the settlements are in interior locations that are out of contact and lack educational facilities, the Muthuvan may remain in a generally monolingual situation. Based on these observations, it appears that
the succeeding generations may speak their traditional mother tongue.
4.5 Conclusion
The language use questionnaire results among Muthuvan people show that they use their mother tongue often in the important domains of home, village and religion. Mother tongue language use of Muthuvan
among the children also appears to be strong. Malayalam and Tamil appear to be mainly used for education and contact with Malayalis, Tamiliyans and people from other tribal communities.
The study of language attitudes makes it appear that Muthuvan people have an attitude that favours the maintenance of their mother tongue. Even though they appreciate the use of the LWC, they do not
look down on their language in any way. Both Tamil Muthuvan and Malayalam Muthuvan people seem to generally appreciate their own language variety.
The results from language vitality study show the likely continuation of the mother tongue. Many children are first learning to speak their mother tongue and are exposed to the LWC when they go to
school. The majority of Muthuvan subjects are against inter-marriage with other communities. This opinion could serve to insulate their community from the potential influence towards language shift. A
majority of the subjects believe that the younger generation will continue to speak their mother tongue.
In short, the language use, attitudes and vitality study has shown that the Muthuvan language is vitally used and that they have a positive attitude towards their mother tongue. As a result of this study,
it would appear that a major language shift might not occur in the near future. Observations of the language community concur with these questionnaire results.
4.6 Mannan questionnaire results and analysis
4.6.1 Language use
The results of the language use questionnaire are summarised in table 15. All 47 subjects responded to each question.
Table 15. Domains of Mannan language use
Qn Domains MT
Both LWC
2a With Parents
40 85 7 15 -
2b With their children 32 68 12 26
3 6 2c
With village friends 32 68 14 30
1 2 2d With outsiders
1 2 -
46 98 2e
Private prayer 43 92 3 6
1 2 3c
By children while playing 36 77 11 23 -
The mother tongue appears to be used by most of the Mannan people, either exclusively or in conjunction with Malayalam, in the home, village and religious domains. Although a number of people
use both their mother tongue and Malayalam in most of these domains, the majority exclusively use their own language. The questionnaire results show that most of the subjects 85 prefer to use their mother
tongue when speaking with their parents. The other subjects 7 said that they use both their mother tongue and Malayalam with their parents. Most of these seven subjects are young and educated either
primary or high school education. Two-thirds of the subjects reported that they use their mother tongue while talking with their children. A total of 12 subjects 26 reported that they use both the Mannan
language and Malayalam with their children. Most of the subjects that responded in this way are young and educated to either primary or high school levels.
In the village domain, 68 of the subjects exclusively use their mother tongue with friends, while 30 use both Mannan language and Malayalam. Again, the subjects that use both Mannan and LWC are
educated both primary and high school people. During prayer, 92 exclusively use their mother tongue. All of the subjects indicated that Mannan children speak their mother tongue, whether exclusively or in
conjunction with Malayalam, while playing with each other.
The only domain that subjects were asked about in which few said they use their mother tongue, was that of speaking with outsiders such as merchants and government officials. It is unlikely that many
outsiders know the Mannan language. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Mannan usually use Malayalam or Tamil with outsiders.
4.6.2 Language attitudes
4.6.2.1 Attitude towards mother tongue compared with LWC
Qn.5. What is your favourite language?
MT Malayalam
Both Tamil
33 72 7 15
5 11 1 2 This question attempted to find out which language the subjects generally prefer. The results show
that a majority of subjects feel a greater affinity for their mother tongue than any other language. 15 of the subjects most of whom are young and educated said that they prefer Malayalam.
Qn.7. What language do your people young people like to speak when they go out?
MT Malayalam
Both
17 36 19 41
11 23 This question was asked to learn about the attitude of young people towards their mother tongue
while they are outside their home area. The responses were almost evenly split between Malayalam and Mannan.
Just over half of the subjects have the opinion that young people are using Malayalam amongst themselves while they go out, which may indicate that some of the youth are embarrassed to have
outsiders identify them as Mannan by their speech. Qn.8. Would your old people be happy if young people spoke Malayalam or Tamil in the home?
