LITERATURE REVIEW Teacher`s belief about English language exposure.

9

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, there are two sub-chapters that consist of theoretical review and theoretical framework . The theoretical review will contain discussion and portrayal about all the theories and the literature used for the research . Meanwhile, the theoretical framework as the second sub-chapter connects the theoretical review with the assumptions, therefore determines the type of data and how to analyze them . A . Theoretical review In theoretical review, the theories related to the topic of this research are presented and given in detail . It also covers the key constructs which is relevant to answer the research question . Those theories are the theory of teachers’ belief, theory of English as a foreign language, and the theories of language exposure . 1 . Teachers’ belief a . Definition As a previous trend, research on education were done covering aspects such as techniques and methods of teaching . Then, like teaching techniques and method, the focus also changes over time following the era . The trend then shifted 10 into more various grounds including not only about what people do in education but also about what people think about education . Since the mid-1980s, research on teaching and teacher education has shifted dramatically from a focus on behaviors to an interest in cognition Richardson, 1996 . One topic about this concentration is about teachers’ belief . Before discussing about teachers’ belief, one must understand the meaning of the word ‘belief’ itself as the key concept . There are indeed many definitions about beliefs . Dewey 1933, as one amongst the first to realize the importance of beliefs in education, described belief as the third meaning of thought, ‘something beyond itself by which its value is tested; it makes an assertion about some matter of fact or some principle of law’ p . 6 . For him, belief is crucial since “it covers all the matters of which we have no sure knowledge and yet which we are sufficiently confident of to act upon and also the matter that we now accept as certainly true, as knowledge, but which nevertheless may be questioned in the future” p . 6 . Derived from that, Pajares 1992 describes belief as an “individual’s judgment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can only be inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings say, intend, and do” p . 316 . Bernat 2005, for instance, has summed up the definitions about beliefs from many researchers since the post-world war era . Some of those definitions suitable for the theoretical background of this research is insights, culture of learning, learner assumptions, self-constructed representational systems, 11 conceptions of learning, and very strong filters of reality . Even though not too detailed, these definitions however can become a really good base of understanding to initially recognize what teachers’ belief is, later on, what it deals with, and what it is related to . Pajares 1992, quoting Bandura 1986, Dewey 1933, Nisbett Ross 1980, and Rokeach 1968, signifies beliefs as the best indicators of the decisions individuals make throughout their lives . Moreover, although he sees belief as a messy concept, he states that beliefs and belief systems serve as personal guides in helping individuals to define and understand the world and themselves . M. Borg 2001: 186 states that “there is as yet no consensus on meaning and the concept has acquired rather fuzzy usage” about belief . However, she later on sums up that “belief is a preposition that may be consciously or unconsciously held, is evaluative in that it is accepted as true by the individual, and is therefore imbued with emotive commitment” . Going into the details, when we are talking about teachers’ belief, we should see the understanding about it given by Nespor 1987 which has been used as a foundation theory in every research related to the teachers’ belief . Without direct definition about teachers’ belief, he delivers the comprehension about belief with the accepted idea that teachers’ way of thinking and understanding are vital components of their practice . From this point of view, it is noticeable that teachers’ belief, in the realm of ideas is what the teachers think and what teachers know regarding to their profession which affect them in their performance . He also mentions that teachers’ belief is a significant influence that 12 affects them in conceptualizing tasks . In the other way, their experience also becomes a factor that shape teachers’ belief Nespor, 1987: 317 . In another source, Kagan 1992 gives her own classification about teachers’ belief . She believes that teachers’ belief is “a particularly provocative form of personal knowledge that is defined as a pre- or in-service teachers’ implicit assumptions about students, learning classrooms, and the subject matter to be taught” 1992: 66 . In the matter of fact, she realizes that this definition is actually misleading somehow knowing that the studies about teachers’ belief are mostly focused on specific academic context such as beliefs about teaching math, science, history, or else . However, she agrees with Feimar-Nemsen and Floden 1984 that pull a red line on the research taking teachers’ belief as their attention that the goals on studying teachers’ belief is to get inside the teachers’ heads to describe their subjective knowledge and belief . Quoting Calderhead 1996, teacher beliefs, as well as teacher knowledge and teacher thinking, comprise the broader concept of teacher cognition . Even so, teachers’ belief and teacher cognition share the same characteristics, as Kagan 1990 mention it as something that “is somewhat ambiguous, because researchers invoke the term to refer to different products, including teachers’ interactive thoughts during instruction; thoughts during lesson planning; implicit beliefs about students, classrooms, and learning; [and] reflections about their own teaching performance . ” p . 