieve good scores but at the same time thinking that examination are not an accurate reflection of all aspect their study. The examination itself has the potential to generate an atmosphere of high anxiety and fear of test results among teachers and students Spratt, 2005. Alderson and Hamp-Lyons 1996 say that most of the teachers have negative attitude towards the examination and teaching. They also mention that teachers’ feelings of guilt and frustration will also make them to be unable to make the content interesting and ensure improved scores of their students. In relation to learning, the washback engages with the question whether washback affect learning, and if so, how? Wall 2000 says what is missing are analyses of the results which indicate whether students have learned more or better because they have studied for particular test.