Yes No
Neutral
23 50 10 21 13 29 The intention of this question was to find out about general attitudes that old people have about the
use of the LWC in the home. Half of the respondents said that old people would be happy if the LWC was used in the home. About 20 of the subjects stated that they do not like their young people speaking
Malayalam or Tamil in the home. Another 27 of subjects said that they neither like nor dislike the use of an LWC in the home. The study found that most people are positive or neutral in their attitudes
towards the use of the state language in the home.
Qn.13. Do you feel that the Mannan language is as good as Malayalam or Tamil?
Yes Indifferent answer Better than Malayalam
42 94 2 4
1 2 The aim of this question was to learn about the subjects’ attitude towards their speech variety in
relation to the nearby majority languages. Almost all the subjects answered that their speech variety is as good as Malayalam and Tamil. One of the subjects stated that their speech variety is better than the state
language. These results show that most of the Mannan people feel that their mother tongue is as good as the nearby LWCs.
4.6.2.2 Attitude for continuing their mother tongue Qn.6. Do young people in your community feel good about their language?
Yes No
Don’t know No direct answer
33 70 8 17 5 11
1 2 This question was intended to find out the attitude of young people towards their mother tongue.
Most of the subjects said that the young people like their language, although a few reported that the opposite is true. According to these responses, it would be safe to say that the young people are not
degrading their mother tongue.
Qn.9. What language should a Mannan woman use with her young child?
MT Malayalam
Both
42 91 2 4
2 4 This question was asked to know more about common attitudes regarding passing the mother tongue
on to the younger generation. Almost every subject expressed that a Mannan woman should use her mother tongue with her young children.
Qn.10. Would you be happy if your child spoke only Malayalam or Tamil?
Yes No
Other responses
23 54 17 40 3 6
This question was asked of 43 subjects to learn about their attitudes towards the shift of their speech variety towards Malayalam or Tamil. More than half of the subjects are happy in their children using the
state language and nearly half of them dislike their children using only the state language in the home. 4.6.2.3
Attitude towards their mother tongue Qn.12a. In which settlement is the Mannan language spoken most purely?
Local area Another area All are same Nowhere Don’t know
18 40 5 11
11 24 8 18
3 7 The object of asking this question was to find out which Mannan speech variety is best accepted. By
asking this, it is possible to assess the attitudes that subjects have towards their local variety and other varieties of Mannan. Out of 45 subjects, 18 40 replied that pure Mannan language is spoken in their
settlement or somewhere within their own area where they travel frequently. Eleven subjects answered that all people speak the Mannan language in the same way. Five subjects 11 suggested village names
from other areas that represent pure Mannan speech. Among them, four subjects from Kovilmala suggested that their language is spoken most purely in Kumily. One person from Kumily thought that
Adimali has the purest speech variety of Mannan.
Qn.12b. Why do you say that it is pure? Those who suggested Kumily as the place where the purest Mannan language is spoken stated that this is
because the people in Kumily are always speaking their language. The one that recommended Adimali suggested that the speech variety in Adimali is pure but did not explain what made it pure. Most of the
subjects who said that the speech of their local area is purest said things such as ‘good tone,’ ‘simple,’ ‘no mixing’ and strong language use.
Qn.12c. In which settlement is the next purest Mannan language spoken?
Local area Another area All are same Tamil
5 32 5 32
5 32 1 4
This question was asked to only the 16 subjects out of the 18 that had been partial towards his or her own speech variety in answering question 12a. Five people suggested their local area; five suggested
places outside their area and another five stated that all places speak their language in the same way. Among the five subjects that mentioned other areas, two from Kumily referred to the people of Kovilmala,
whereas the villages of Kodakallu, Adimali and Variyam were mentioned by one subject each as the place where the second purest variety of Mannan is spoken.
4.6.3 Language vitality
Qn.3a. What language do your children speak first?
MT Other languages
47 100 -
This question was meant to assess whether or not language shift has already begun. All of the subjects reported that their children learn to speak their mother tongue first.
Qn.3b. How old are your children when they start to speak Malayalam or Tamil?