420 . 13 Starting from her definition about belief previously, M. Borg 2001: 187 also comes up with a conclusion about teachers’ belief which refers to teachers’ pedagogic belief or those beliefs of relevance to an individual’s teaching . Furthermore, she claims that teachers’ belief serves as a guide to thought and behavior . More recent discussion about the term teachers’ belief is brought by Borg with his developing definition over time . Belief comes together with knowledge, theories, assumptions, and attitudes to form personal pedagogical systems that play a significant role in shaping teachers’ instructional decisions 1998 . In another year, he implicitly alters his theoretical discussion about teachers’ belief with similar concept he calls teacher cognition . Language teacher cognition includes what second or foreign language teacher think, know, believe and additionally, as part of teacher cognition constructs, attitudes, identities, and emotion 2012 . Lastly, Flavell 1987 views beliefs about language learning as “a component of meta-cognitive knowledge, which include all that individuals understand about themselves as learners and thinkers, including their goals and needs” . From all of the reviews about belief above, it can be inferred that teachers’ belief is what teachers view, think, and assume to be true in their point of view which will influence them in their professional performance and, on the contrary, may be affected by their experience as well yet not all beliefs they possess can be molded into doable action since there are limitations from many perspectives, such as personal, social, administrative, or other teacher-related factors, which bounds their certain beliefs to remain abstract . 14 b . Nature Every entity always has its own distinctive nature, and so does teachers’ belief . What comes first concerning the nature of teachers’ belief is that teachers’ belief appear to be relatively stable and resistant to change Brousseau, Book, and Byers, 1988; Herman and Duffy, 1989; in Kagan, 1992 . Another assumption also comes up and states that a teacher’s belief tend to be associated with a congruent style of teaching that is often evident across different classes and grade level Evertson Weade, 1989; Martin, 1989 in Kagan, 1992 . Bryan 2003, in Irez, 2006 also concludes the nature of belief from the contribution of many researchers and theorists . Accordingly, beliefs are psychological constructs that include understandings, assumptions, images, or propositions that are felt to be true . It is the one that drives a person’s actions and support decisions and judgments . Besides, teachers’ belief has highly variable and uncertain linkages to personal, episodic, and emotional experiences of an individual and, although undeniably related to knowledge, it is different from knowledge in that beliefs do not require a condition of truth . From that latter grasp about the nature of teachers’ belief, it signifies the importance of apprehending the difference between belief and knowledge . As many researchers have found, it is not so much that knowledge differs from beliefs, but that beliefs themselves constitute a form of knowledge Murphy, 2000 . In another way, Ernest 1989, in Pajares, 1992 differentiates both terms by suggesting that knowledge is the cognitive outcome of thought and belief the 15 affective outcome, but he acknowledged that beliefs also possess a slender but significant cognitive component . Different from the others, Kagan 1992 directly points out that he argues that most of a teacher’s professional knowledge can be regarded as belief . She claims that knowledge is considered a belief that has been affirmed as true on the basis of objective proof or consensus of opinion . Murphy 2000 later makes a further distinction between beliefs and knowledge based on Nespor 1987 . Beliefs are considered ‘static’, meaning whereas knowledge can be evaluated or judged, beliefs are something in contrary since there is usually a lack of consensus about how they are to be evaluated . Not only in evaluative aspect, both terms also deal with their relationship with the truth . Beliefs are said not to require a truth condition whereas knowledge must satisfy the ‘truth condition’ Savasci-Acikalin, 2009 . Other than that, he also concludes that beliefs refer to suppositions, commitments, and ideologies and knowledge refers to factual propositions and the understandings that inform skillful action . While knowledge is based on objective fact, belief is differently based on evaluative judgment . The proper illustration of belief and knowledge is portrayed by Nespor 1987 . Teachers may have similar scientific knowledge . They are likely to teach in different ways because teachers’ beliefs are more powerful than their knowledge in influencing the way in which they teach . For this too, Mansour 2009 supports the fact with his empirical research he carried out . His finding 16 shows that “there is an interactive relationship between knowledge and beliefs . The settled or developed teachers’ beliefs act as an information organizer and priority categorizer, and in turn control the way it could be used . In the interactions between knowledge and beliefs, beliefs control the gaining of knowledge and knowledge influenced beliefs” p . 28 . It must also be understood that teachers’ belief is something resistant to change Brousseau et al . , 1988 . However, Murphy 2010: 7 mentions that changing belief is a complex, perhaps even mysterious, process . Though doable, Woods 1996 clarifies that teachers cannot simply at will change one belief by itself . Instead, the change can only be encouraged but not mandated . Pajares 1992 mentions that Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation result in belief change . “Assimilation is the process whereby new information is incorporated into existing beliefs in the ecology; accommodation takes place when new information is such that it cannot be assimilated and existing beliefs must be replaced or reorganized” p . 