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Efforts should be made to record demographic data of the animal population at risk for treatment on the farm. This normally requires collection of data on the general characteristics of the farm
e.g. all livestock on the premises, all livestock owned by the farmer but located on other properties, species, age classes e.g. piglets, sows, weaner pigs, finishing pigs and general
housing and grouping information e.g. cows and calves on pasture, broilers in confinement in one barn. Basic data can be collected from treatment records or through questionnaires.
Where possible, in order to avoid extra work for farmers and to minimize recall bias, data should be collected from existing records, which may include electronic or written farm records or
on-farm quality assurance programme records. In most cases, however, some additional input from the farmer or a farmworker is required, and this can be a major obstacle to the collection
of accurate and representative data. Considerable planning is needed to focus on collecting the most important data, using the methods that are simplest and quickest for the participants,
in order to increase the likelihood of obtaining accurate and complete information.
Questionnaires have the advantages of being relatively simple for the farmer and entailing low costs for administration. They provide data pertaining mainly to treatment prevalence e.g. the
proportion of animals administered a course of treatment during a specified time period and qualitative data on use e.g. whether or not a specific antimicrobial agent was used on the study
farm during the specified time period and the route of administration. The farmer may fill in the survey form personally, by hand or electronically. Alternatively, a member of the survey team
may conduct an interview by telephone or during a farm visit. Visits are likely to produce more complete information and allow some of the data to be validated, for instance by inspection of
facilities, drug storage cabinets and refrigerators. Questionnaires are useful for collection of point prevalence data, such as the number of animals treated the previous day, and information
on routine or general treatment practices, farm characteristics and management practices. Collection of data that vary over time, for example, therapeutic treatment of individual animals,
should be completed during an appropriate and efficient time interval such as the day of or the week before completion of the questionnaire. If farms have existing records e.g. records
required by law or for industry quality assurance programmes or farm production records that contain the desired data, they can ideally be uploaded directly. They also can be used by a
member of the survey team to complete the questionnaire, thus saving the farmer time and effort. Informal records, such as bills for medicated feed, may also be useful sources of data.
2.3.5 Stratification of sales data
National sales data can also be stratified to provide estimates of antimicrobial consumption by animal species. Beginning in 2016, drug sponsors in the United States are required by the FDA
to provide estimates of sales stratified by major food producing species cattle, swine, chickens and turkeys in addition to figures on their overall sales of antimicrobials for use in food-
producing animals
10
. Similar requirements are being proposed in Canada
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. When reporting antimicrobial consumption data at the species level, species-level data should
be reported in a standardized fashion that takes into account the number of animals treated over the reporting period or a unit similar to PCU. While at the international level, defined daily
doses for humans have been assigned to antimicrobial agents for use in standardized reporting, an equivalent measure for animals has not yet been agreed upon internationally. Some countries
have adopted the defined daily dose animals DDDA 15. Reporting may also include the duration of treatment by use of defined course dose animal DCDA.
10 http:www.federalregister.govarticles201605112016-11082antimicrobial-animal-drug-sales-and-distribution-reporting 1 1 http:w w w.ga zette.gc.ca rp-prp120162016-07-02htmlreg2-eng.php
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Which indicators to be used to report the consumption by animal species depends on the level of reporting. For reporting overall consumption for an animal species and year, the following
indicator can be used: mg active substancenumber of pigs producedyear or number of DDDA per kgnumber of pigs producedyear. For reporting data by age group, the following indicator
may be used: numbers of DDDA for one kgthe estimated live biomass in the age group the total population under surveillance
12
. Examples of indicators that may be used to report farm- level antimicrobial consumption include: percentage of farms using a specific antimicrobial;
median days of exposure through feed or water; quantity of antimicrobial used in feed by reason of use; percentage of broiler feed rations medicated with antimicrobial; and percentage of
feedlots that treated cattle as a group with an injectable antimicrobial metaphylaxis.
Recently defined daily dose for veterinary medicines DDDvet and defined course dose veterinary medicines DCDvet have been published for antimicrobials by the EMA for cattle,
pigs and broilers. DDDvet and DCDvet are not applicable for antimicrobial growth promoters although DDDvet are used for growth promoters in Canada
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. EMA’s draft vision and strategy 2016-2020 on ESVAC outlines the vision to transfer DDDvet and DCDvet system to an international
body such as the WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistic Methodology. This action will make use of the DDDvet and DCDvet system at the global level
14
.
2.4. Data management to support surveillance of antimicrobial use
Documenting the quantities of antimicrobials used often requires several approaches e.g. paper or electronic records and multiple data sources e.g. prescriptions, invoices, physician
records, hospital records, or veterinarian records. As a result, data on antimicrobial use may vary greatly in granularity individual pills, patient prescriptions, or aggregate statistics, type
antimicrobials purchased, dispensed, or administered and antimicrobial use scenario therapeutic, prophylactic, or growth promotion. There is also a wide range of potentially useful
additional information relevant to understanding the decision to use a particular antimicrobial, such as clinical diagnosis, supportive diagnostic test results, patient expectations and financial
considerations. Consequently, database design and needs for data management, analysis, and presentation can be very different from project to project.
There are two primary and complementary strategies that can be used to track antimicrobial use: quantitative and qualitative strategies. The quantitative strategy quantity of antimicrobials
used is valuable for tracking the total antimicrobial use in different populations and over time. The qualitative strategy why and how antimicrobials are used is valuable for understanding
the factors that contribute to the decision to use an antimicrobial and the appropriateness of such use. Both approaches can be applied to monitor antimicrobial use within health care
facilities, the community, and on farms. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches have been successfully used to monitor the impact of educational and regulatory interventions on the use
of antimicrobials.
12 w w w.danmap.org 13 http:ema.europa.euema index.jsp?curl=pagesregulationgeneralgeneral_content_001493.jspmid
14 http:w w w.ema.europa.eudocsen_GBdocument_librar yRegulator y_and_procedural_guideline201604 WC500204522.pdf
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