Below 6 years old 6 to 9 years old or
after going to school 10 years old or above Depends
25 53 17 36
4 9 1 2
About half of the subjects said that their children start speaking Malayalam while they are below six years of age. This indicates that some Mannan children have the opportunity to learn Malayalam in their
home or village. Another 17 subjects said that their children are able to speak Malayalam after they start going to school, which is usually between six and ten years of age. Only a few subjects reported that their
children do not start speaking the LWC until after they are ten years old. The results show that most Mannan children learn to speak some degree of the state language Malayalam while they are under ten
years of age.
Qn.3d. What language do educated children that have lived in hostels use with their parents and other villagers?
MT Malayalam
Both First Malayalam then MT Other responses
16 35 4 9
23 50 2 4
1 2 This question was meant to find out whether living in hostels greatly influences the language use of
Mannan children. Half of the subjects stated that the hostel system enables Mannan children to use both Mannan and Malayalam in their home and village, but many other subjects 35 reported that their
children only speak their mother tongue when they come back to their home and village. A few people said that their children only speak Malayalam when they return to their settlement from their education.
Qn.4. Do the young people know the Mannan language as well as the old people do?
Yes No
36 78 10 22
This question focused on whether language shift may be in progress among the Mannan people. A majority of subjects 78 expressed their opinion that young people speak or know their language as
well as the old people. The other subjects felt that there is some variation in the proficiency of young and old people.
Qn.11. Would you allow your son or daughter to marry someone from outside of your community?
Yes No
Other responses
32 70 13 28 1 2
A pattern of inter-marriage with members of other ethno-linguistic communities can be a cause or sign of language shift. The responses indicate that a majority of subjects do not object to inter-community
marriage. Only 28 of the subjects resist the idea of marriage with outsiders. Qn.15. Do you think that, when your children have grown up, they will speak the Mannan language?
Yes No
Yes, some portion More Malayalam I don’t know
32 74 5 12 1 2
2 5 3 7
This question focused on the Mannan people’s perspective about the continuation of their language. Most of the subjects 74 think that their mother tongue will be spoken by the coming generation.
However, five people 12 felt that the younger generation would exclusively speak the LWC.
4.7 Observations and informal interviews
The Mannan people seem to use their mother tongue much of the time for communication with others from their group. People of all ages, levels of education, and both genders are often using their mother
tongue in the home and village. Some of the people that have had more exposure to Malayalam often through formal education sometimes use Malayalam less often with their friends and children. The
influence of the LWC is growing, mainly due to an increase in education and contact with outsiders. Now roads connect a majority of their settlements with Malayali settlements and provide more opportunity for
exposure to Malayalam. Informal interviews with people indicate that the young people seem to be uncomfortable speaking
their mother tongue outside where the LWC is spoken. The Mannan people have a generally positive attitude towards Malayalam and consider it a language of prestige, education, and advancement. Because
of this, use of the LWC makes parents pleased with their children. The people do not seem motivated to preserve their linguistic or cultural identity. Inter-community marriage is not strictly restricted, which
allows a greater possibility for eventual cultural diffusion. However, married couples are not allowed to leave their settlement. So the children of such families still grow up in an atmosphere where the Mannan
culture and language prevail. It seems that the younger generation of Mannan people tries to identify themselves with outsiders
Malayalis and are not motivated to preserve their traditions. The community leaders are aware of this trend and its potential to destroy their language and cultural values. The leaders are trying to take some
measures to prevent this pattern. They are providing instruction about the importance of preserving their mother tongue and what are believed to be harmful results of inter-marriage and changing religions.
However, the members of the community have freedom in these matters, as there is no pressure upon them.
The Mannan people generally do not see much variation in how their language is spoken in various communities. Some of the settlements have less contact with outsiders, which may result in their variety
being purest. The informal interviews with many people indicate their desire to have materials in their mother tongue. The state government of Kerala has made some language promotion and literacy efforts.
The State Literacy Mission has planned to publish a series of 15 books that will help the community become literate in the state language through their mother tongue. The first issue was published with the
title ‘Mannan Bhasha Padavali’ April, 2001, and has been circulated to some extent. It was reported that ‘Akhila Kerala Mannan Samudaya Sangam’ has published the traditional songs of Mannan. The script used
in these above materials is Malayalam.
4.8 Conclusion