320 . Beside those theoretical terms, reflection, that is intentionally, actively, and deliberately examining one’s experiences and beliefs, also the one that contributes to conceptual change Di Pietro and Walker, 2005 . It must be understood that changing belief is not about abandoning beliefs but replacing them with more relevant beliefs Nespor, 1987 in Murphy, 2010 . This opinion is supported by Dwyer et al 1990 who recommend implementing change in education must include changing teachers’ practices and beliefs by 17 gradually replacing them with more relevant beliefs shaped by experiences in an altered context . Those concepts give a thorough comprehension on the way teachers’ belief changes and how it works with the other belief . c . Role What is also significant in the discussion about teachers’ belief is its role in many aspects related to it, mainly to the teaching and learning practice, method, and development . Nespor 1987 conducted teacher belief study and the result “suggests that beliefs and belief systems have two important uses for teachers - task definition and cognitive strategy selection; and facilitation of retrieval and reconstruction in memory processes-while serving the overall function of allowing teachers to deal with ill-structured domains” p . 321 . Practically, “teachers’ belief play a major role in teachers’ decision making about curriculum and instructional tasks” Nespor, 1987;Pajares, 1992 in Savasci-Acikalin, 2009 . Richardson 1996 states, attitudes and beliefs are a subset of a group of constructs that name, define, and describe the structure and content of mental states that are thought to drive a person’s actions p . 102 . To put it briefly, teachers’ belief determines what the teachers do in their professional occupation . Additionally, “teachers’ beliefs are closely linked to teachers’ strategies for coping with challenges in their daily professional life and to their general well- being, and therefore they shape students’ learning environment and influence students’ motivation and achievement” TALIS, 2009 . 18 Borg 2003, placing teachers’ belief and teachers’ cognition in a par, tells how teacher cognition plays a pivotal role in teachers’ life as explained in the scheme below . Figure 2.1 : Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice Borg, 1997 in Borg, 2003: 82 From the diagram above, it shows what teachers’ belief, which is a part of teachers’ cognition, affect and is affected by . Several features that influence teachers’ belief is firstly their experience in the classroom as a learner which form their perception of their early training in teaching . Not only shaping their belief, it also has effects their professional coursework . Professional coursework and teachers’ belief are intertwined, meaning that they work two ways by affecting 19 each other . Another aspect is the contextual factors, such as motivation, expectations, society demand, standardized tests and school, which modify not just teachers’ beliefs but practice in the classroom as well . Classroom practice itself, as professional coursework, similarly intertwines with teachers’ belief . 2 . English as a foreign language learning a . Overview Talking about English language learning, we must understand first about Kachru’s 3 circles of English . World widely, the area of the English use is divided into three areas of circle . These circles represent the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of English in diverse cultural context Kachru, 1992: 356 . The first is inner circle which refers to the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English . It covers countries using English as its primary language for daily use . The second one is the outer circle that represents the institutionalized non-native varieties in the regions that have through extended period of colonization . In the other words, it is countries that use English as second language . The third one is the expanding circle which includes regions where the performance varieties of the language are used essentially in EFL context or we can say, it includes those nations which acknowledge the importance of English as an international language . There, English does not have any special intra-national status or function Takatsuka, 2008 . 20 Figure 2.2: Three circles of English Kachru, 1992: 356 Not only representing what has been said before, this classification then somehow influences the English language learning in every region because the significance of such language also differs in each circle . In the case of English as a foreign language, Broughton et al 1980 emphasizes that foreign language “is taught in schools, often widely, but it does not play an essential role in national or social life” p . 6 . In the expanding circle countries, English, as a world language, is taught among others in schools, but there is no regional variety of English which embodies such countries’ cultural identity . Even so, learners of English as a foreign language have a choice of language variety to a larger extent than second 21 language learners . He gives the example of Japan in which both British and American varieties are equally acceptable and both are taught, foreign students of English in Mexico and the Philippines tend to learn American English, Europeans tend to learn British English, whilst in Papua New Guinea, Australasian English is the target variety . Those choices of variety are partly influenced by the availability of teachers, partly by geographical location and partly by political influence p . 