Fricatives Approximants and Pulmonic and glottalic consonants

Table 2.11. Distribution of [ N ] and m, n [ N ] preceding a velar stop m and n in other environments goNgo fighting game ko˘Ngo˘ squash koNkoRi• rooster kuNku blunt loNkHa fighting stick b›mb¤R¤˘ spirit ganda to be thin hente to limp kento callous skin ts‡˘ntHe immature, unripe, young The sound [ N] does not occur word-initially, but only word-medially before velar oral stops. Since neither [ n] nor [m] is found in this environment, [N] can be analyzed as an allophone of one of these sounds, which occurs word-medially before velar oral stops. It is proposed here somewhat arbitrarily that n be considered the underlying phoneme in these cases. The issue of the difference between an oral vowel followed by [ N] plus a velar stop and a nasal vowel followed by a velar stop will be discussed below in section 5.3.

2.1.4 Fricatives

There are five fricative phonemes in Sandawe: labio-dental f, alveolar s, lateral ¬, velar x 10 , and glottal h. There are no voiced fricatives. The distribution of the voiceless fricatives is shown in tables 2.12 and 2.13. Table 2.12. Examples of s, ¬, x s Voiceless alveolar fricative ¬ Voiceless lateral fricative x Voiceless velar fricative Word-initial: sana beeswax saéa weaverbird sexema snake type sosobe to harvest suka to sieve milk ¬a˘ goat ¬a¬a grave ¬a¬a˘ twigs on roof ¬e later ¬¤ba to plaster xa¬e to tease xara¬o rake xe to carry xume partition wall xu˘nu˘ spine Word-medial syll.-initial: ¤sol arrow type kWesega to think s w esemo wall sticks go˘sa˘ bee type óa˘so moon a¬e˘ candelabrum tree huba¬e to be hazy ma¬e to sort, choose u˘¬¤˘ salt x w a¬a to brew beer ¬oxoma broth type xoxoè˘ millipede maxe to be crafty tse˘xa˘ dew é‚Û˘xo to spread out Word-medial syll.-final: kaska˘si• temple anat. mustHe˘ pestle tHasno˘ liver goxpe˘ arrow shaft 10 As noted by Kagaya 1993:vi, the velar fricative can be accompanied by uvular trilling. Table 2.13. Examples of f, h f Voiceless labio-dental fricative h Voiceless glottal fricative Word-initial: faRe to lie say untruth fogoè˘ to be clear fuRume to castrate haba to give birth for animals hapu you hawe to get water hoío to fill with liquid humbu cow, cattle Word-medial syll.-initial: afa tree type afuRe ox lahani• promise, pawned item mehembe single person All the fricatives occur word-initially and word-medially in syllable-initial position. Only the fricatives s, x, as shown in the first of the two tables, occur word-medially in syllable-final position. It seems likely that these syllable-final fricatives were once followed by vowel, which has since been elided see section 5.3 on word-medial consonant clusters. h occurs word- medially in only two monomorphemic words in the data set. f occurs in only the five items shown in table 2.13.

2.1.5 Approximants and

R There are three voiced approximants in Sandawe: lateral l, palatal j, and labio-velar w. The distribution of these sounds is tabulated in table 2.14, together with R: Table 2.14. Examples of R, l, j, w R Voiced alveolar tap l Voiced lateral approximant j Voiced palatal approximant w Voiced labio-velar approximant Word- initial: R¤k¤sa thick milk R¤ngo˘ to go around R¤t¤mo arrow head Ro˘go knife RoÈ˘ voice laba much later lama fruit type la˘e hare leleNgi• to shake intrans. le˘ba tree type jaja cousin jabe to work jame to get used to wade friend f. to f. wakHa˘ firewood waRaNge˘ God wa˘Ra tree type weRe to walk Word- medial syll. - initial: aRa˘ truth deRu8 chin dRa˘ spring hare n óeRa˘ to leak óoRoRoÙ˘ frog balo˘ to herd galama rope male something éumala˘ ant óalo swallow bojo seed jaja cousin ka˘ja tree type mujo fruit type sajo to speak gawa hill nowe to grind towe to dip food tsewe to twist óawe to fall over sg.subj. Word- medial syll.-final: gwaRtHa goat m. maRkHa equal tuRte to visit tsoboRsa gizzard xu˘Rt¬o˘ arrow type The three approximants occur only word-initially and word-medially in syllable-initial position. The tap R is also found in syllable-final position word-medially. As with the syllable-final fricatives recorded in the previous section, it can be assumed that syllable-final R was once followed by a vowel. The palatal j is quite rare. There are only three words in the data set in which it occurs word- initially and only eight in which it is found in a word-medial position. The distribution of the labio- velar [ w] as a consonant modification will be considered in section 5.1.

2.2 Velaric consonants clicks