7 . Still, not only the function of English that is different in each circle, it also has different use too especially for the learners . In a foreign language learning situation, counting English, “the language is not spoken in the immediate environment of the learner, although mass media may provide opportunities for practicing the receptive skills . There is little or no opportunity for the learner to use the language in natural communication situations” Ringbom, 1987: 27 . It indirectly shows the importance as well as the role of English in the countries where English counts as foreign language . b . Characteristics of EFL learners Ringbom 1987: 27 makes distinctions between second language learners and foreign language learners under the heading of time, input, teacher’s role, and skills . From there, the characteristics of foreign language learners can be summarized as follows . First, the foreign language learner can spend only a very limited time on learning . What usually happens in practice is that the time spent 22 on learning is limited to the classroom hours and the time spent in preparation for the lessons . Secondly, the foreign language learner is also exposed to a very limited quantity of highly structured, selected and sequenced input . In fact, he adds as the third one, foreign language learning mainly takes place in a classroom situation andor by study at home while there is little or hardly any learning from peers . Fourth, talking about most classrooms, the dependence on written material makes the oral skills less important since the classroom situation does not provide a genuine need for practicing spoken language in a natural communication context, even if various contrived oral uses of the language may be employed . The sequencing of skills largely depends on the aims and methods of the course . He also demonstrates that, in the case of foreign language learning, the learners’ success is somehow dependent on a number of factors, especially the general attitudes to the teacher and the classroom situation and the learners’ motivation . “Since the foreign language learners whole personality is not involved in the learning process, most social and affective factors lose at least some of their importance in a foreign language learning context . Culture shock is hardly experienced at all, until the learner goes to the foreign country” Ringbom, 1987: 29 . Getting more specific, the characteristics of Indonesian EFL learners have been a major topic in several discussions . Exley 2005 portrays how some literature defines Indonesian students has the characteristics of more passive, compliant and unreflective learner . Pikkert and Foster 1996, in Exley, 2005 23 report that in EFL in Indonesia, teachers have significant value because they are required to present a critical evaluation of ideas for students to memorize . One study by Beh 1997, in Exley, 2005 found that students in urban areas have higher levels of motivation in learning English than students in rural areas . The reasons for this cover both teachers and students side, and the difficulties students have concern with affording the required text . 3 . Theory of language exposure The development of language depends on exposure to some specific linguistic experience Curtis et . al 1974 . This kind of experience could be in various forms that later on will sharpen language skills such as what is read or heard for the receptive skills and what is spoken or written as the ones enhancing the productive skills . Although it is undoubtedly true, there is still debate about whether language learning is biologically-based or is directly related to the environment or language exposure and it has been a question for a long time Agah, 2011 . Related to this, there are different opinions rising up . Di Vesta 1974 and Chomsky 1970 propose that language is an innate ability and exposure does not make a significant difference in gaining this ability . In the other hand, Olson 1970 believed that language learning is directly related to the environment . Despite the fact that there are two opposite parties related to language exposure, learners are automatically exposed with such language whenever they conduct the learning process . The exposure is in the form of input 24 and this input can be discussed together with the role of first language which accompanies it in the practice of language learning . a . Input 1 Type of input Krashen 1985: 14 portrays the conclusion from several studies that more exposure to a second language results in increased proficiency while others show little or no relationship between exposure and proficiency . However, according to his review of those studies, such relationship exists in some school situation where exposure really entails comprehensible input . In the opposite side, there is weaker or no relationship where exposure does not entail comprehensible input . Input itself can be non-interactive in the form of texts that learners listen to or read Ellis, 2008 . In other words, input is everything given to the learners about the language in any model of knowledge and skill . It may also come in the form of active participation in conversation . Input that learners receive holds a very important role in a language learning process since “being exposed to a language can be the best input for a learner” Agah, 2011: 9 . Ellis 1985 suggests eight central conditions favorable for language acquisition and one, and the first one, is a high quantity of input directed at the learner . With input also, learners are ‘given the opportunity to make sense of what they hear or see, to notice the contexts in which the samples of the language are used, to interact with them as well as to compensate for the insufficiency’ Straková, 2012 . This is in 25 line with what Krashen 1985, as the representation of the innatist point of view, introduces as input hypothesis theory . In that theory, he proposes that language acquisition depends solely on what is called comprehensible input, which is a type of input slightly ahead of the learners’ current stage but which they can comprehend through means such as situational cues . He formulates this into i+1 the learners’ current level + a bit beyond current level of competence . The input hypothesis has several corollaries Krashen, 2003 . First is that the speaking ability is not the cause but the product of acquisition . Although speaking can indeed indirectly assist in language acquisition, the ability to speak is not the cause of language learning or acquisition . Krashen insists that speech emerges by itself as a result of building competence through comprehensible input . This comprehensible input, according to Krashen, is most likely to be gained from interacting with another speaker of the language . In this case, the other speaker of the language is the teacher . Second, grammar knowledge will be automatically gained after enough input is mastered . Krashen strongly believes that this is done and acquired by exactly every language learner similarly using Chomsky’s point of view about language acquisition device and it is a better method of developing grammatical accuracy than direct grammar teaching . 26 As for the third, the teaching order is not based on the natural order . Instead, students will acquire the language in a natural order by receiving comprehensible input . Comprehensible input itself is divided into several types . Park 2002 suggests three potential sources of comprehensible input . One is pre-modified language input . In this kind of input, any input, whether it is spoken or written, can be simplified or modified in order to provide comprehension by presenting less difficult vocabulary items and complex syntactic structures which are beyond readers’ acquired language proficiency . Adjusting the syntactic and lexical feature of the input can increase the comprehensibility of the text by, for example, providing definitions of difficult vocabulary items, paraphrasing sentences containing complex syntactic structures, or enriching semantic detail . Furthermore, elaboration can be a preferred manner because elaborated input retains the material that language learners need for developing their interlanguage and provides with natural discourse model Kim, 2003 in Bahrani, 2012 . Other than that, elaborated adjustments have the potential to supply the learners with access to the linguistic items they have not acquired yet Larsen-Freeman Long, 1991 . Urano 2002, in Bahrani, 2012 and Kong 2007, in Bahrani, 2012 also claim that lexical elaboration is more favorable than lexical simplification for the sake of sentence comprehension in reading and incidental vocabulary acquisition . However, Ellis 1995, in Bahrani, 2012 confirms that even though elaborations 27 might help language acquisition, over-elaborated language input could be in fact counter-productive . Two is interactionally modified input . It is represented by the changes to the target structures or lexicons to accommodate potential or actual problems in understanding a message in a conversation . It is a type of language input that is interactionally modified through negotiation of meaning to make input comprehensible . This kind of comprehensible input is concluded from the study by Ellis 1994, in Bahrani, 2012 where three kinds of input conditions and their potential to facilitate comprehension were considered; the unmodified input, the pre-modified input, and interactionally modified input . The result shows that latter significantly facilitates comprehension more than the other types of input . It is necessary to put border between modified input and interactionally modified input in order to make a clear distinction of them . According to Long 1982, 1983 in Park, 2002, interactionally modified input only emerges when both parts of a conversation negotiate meaning to make their speech more comprehensible . When language learners face communicative problems and they have the opportunity to negotiate solutions to them, they are able to acquire new language . Three is modified output . Modified output is the response to interactionally modified input . Similar with interactionally modified input, it must occur in an interactional environment Ellis, 1999 . Negotiation of meaning in a conversation stimulates the learners to modify their output and as the result, their 28 modified output of one learner will automatically turn into and work as another learner’s comprehensible input . 2 Sources of input In the classroom situation where the learners study the language, there are various sources of input that are available during the learning activity . These sources of inputs are commonly similar for regular language class in elementary, junior high, or senior high school. They come from the materials, teacher talk, and classroom interaction either student with student or student with teacher . a Materials Material in ELT, especially EFL as the point of interest in this study, is one of the most important resources of input in language learning . Today, the sources of material used in the school are various . It moves far from conventional ones represented by written text in the form of books and advances in a variety of forms such as interactive slides, audio, video, online source like websites, or in the appearance of short functional text like posters, announcements, advertisements, recipes, and many more fitting the necessity of the learners . However, in Indonesian context, these material sources are made following the curriculum and the approach applied . English curriculum of 2006, as the one used in this thesis’ object of the study, aims students’ English communication skill in daily life as stated in its target competence . Therefore, the materials used often mimic the real life as if the students are put into the factual situation where they have to communicate with English . Such situation would initiate the education 29 practitioners to make use of what is called as authentic material . In the other hand, there are some limitations or obstacles that prevent the teachers in using such materials and choose to use modified or simplified materials instead . 1 Authentic materials The use of authentic materials in an EFL classroom is what many teachers involved in foreign language teaching have discussed in recent years Kilickaya, 2004 . Rogers and Medley 1988 defines authentic material as appropriate and quality in terms of goals, objectives, learner needs and interest and natural in terms of real life and meaningful communication p . 467 . While Harmer 1991 regards authentic texts as materials which are designed for native speakers; they are real text; designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language . Jordan 1997, p . 113 refers to authentic texts as texts that are not written for language teaching purposes . Nunan and Miller 1995 define authentic materials as those which were not created or edited expressly for language learners . This means that most everyday objects in the target language qualify as authentic material . Authentic materials is confirmed to be useful in increasing students motivation for learning, makes the learner be exposed to the real language as discussed by Guariento Morley 2001, p . 347 . In short, “authentic materials are materials that we can use with the students in the classroom and that have not been changed in any way for ESL students . A classic example would be a newspaper article that’s written for a native-English-speaking audience” 30 Sanderson, 1999 . There are some benefits in using this kind of materials Philips and Shettlesworth 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock 1997, in Richards, 2001 . First, they have positive effect on learner’s motivation . Second, they provide authentic cultural information . Third, they provide exposure to real language . Fourth, they relate more closely to learners’ needs . The last one, they support a more creative approach to teaching . However, in the other hand, Richards 2001 also points out that using authentic materials also carries some disadvantages which often occur in the area of EFL learning . It is obvious that authentic materials often contain difficult language, unneeded vocabulary items and complex language structures, which not only causes a burden for the teacher in lower-level classes but also cause difficulties in comprehension for the learners . Related to this, Tamo 2009 agrees that authentic materials should be used in accordance with students’ ability and add that suitable tasks can be given to learners in which total understanding is not important . She also consents about the opinion that in the earlier stages, non- authentic materials can be used . However, she stresses too that upon students’ dealing with materials from their own subject area, authentic materials should be introduced . 2 Modifiedsimplified materials “For language learners, difficult language is the problem with authentic text” Day, 2002 . As explained before, the original language as native speakers 31 have become the barrier in the language learning process in some cases . Too many unrecognized words or structure is the main issue for the learner to study the language . It will however still become the source of input . But if an utterance in the material, as an instance, is presented but the message cannot be conveyed because of so many foreign vocabularies, not only the learners will fail to at least infer the message but also the input will not be a comprehensible one . As for this reason, the education practitioner often choose to use or make modified or simplified material to adjust the language knowledge they need to pass so that it would be understandable for the learners . Day 2002 emphasizes that simplified materials carry an outstanding strength which is they are the best material for teaching beginning and intermediate students because they are already set to the right linguistic level . Widdowson 1978, in Guariento and Morley, 2001 believes that simplification can take place, within the conventions of a given language field, while maintaining authenticity in the sense of learner’s response . To achieve this goal, the text has to be simplified into a form which engage the learner’s interest and impress him as being in some way relevant to his concerns . At lower level, “materials do not have to be given an artificial ‘genuine-look in order to be accepted by the learner . What matters more is that they should be executed” Guariento and Morley, 2001 . In other words, the simplified materials are more suitably and preferably chosen for the junior level of language learner in the EFL context because it suits their language proficiency . 32 Even though simplified material is very helpful, it is not free from infirmity . Guariento and Morley 2001 mention that not so little textbook writers make recourse to simplification with a haste that is often undignified resulting in a not ‘well-executed’ text . In the other case, texts lose their redundant feature and are shortened in the listening material . b Teacher talk Even in the most autonomous, learner-centered class of language learning, the involvement of a teacher is obligatory and inevitable . Lewton-Brain 1993 suggests that teachers should support the students to have an evaluation on their work, guide the clarity of a lesson, conceptualizing and making a decision of something . They should also give a help to the students so the students understand where they go . This can be done by giving criticism, observation and sharing experience . In other occasion, the teachers must be able to perceive the strong points and interest of the students then helps the students to grow up . How teachers’ role takes part in the learning process significantly is explained by Gass and Selinker 2001, in Leaver, Ehrman and Shekhtman, 2005 . They strongly emphasize that acquiring a second language truly depends on acquiring the sound system of that language . In the class, the students can get the real example directly . In the context of language class, they can learn the pronunciation and accent from the teachers as well as sentence arrangement and even the way of their teachers’ thinking . ‘The students consider their teachers as 33 the source of assistance to learn English’ Razak, 2003 . From this point, it is evident to see the teacher as the one source of input in the classroom for the learners especially from what is familiar with the term teacher talk . Several definitions of teacher talk are developed by some theorists . Richards 1992: 471 defines teacher talk as a various language which the teacher uses in the learning teaching process . Meanwhile, Brown 2006 regards teacher talk as simply the time when the teacher is speaking . In more detail, Osborne 1999 classifies teacher talk as speech used by teachers that is characteristically modified in four areas: phonology consisting of morphology and vocabulary, syntax, and discourse . By this definition, it is very important for the teachers to adjust their talk to the students, such as using vocabularies accordingly to the students’ level, for the sake of students’ comprehension . As a conclusion, teacher talk is the language used by the teacher to communicate with the students which has been modified and adjusted to the students’ level of language proficiency Jonathan, 2008 . Practically, the pedagogical system in most of the school in Indonesia is teacher-centered, meaning that the teacher would likely do the most talking in the class . Therefore, teacher talk is the main medium that is used by the teacher to pass the skills and knowledge to the students . However, recent studies have been done with further findings about teacher talk which moved beyond the source of input Ellis, 2008: 796 . It does 34 not only function as input but in fact also shapes learners’ contributions to the discourse as inhibiting or increasing learners’ participation and scaffolding learners’ production Walsh, 2002 in Ellis, 2008 . Seeing its effect and significance, teacher talk can be regarded as one of the most significant resource of input in the classroom . c Classroom interaction Classroom interaction is a media for learners mainly to increase students’ oral proficiency because they can directly practice using the language they learn . “Interaction provides learners with opportunities to encounter input or to practise the L2” Ellis, 2008: 784 . Derived from Krashen’s input hypothesis, Long 1996 concludes that interactional hypothesis referred to when learners engaged with their interlocutors in negotiations around meaning, the nature of the input might be qualitatively changed. In other words, “Language is acquired as learners actively engage in attempting to communicate in the target language . The hypothesis is consistent with the experiential philosophy of “learning by doing” . Acquisition will be maximized when learners engage in tasks that “push” them to the limits of their current competence . ” Nunan, 1999: 51 By interacting in the classroom, learners have not only the chance to perform their language competency but also the opportunity to learn more from the interaction because, instead of functioning as an output, classroom interaction also has a role to be the input for the other learners since one’s output can be others’ input as previously mentioned . It emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input and also claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of 35 meaning . When the interaction is in progress, they may not fully understand the utterances coming from the interlocutor, but they will try to understand and interpret the meaning of the utterances . Long’s interaction hypothesis supports that the development of language proficiency is promoted by direct interaction and communication . Ellis 1988: 95 also underlines that “interaction contributes to development because it is the means by which the learner is able to crack the code” . Similar with what Nunan says, he concludes that by interaction, learners can infer what is said even though they still have the absence of understanding about some linguistic item in the message because it is not yet a part of his competence . Acting as the source of input, classroom interaction comes in every communication means inside the classroom either it’s between teacher and students or among students . Naimat 2011 in his research confirms as well about the significance of interactional method in a foreign language class, stressing about the interaction between teacher and students . Because teachers are considered knowledgeable in their classroom, the interaction would likely initiate the transfer of knowledge as the immersion of input for the learners . Teachers talk as previously discussed can also reflect classroom interaction between students and teacher . Teachers’ planning provided before the class would commence classroom interaction too that later on will result in input like explained in the scheme below 36 Figure 2.3: Resource and result of classroom interaction Allwright and Bailey, 1991: 25 in Ellis, 2008: 784 Johnson 1995, in Naimat, 2011 clarifies that interaction among students provides a greater social context for prompting language use than traditional instructions . Therefore, it would increase students’ chances to use the second language . Meaning, more use of the language would provide more input as well . Rivers 1987 shares the same opinion about the interaction between students . Interaction involves not only the expressions of the learners’ view as the output but also understanding the views of the others so the learners will share their ideas among each other where one listens and responds to others and others as well . b . The role of first language in EFL class As mentioned previously, teacher talk is one essential source of input in the classroom . However, when speaking in the EFL context, it is unavoidable for the teachers to utilize or make use of the first language in the classroom to help them in transferring the language knowledge . In the other hand, the students are often intrigued or forced to use their first language since they have insufficient English language proficiency . Using first language in the EFL, or ESL, classroom is like a double-edged sword . This concern is introduced by Yang 1992 after reviewing Robert Lado’s Syllabus Input Method Practice Opportunities Atmosphere Receptivity Classroom interaction 37 concept of contrastive analysis hypothesis . It divides the role of first language into two . The first one is called positive transfer, or simply transfer . It is a positive transfer when the first language and the foreign language share similar elements, such as structure, which result in correct utterance . This is the condition where learners can take advantage of such situation to learn the correct form of the language . On the other side, there is also negative transfer or usually called with the term ‘inference’ . It is the contrast circumstance where both language have different structure and do not share similar element, which may result in error in production of the foreign language . “The first language has long been considered the villain in second language learning, the major cause of a learner’s problems with the new language . ” Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, 1982 . This understanding has been believed and around for decades . Although this issue is more to the case of second language acquisition, it cannot be denied that first language use in EFL classroom is unavoidable since “the first language has a small but important role to play in communicating meaning and content . ” Nation, 2001: 1 . From several methods of conveying the meaning of an unknown word, such as definition in the second language, demonstration, showing picture, diagram, or real object, or first language translation, the latter is considered the most effective one with probability that first language translations are usually clear, short and familiar Nation, 2001: 4 . 38 Optimistically, using the first language can help learning . Auerbach 1993, in Nation, 1997, speaking for countries like Indonesia and Japan where little English is spoken outside the classroom, argues for the reasoned appropriate use of the learners’ L1 in the L2 classroom wherever this will have positive effects on the learners and learning . He proposes the use of L1 to “…explain the procedure for a task where confusion would result if it was done through the L2, to prepare for tasks that would be too difficult without this preparation, to allow learners to say what matters to them and to give them a role in managing and directing the classroom, to explain some vocabulary and grammar points and to show it is a valued resource in the classroom . ” p . 24 However, Ellis 2008: 801 has an argument about how operating first language in the EFL or ESL classroom is considered controversial because applying different theories of L2 acquisition would result in different findings about the use of first language too . As an instance, he views the interactionist perspective where emphasis needs to be given to ensure learners’ maximum exposure to the L2 input . In the other hand, he perceives the socio-cultural point of view that the first language can function as a tool to scaffold learner production in the L2 . Personally, he argues that the first language should be used as little as possible . From the other’s standpoint, Cook 2001 suggests that first language should be used for several aspects in teaching only such as explaining grammar, organizing tasks, disciplining students, and implementing tests . The findings from Duff and Polio 1991, in Ellis, 2008: 802 show another fact about the use of first language in foreign language classroom . First language is used variably depending on 39 several variables such as the specific language being taught, departmental guidelines, the actual lesson content, the nature of the teaching materials, and the extent to which the instructors had had formal teacher training . In addition, Renandya 2012, in his point of view mentions how first language can be quite advantageous in EFL classrooms . He states that first language can be used as many or less as possible as long as its application has clear pedagogical reason in EFL learning practice . B . Theoretical framework The study about teachers’ belief would be appropriately studied with the adoption of teacher cognition model by Borg 2003, as also already presented in the previous sub-chapter in page 18 . With this model, we can see how teachers’ belief becomes the core of the subject matter, what key constructs that shape it, and how it is torn apart to identify its influential elements . Borg 2003 proposes that there are four ideas that can influence teachers’ belief; schooling, professional coursework, contextual factors, and classroom practice . Each of these components will affect what they have in mind about the exposure to English . How their experience being a learner as a trainer before they become teachers, their experience when they become teachers, contextual factors in teaching like motivation, curriculum, or institution, as well as classroom practice, all of them determine teachers’ belief about everything related their being as a teacher and in this case also about language exposure . However, 40 considering the focus of the study, the characteristics of the setting of the study, and the participant involved, there are only three aspects that will be useful in processing the data in the analysis covering the schooling, professional coursework, and classroom practice. They become the potential factors where the findings in the analysis will lie around. By this framework, it would be applicable to outline possible courses of action or to plan a preferred approach before it comes to the process of analyzing teachers’ belief about English language exposure . 41

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY