Study on the role of uban forest types toward iar temperature reduction : a case study in Bogor City-West Java

STUDY ON THE ROLE OF URBAN FOREST TYPES
TOWARD AIR TEMPERATURE REDUCTION

(A Case Study in BOGOR City - West Java)

ETTY MARLMA

GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
2007

Study on the Role of Urban Forest Types
Toward Air Temperature Reduction
(A Case Study in Bogor City - West Java)

ETTY MARLINA

This Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science of
Bogor Agricultural University

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

FOR NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
August 2007

STATEMENT

Etty Marlina, here by stated that thesis entitled:

Study on the Role of Urban Forest Types toward Air Temperature Reduction
(A Case Study in Bogor City - West Java)

Are result of my own work during the period of January until August 2007

and that it has not been published before. The content of this thesis has been
examined by advising committee and the external examiner

Bogor, August 2007

Etty Marlina

ABSTRACT
ETTY MARLINA (2007). Study on the Role of Urban Forest Types toward
Air Temperature Reduction (Case Study: in Bogor City - West Java). Under the
supervision of I Nengah Surati Jaya and Antonius Bambang Wijanarto.
Nowadays, quality of urban environment is challenging problem. Urban
development indicated by the increase of population as well as development in all
aspects, it is not only give positive impacts but also negative impacts and
ultimately, it can impact the degradation of environment quality. This fact is
indicated by environment problems in urban area, for instance: air pollution which
reduces oxygen supply and overwhelms production of Carbon dioxide (COz), also
air temperature rising.
From the foregoing problems, "back to natureeeconcept is needed to solve
environment problem in urban area. Urban forest was introduced to recover
environment and ecological condition. Yet, one of constraints in urban forest
development is limitation of space for urban forest. Therefore, alternative solution
can be employed by increasing the effectiveness of existing urban forest in
controlling quality of urban environment. This research is intended to analyze the
effectiveness of urban forest types based on its structures and forms toward urban

temperature reduction.
The methods used in this research consist of selecting location of field
measurement over GIs analysis using "digitizing on screen technique", air
temperature measurement was conducted during 13 hours and twice repetitions,
and data analysis over statistic analysis comprising of analysis of effectiveness
urban forest types based upon time of measurement and analysis of effectiveness
of urban forest types based upon distance of measurement. Research area was in
Bogor area, having high concentration of air pollution.
In this study, there were five urban forest types chosen for temperature
measurement, namely: 1) Urban Forest having linear form with second structure,
2) Urban Forest having linear form with multi structure, 3) Urban Forest having
dispersed form with second structure, 4) Urban Forest having clustered form with
second structure, 5) and Urban Forest having clustered form with multi structure.
Based upon both time of measurement and distance of measurement, the result of
this research shows that urban forest having dispersed form and second structure
is most effective toward air temperature reduction. The study shows the rank of
importance of urban forest is as follows: urban forest having dispersed form with
second structure @S), urban forest having linear form with second structure (LS),
urban forest having linear form with multi structure (LM), urban forest having
clustered form with multi structure (CM), and urban forest having clustered form

with second structure (CS).

Research Title

Study on the Role of Urban Forest Types toward Air
Temperature Reduction (A Case Study in Bogor City,
West Java)

Name

: Etty Marlina

Student ID

: G.051050051

Study Program

: Master of Science in Information Technology for Natural

Resources Management

Approved by,
Advisory Board

Dr. htonius ~a#bang Wiianarto
Co- Supervisor

Endorsed by,
Program Coordinator

--pp

i

Dr. Ir. Tania June
-.,

'

-

Date of Examination:
August, 21" 2007

....?.-

.-:.

..-..w

Date of Graduation:

3 1 A U G 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

There are many people I should thank in regard to this work and no doubt I
will not be able to name them one by one. I would like to give my grateful to the
Mercy Allah SWT, because of His blessing and kindness I could accomplish this

thesis, and I also wish to thank to my parents for their support and pray through
all month of my research
I would like to thank to my supervisor Dr. I Nengah Surati Jaya and my CoSupervisor Dr. Antonius Bambang Wijanarto for their guidance, technical
comments, and constructive criticism through all month of my research.
I would like to thank to my external examiner of this thesis Dr. Muhammad
Buce Saleh and MIT Program Coordinator for their positive inputs and ideas. I
would like to thank to all lecturers who taught me the very important knowledge
for my future.

I would like to thank to all MIT staffs for their patience and support our
administration, technical and facility, and I would like to thank to all my friends, I
really appreciate our togetherness and I also would like to thank to my air
temperature surveyor (Wenwen, Mbak Candra, Mas Muklis, Mas Panji, Mas
Toto, Indah, Delon, Hapsari, Ima, Aang and Apip) who measured air temperature
during 13 hours.
Finally, I feel deeply gratehl to my best supporter, Fakhrizal nashr, for his
moral support and patience during my research.

CURICULUM VITAE

Etty Marlina was born in Palembang, South Sumatera,
Indonesia at March 1 9 ' ~1983. She received her Diploma 3
fiom Bogor Agricultural University in 2003 in the field of
Forest Protection, Faculty of Forestry. From 2003-2004, she
continued her bachelor degree in Winayamukti University,
Bandung-West Java, in the field of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry.

In the year of 2005, Etty Marliia continued her graduate study in international
program of Bogor Agricultural University. She received her Master of Science in
Information Technology for Natural Resources in 2007 respectively. Her thesis
was on

"

Study on The Role of Urban Forest Types toward Air Temperature

Reduction, A Case Study in Bogor City, West - Java".

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ........................................................................................

i

List of Tables ..............................................................................................

iv

List of Figures .............................................................................................

v

List of Appendices ......................................................................................

vi

.

I INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1
1.1 Background..............................................................................................

1

..

1.2 Problem Defmaion................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................

4

1.4 outputs ....................................................................................................
4
1.5 Research Assumption............................................................................... 5

1.6 Research Framework................................................................................5

.

11 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 7
2.1

Temperature.............................................................................................
7

2.2 Urban Forest ............................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Definition of Urban Forest and Urban Forestry................................ 9

2.2.2 Types and forms of Urban Forest..................................................... I0
2.2.3 Benefits o f Urban Forest.................................................................12

2.2.4 Challenges in urban forestry development .......................................16
2.3 Remote Sensing (RS) ............................................................................... 18
2.4

Geographical Information System (GIs) .................................................. 19

2.5 Role and Importance of Geography Information System (GIS) and
Remote Sensing (RS) in Urban Forest Development and Plannimg ...........19

.

I11 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................
21
3.1

T i e and Location ................................................................................
21

3.2

Equipment and Data Requirement ............................................................ 23

3.3

3.2.1

Data Collection ...............................................................................23

3.2.2

Equipment Used .............................................................................. 23

Selecting Location of Field Measurement ................................................23
3.3.1

Geometric Correction ...................................................................... 23

3.3.2

Image Classification........................................................................ 24

3.4

Temperature Measurement ....................................................................... 34

3.5

Data Analysis...........................................................................................40
3.5.1

Effectiveness of Urban Forest Types toward Aii Temperature
Based upon Time of Measurement ...................................................40

3.5.2

Effectiveness of Urban Forest Types toward Air Temperature
41
Based upon Distance of Measurement .............................................

.

IV RESULT AND DISCUSSION.......................................................... 32
4.1

Field Data Analysis ..................................................................................44
4.1.1

Effectiveness of Urban Forest Types toward Aim Temperature
45
Based upon Time of Measurement...................................................

4.1.2

Effectiveness of Urban Forest Types toward Air Temperature
Based upon Distance of Measurement ............................................. 51

.

V CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................... 61

REFERENCES....................................... ................................................... 63
Appendices .................................. .......................... .....................................66

LIST OF TABLES

Tables

2.1

Pages
IKONOS Satellite System: Sensor Characteristics

..................................... 18

3.1 Number of population in Bogor City based on gender .................................21
3.2 Number of vehicle in Bogor City ................................................................ 21
3.3 List of Equipment used ............................................................................... 23
3.4 Ground Control Points for Geometric Correction ........................................ 24

3.5 Combmation of urban forest structures and forms ....................................... 28
3.6 Combmation of urban forest types and residential area................................28
3.7 Number of possible location for air temperature measurement ....................30
3.8 Distance between each point in each urban forest type ................................ 35
3.9 List of Equation Used for Homogeneity Test ..............................................43
4.1 Ai temperature average in each urban forest type ....................................... 4
4.2 Number oftrees and vegetation species in each urban forest type ................45
4.3 Air temperature changing (At) toward time changing in each urban forest
45
type .............................................................................................................
4.4

Temperature reduction in each urban forest based on time of measurement.48

4.5 Polynomial regression model of each urban forest type ...............................50
4.6

Significant value of each pair of urban forest type ....................................... 54

56
4.7 Pairs of urban forest types which having equal role .....................................
4.8

Pairs of urban Forest Types which have equal role and effectiveness ..........56

4.9

Results of regression homogeneity test ........................................................59

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

Pages

1.1 Average Global Temperature by Decade ..................................................... 2
1.2 Research kamework ...................................................................................6
2.1 Tempature decreases and humidity increases downward though
Forest canopy..............................................................................................8

2.2 Structure of GIs ..........................................................................................

19

3.1 The Research Area ...................................................................................... 22
3.2 U r h Forest Structure ................................................................................

26

3.3 Urban Forest Forms ....................................................................................27
3.4 Possible location for temperature measurement ........................................... 29
3.5 Linear

form and second structure ................................................................
30

3.6 Linear form and multi structure................................................................... 31

3.7 Dispersed form and second structure...........................................................31
3.8 Clustered form and second structure ........................................................... 32
3.9 Clustered form and multi structure ..............................................................
32
3.10 Flowchart of Research ................................................................................ 33

3.1 1 General Design of Temperature Measurement.............................................34
3.12 Design of Temperature Measurement in urban forest LS .............................35
36
3.13 Design of Temperature Measurement in urban forest LM............................
3.14 Design of Temperature Measurement in urban forest DS ............................37
3.15 Design of Temperature Measurement in urban forest CS.............................. 38

3.16 Design of Temperature Measurement in urban forest CM ........................... 39
4.1

Graphic of Temperature average in each urban forest type ..........................46

4.2 Graphic of Temperature changing trend toward time changing in each
urban forest type .........................................................................................
49
4.3

Air temperature changing in each urban forest type based upon distance .....51

4.17 Regression model in each urban forest type.................................................53
4.18 Analysis of Slope and Elevation Regression Model in Each Pair of Urban

Forest Type .................................................................................................
58

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendices

Pages

1

List of species of vegetation in each urban forest type................................. 67

2

Polynomial regression analysis in each urban forest type ............................68

3

Tukey test of air temperature based upon distance in each urban forest
type ............................................................................................................
76

4

Raw data of temperature measurement........................................................ 81

5

Slope and elevation homogeneity test ..........................................................
84

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Urban area is center of population which facilitates development of social,
culture, and economic (Irwan, 2005). Urban development is indicated by the
increase of population as well as development in all aspects, for instance office
and industry area, super and hyper market, medical and education facilities, also
road network. These facilities are provided to support people activities.
In the other hand, urban developments also give negative impacts and
ultimately, it can impact the degradation of environment quality. Urban
environments only progress economically but decline ecologically, whereas
ecology stability in urban area as important as economy stability (Dahlan, 1992).
This fact is indicated by environment problems in urban area, for instance: air
pollution which reduces oxygen supply and overwhelms production of Carbon
dioxide (COz), also air temperature rising.
Air temperahre in urban area is hotter than its surrounding area and it is

called "urban heat-island" effect. There is a direct link between urban heat islands

and global warming. First, the greenhouse effect could aggravate rising urban
temperature significantly. Second, heat islands may contribute to the greenhouse
effect. According to Herlianto (2007) starting fkom 1960 to 1969, the average
global temperature was 13.9OC and in the period of 2000-2004, it is about 14.6OC
and it is projected to raise 1.4--5.g°C by 2100 (see Figure 1.1). Prinanto, eta1
(1991) in Jaelani (2006) states that Indonesia is the biggest producer of Carbon
dioxide (COz) in South East Asia, moreover COz emission in 2010 is estimated

will increase five times bigger than COz emission in 1986, i.e. it will reach 469
million ton In Indonesia, symptoms of global warming have been seen, i.e. the
last decade, Indonesia has experienced long dry spells which were occurred in
1982-1983,1987, and 1991, and this T i e r gave negative impacts to people.
Average Globsl Temperaurn by Deia.de. lS804oO4

I

Year

Figure 1.1 Average Global Temperntore by Decade. Source: Brown (2002)

Meanwhile, Bogor as buffer zone for Jakarta tends to have high
concentration of air pollution (Lestari 2005). It is indicated h m rapidly growth
of vehicles and population. Total vehicles in 2003 were 66.541 and it increased
twice bigger than total vehicle in 2000 (Polresta Kota Bogor, 2004), then number
of population in 2005 reached 855.085 and it increased 1.2 times bigger than
population in 2000 (BPS, 2006). In line with the growth of population, landcover
change fiom naturally vegetated area to build up area also increased rapidly, and
several types of landcover change tending to increase temperature significantly
are: residential, industry, and bare land (Tursilowati, 2005).
From the foregoing problems, "back to nature" concept is needed to solve
environment problem in urban area. Urban forest was introduced to recover
environment and ecological condition, for instance: temperature reduction and
other microclimatic effects, removal of air pollutants, emission of volatile organic

I

I

compounds and tree maintenance emissions, energy effects on buildings reduce
air pollution) (Nowak, 2000).
Urban forest research in Bogor city has been conducted by Lestari (2005).
She assessed minimum size of urban forest based on oxygen need. Based on this
research, minimum size of urban forest to fulfill oxygen need in 2003 was
51397.706 ha while existing urban forest in 2003 was only 4,214.39 ha, then

minimum size of urban forest to fulfill oxygen need in 2020 will be 571,191 ha,
and it will be even larger than total large of Bogor City (only 11,850 ha).
Research conducted by Lestari (2005) shows that the constraint in urban
forest development is l i i a t i o n of space for urban forest. Moreover many
conflicting interests relate with land and expensiveness of land value in urban
area. Therefore, alternative solution can be employed by increasing the
effectiveness of existing urban forest in controlling quality of urban environment.
Urban forest development needs good planning and management in order
optimal f u n d i n and role of urban forest can be achieved. Accurate and efficient
information will be very helpful for urban forest development, and Remote
Sensing technology is precise tool which can give accurate and efficient
information over large area (Jaelani, 2006). In this research, high resolution image
is used to classify urban forest type (structure and form) and residential area.
Meanwhile, geography information system (GIs) offers facilities to manage
spatial data, starting &om input data, store and manage data, analyze and
manipulate, until produce the expect output. Therefore, in this study GIs is
needed to obtain possible location for temperature measurement.

1.2. Problem Definition

Common problems faced in urban forest development, include: the
limitations of space for urban forest, many conflict of interests related with
landuse, and the expensiveness of land price in urban area. Moreover, urban
forests are frequently suffered fiom land conversion causing urban forest space
decrease than ever. To solve the l i i a t i o n of urban forest space, alternative
solution should be employed. The solution is the optimize function and role of
existing urban forest, by analyzing relationship between urban forest structures
(second-storey and multi-storey) and urban forest forms (linear, clustered, and
dispersed) in reducing negative effects liom urban activities.
From the foregoing problem, it is important to make problem definition on
how the difference of urban fotest types (structure and form) can give different
effectiveness toward air temperatwe reduction.

1.3. Objective
The objective of this research is to find out the effectiveness of several
urban forest types based on their structures and forms toward urban temperature
reduction

1.4. Output
Output of this research is information regarding the effectiveness of urban
forest in reducing air temperature.

1.5. Research Assumption
The assumption of this research is heat sources in the study area are
assumed as homogeneous.

1.6. Research Framework
Research framework can be seen in Figure 1.2. Urban area as centre for
multiple functions such as: entertainment, economic, industry and governmental
activities, city offers opportunities, dream and enjoyment. Therefore, many people
put their dream and come to urban area to set their better life, so this phenomenon
stimulates population break out in urban area.
In l i e with the growth of population, infrastructures and facilities
development also increase rapidly for example: buildings, public facilities,
business area, office, settlements, factories, and road network. During 1994-2001,
landcover change fiom vegetated area into residential in Bogor was 11.3% and
deforestation was 32.73% (Tursilowati, 2005). This facts impact environment
problems in urban area, for instance: air pollution which reduces oxygen supply
and overwhelms production of Carbon dioxide (COz), also air temperature rising.
Facing this problem, urban forest was introduced to m i n i 6 environment
problem because of negative effects of urban activities. Yet, several constraints
are also faced, for instance: limitation of available land for urban forest and

conversion greenery space into other need. Optimizing function of urban forest is
one of effort to overcome the constraints and research is needed to analyze
function of combination of urban forest structure and form in order, alternative of
urban forest which is effective in minimizing environment problem particularly in

term of temperature reduction in residential area.

7

Ctty as center for multiple function:
1.
EEamomy
2. Industry
3.
Governance
4. Entertainment

InGastruoture and facilities:
1.
Industryarsa
2. Residential area
3. Recreation area
4. Road networkand
traosportation facilities
5. Business h i l i t i e s
6. Offices

Ned

z

3,

-

5'
Wty o f human life:
1.

PoUution (water, air, noise)

2.

Tempnahln in-

3.

Less natural vegetated s p "

C

(climate obangc)

&lion
Urbpn forest development

1
C o ~ t s :

Limitation of space land for urbao forest
Conversion existing urban f o m t into other need

1
Optimizing function ofurban forest

1

I

Research:
Anrlydngrdatim

Ma.
u h f m d shuEhlre rmd llrbmforest form

in mbddzhg newlive cffccb h ubu,xtivi6es

Figure 1.2 Research framework

11. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Temperature

Temperature is a degree of hotness or coldness the can be measured using a
thermometer (Weatherkidz, 2007), and actually thermometer is not only one of
devices used to measure temperature, termohigrograf is also other device that can
be used to measured it. Temperature is measured in degrees on the Fahrenheit,
Celsius, Reamur and Kelvin scales. Based on four temperature degrees can be
derived conversion formula (Manan, et.al, 1986):
1. tT = [ (t - 32) x 419 1% = [ (t - 32) x 519 I0C = [ (t - 32) x 519 + 273 1%

2. tOR=[(t+32)x9l4]OR=5/4t0C=[(5I4t)+273]9(
3. t°C = [ (915 t) + 32 ] O F

= 415 t

O R

=(t

+ 273 ) 9(

4. t " K = [ 9 / 5 ( t - 2 7 3 ) + 3 2 ] ° F = 4 / 5 ( t - 2 7 3 ) 0 R = ( t - 2 7 3 ) 9 (
Temperature measurement is primary data needed in this study; therefore
several aspects should be noticed, namely: 1). Influence of direct sun radiation, 2).
Rainfall, 3) Blown of wind, 4) Influence of Earth's radiation. To solve this
problem, weather cage is used and inside this device, temperature measurement is
placed (Manan, et.al, 1986).
Related to temperature issue, almost every city in the world today is hotter usually between 1 to 4OC hotter - than its surroundiig area. This difference
between urban and rural temperatures is called the "urban-heat-island" effect",
and it has been intensifying throughout this century. During hot months a heat
island creates considerable discomfort and stress.

People also believe there is a direct link between global warming and urban
heat islands. First, the greenhouse effect could aggravate rising urban temperature
significantly. Second, heat islands may contribute to the greenhouse effect. Those
effects can be reduced by planting trees, for instance: pilot project was conducted
a retail shopping centre parking lot containing shaded and unshaded portions was
located in Davis, California, a community approximately 120 km (75 mi)
northeast of San Francisco, located in California's Central Valley. This research

was performed to measure the diierence in parking lot microclimate resulting
kom the presence or absence of shade tree. cover in Davis, CA., a very modest
level of shading resulted in an air temperature reduction of approximately 1 to 2O
C (1.8 -3.6OF), compared to an unshaded lot (McPherson, et.al., 2002).

Moreover, Grey and Deneke (1986) state in a forest situation on a calm
day, temperature decreases and relative humidii increases downward through the
canopy profile (See Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.1 Temperature decreases and humidity increases downward through a
forest canopy.

2.2. Urban Forest
2.2.1. Definition of Urban Forest and Urban Forestry

Urban forest and urban forestry has profound different in term of definition.
There are several literatures which have mentioned about definition of urban
forest and urban forestry.
1. Urban forest

Fakuara (1987) states urban forest is plants or vegetations in urban area
giving several environmental benefds such as: protection, esthetical, recreation
and other benefits, and Miller (1988) defines urban forest as the sum of all woody
and associated vegetation in and around dense human settlements, ranging fiom
communities in rural setting to metropolitan regions. Nowak (1994) refers urban
forest as complex ecosystems created by the interaction of anthropogenic and
natural processes, while Sekjen Kehutanan (2002) states urban forest is the unity
of ecosystem as large land contains natural resources dominated by trees and other
elements that integrated each other around urban area.

2. Urban forestry
Several literatures have cited definition of urban foreshy, they are:
Jorgensen (1965) in Gerhold & Frank (2002), Deneke (1993) in Tree Canada
Foundation (2004), Konijnendij, et.al, (2005), Wikipedii (2007).
Jorgensen (1965) in Gerhold & Frank (2002) define urban forestry as a
specialized branch of forestry (that) has as its objective the cultivation and
management of trees for their present and potential contributions to the
physiological, sociological, and economic well-being of urban.
More comprehensive definition of urban forest is stated by Deneke (1993)

in Tree Canada Foundation (2004), he states urban forestry as the sustained

planning, planting, protection, maintenance, and care of trees, forests, green space
and related resources in and around cities and communities for economic,
environmental, social, and public health benefits for people. The definition
includes retaining trees and forest cover as urban populations expand into
surrounding rural areas and restoring critical parts of the urban environment after
construction. In addition, urban and community forestry includes the development
of citizen involvement and support for investments in long-term on-going tree
planting, protection, and care.
Meanwhile, Konijnendij, et.al, (2005) refers urban forestry is generally
defined as the art, science and technology of managing trees and forest resources
in and around urban community ecosystem for the physiological, sociological,
economic, and aesthetic benefits trees provide society, and the famous odme
dictionruy, Wipedia (2007) defines urban forest as a collection of trees that
grow within a city, town or a suburb. In a wider sense it may include any kind of
woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. In a narrower
sense it describes areas whose ecosystem are inherited kom wilderness leftovers
or remnants.

2.2.2. Types and forms of Urban Forest
Dahlan (1992) and Sekjen Kehutanan (2002) refer six types of urban forest,
they are: urban forest for residential area, industry area, biodiversity conservation,
recreation and tourism, recreation, and safety.
Residential area prefers park resembles trees combined with shrubs and
grasses. A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually

owned and maintained by a local government. Trees are chosen for their beauty
and to provide shade, grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests, allow
for the enjoyment of picnics and beautifid landscape make dwellers find most
retaxing. Generally, it is used for sport, relaxing, playing, and recreation etc.
Available industry area is one of wban area characteristic; industry
produces particles, aerosols, gas and liquid bothering human healthy. Moreover,
those wastes produce noise and smell pollution causing discomfort condition.
Several trees are able to absorb pollutants, therefore urban forest development in
industry area should consider about types of tree having high capability in
absorbing pollutants.
Botanical garden and zoo are types of wban forest for biodiversity
consewation There are two main objectives, namely: Biodiversity collection area
and H a b i t , in particular for endanger animaL
Nowadays, dwellers require places for relaxing; refreshing their mind and
body, and urban forest offers those benefits. Meanwhile, certain wban area having
steep slope or around coastal area need wban forest help protect erosion,
landslide, seashore abrasion, and sea intrusion
While adding to environmental aesthetics, trees, and shrubs may be used to

aid traffic control. This includes not only vehicular traffic but also pedestrian,
trees can serve as a buffer between moving vehicle and pedestrians.

Irwan (1994) in Irwan (2005) grouped several forms of wban forest:
a. Clustered: wban forest with green community clustered in certain area,
minimal trees are 100 trees and each tree is close each other, which is
unarranged.

b. Dispersed: urban forest which does not have certain pattern, green community

disperses in small group of vegetation
c. Lined / strip: this form includes trees and shrubs in street side and trees in
riparian areas.

Invan (1994) in Irwan (2005) also grouped urban forest structure which will
be used in this research:

a. Second-storey urban forest: vegetation community in urban forest only
composed by trees and grasses or other coverage.
b. Multi-storey urban forest: vegetation community in urban forest composed by
trees, grasses, bushes, and other vegetation covering ground.

2.23. Benefits of Urban Forest
Benefits of urban forest have been mentioned in several literatures, for
example: Grey and Deneke (1986) and Mills (2005). Grey and Deneke (1986)
state that urban forest is important to the city dweller in many ways. Its trees
provide shade, beauty, and long list of other benefds. The various benefits are
grouped under the following four broad categories:
1. Climate amelioration
The major elements that affect us are solar radiation, air temperature, air

movement, and humidity.
Temperature modz~cation Human comfort essentially depends on the

factors that effect s k i temperature and the perception of heat and cold. The
optimum core temperature for human body is 98.6"F (37°C).
Wind protection and air movement. Air movement, or wind, also affects

human comfort. The effect may be either positive or negative depending largely

on the presence or absence of urban vegetation
Precipitation and humidity. Trees intercept and filter solar radiation, inhibit

wind flow, transpire water, and reduce evaporation of soil moisture. Thus, beneath
a forest canopy, humidity is usually higher and evaporation rates are lower.
Temperature beneath the canopy is also lower than surrounding air during the day
and warmer during the evening.
2. Engineering uses

Erosion control and watershed protection Plants reduce water-caused soil

erosion by intercepting rainfall, by holding soil with their roots, and by increasing
water absorption through the incorporating of organic matter. In addition, plants
are more attractive than mechanical water erosion control devices.
Wastewater management. Wastewater treatment as a water use because it is

so interconnected with the other uses of water. Much of the water is used by
homes, industries, and businesses must be treated before it is released back to the
environment Nature has an amazing ability to cope with small amounts of water
wastes and pollution, but it would be overwhelmed if people didn't treat the
billions of gallons of wastewater and sewage produced every day before releasing
it back to the environment. Treatment plants reduce pollutants in wastewater to a
level nature can handle.
Noise abatement. Plant can mask unwanted sounds; it makes their own

sounds, for example: the rustle of oak leaves, or the quaking of aspens. These are
pleasant sounds that tend to make us less aware of more offensive noises. In
addition, plants support animals and birds that may make desirable sounds.

Air pollution abatement. Trees are effective in reducing gaseous air

pollutants through absorption, particulates air pollutants can be reduced by the
presence of trees and other plants in several ways. They aid in the removal of
airborne particulates such as sand, dust, fly ash, and smoke. Leaves, branches,
stem, and their associated surface structures tend to trap particles that are later
washed off by precipitation

3. Architectural uses
Each species has its own characteristic kom, color, texture, and size. Plants
can vary in their use potential as they grow or as the season change. Their proper

use will vary with the designer and user. Trees, when used in group, can form
canopies or walls of varying texture, height, and density. Trees are alive and

growing (they are dynamic) with regard to their functionality in architectural
design Trees make an area more attractive by providiig privacy, enhancing
building designs, acting as a barrier to unpleasant sounds and sights and reducing
glare.
4. Aesthetic uses

Trees and shrubs provide their own inherent beauty in all settings. They are
aesthetic elements in our surroundings. They can be beautiful simply because of
the lines, f o m , colors, and texture they project. They also provide unique

patterns through reflection fiom glass and water surfaces and can produce
beautihl shadow patterns.
While, Mills (2005) refers benefit of urban forestry into seven main
categories, they are:
(1)

Water protection: Trees reduce topsoil erosion, prevent harmful land
pollutants contained in the soil fiom getting into our waterways, slow down

storm water run-o& and ensure that our groundwater supplies are
continually being replenished. For every 5% of tree cover added to a
community, storm water runoff is reduced by approximately 2% (Coder,
1996).
(2) Energy conservation: The United States Forest Service estimates wellpositioned trees can save 20-25% of the annual energy use for a
conventional house when compared to a house in a wide-open area

(3)

Air wllutants reduction: Keep Indianapolis Beautiful (2007) compiles five

important functions of tree in reducing air pollution, they are: first, trees
help to clean the air by "catching" airborne pollutants such as ozone,
nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and
small particulates less than 10 microns in size. Second, planting trees
remains one of the cheapest, most effective means of drawing excess C02
from the atmosphere. Third, there is up to a 60% reduction in street level
particulates with trees. Fourth, one tree that shades your home in the city
will also save fossil h e l cutting C02 build up as much as 15 forest trees,
and fifth, each year an average acre of mature trees absorb up to 26 pounds
of carbon dioxide from the air, which is equal to the amount of Co2
produced by driving a car 26,000 miles.
(4)

Im~rovingEconomic Sustainability: Apartments and offices in wooded
areas rent more quickly and have higher occupancy rates. Trees enhance
community economic stability by attracting businesses and tourists. People
linger and shop longer along tree-lined streets.

( 5 ) Increasing Sociological Benefits: In a study conducted in a Chicago public

housing development, women who lived in apartment buildings with trees
and greenery immediately outside reported committing fewer aggressive and

violent acts against their partners in the preceding year than those living in
barren but otherwise identical buildings. In addition, the women in greener
surroundings reported using a smaller range of aggressive tactics during
their lifetime against their partner. And, in this study, even small amounts of
greenery-+ few trees and a patch of grass-helped inner city residents have

safer, less violent domestic environments. Greenery lowers crime through
several mechanisms. First, greenery helps people to relax and renew,
reducing aggression. Second, green spaces bring people together outdoors,
increasing surveillance and discouraging criminals. Relatedly, the green and
groomed appearance of an apartment building is a cue to criminals that
owners and residents care about a property and watch over it and each other.
(Kuo and Sullivan, 2001).
(6) Aesthetics enhancement: Trees make an area more attractive by providing

privacy, enhancing building designs, acting as a barrier to unpleasant sounds
and sights and reducing glare.
2.2.4. Challenges in urban forestry development

Kuchelmeister (1998) states threats which impede the creation and
sustaining of the urban forest in developing countries include:
1. Valuation: the monetary value of urban forest is not easy to estimate, and very
little hard data is available for cities in developing countries. The challenge is
to make a sound social cost-benefit analysis to see whether an urban forestry
project is worth doing when all benefits and costs (private and social, tangible,

and intangible) are include.
2. Institutional challenges: deficiencies in coordination between national,

provincial and local level lack of well-organized local groups to work with or
the lack of strong administrative or managerial and technical skill among
existing groups are some of the major institutional challenges.

3. Local participation: Preference and willingness, especially of the poor, to
invest and manage urban green space has not been sufficiently approached,
documented and communicated.

4. Ecological constraints: urban growing conditions differ greatly fiom rural
ones. Urban forestry related technology transfer in developing countries is
slow, and many practices are only suitable for wealthier cities.
5. Legislation, tenure and custom: Insecure or unclear ownership andor rights to

the use of urban forests can impede any involvement of the poor. Insufficient
or inflexible tree ordinances tend to discourage participation of low-income
citizens in urban forestry.

6. Financial sustainability. The facts that f h d s are required for regular
maintenance and protection of urban forests is often overlooked, for this
reason much urban forest management is more like crisis management.
7. Integrating urban forestry into urban planning. Urban forestry is part of the

city's green fiastructure. The challenge to city planners is (i) to anticipate
the direction and magnitude of the growth, (ii) to secure resources for the
establishment and maintainiig of green areas to serve local communities; (iii)
to evaluate the problems and uses of green areas so they can provide the
optimal combination of services.

2.3. Remote Sensing (RS)

IKONOS was the first commercial high resolution satellite to be placed
into orbit in space, and it is often used for natural resources inventory @akker,
et.al, 2000). IKONOS satellite imagery provides access to any location on the

Earth's surface and its applications include both urban and rural mapping of
natural resources and of natural disasters, tax mapping, agriculture and forestry
analysis, mining, engineering, construction, and change detection (SIC, 2007),
and in this study, IKONOS image is used to classify urban forest type (structure
and form) and residential area.
Spatial resolutions of IKONOS consist of 1 m (panchromatic) and 4 m
(multispectml), more detail about spatial resolution of IKONOS can be seen in
Table 2.1
Table 2.1 IKONOS Satellite System: Sensor Characteristics
System
IKONOS
1 24 September 1999 at Vandenberg Air
Launch Date
~ o r c e ~ a sCalifornia,
e,
USA
Orbit
1 98.1 degree, sun synchronous

I

Altitude
Resolution at Nadir

-

1 681 kilometers
1 0.82 meters mchromatic: 3.2 meters

multispectral
1.0 meter panchromatic; 4.0 meters
multispectral
Revisit Time
Approximately 3 days at 40° latitude
Spectral Bands (pm)
Pancromatic: 0.45 - 0.90
Multispectral:
Band 1: Blue 0.45 - 0.52
Band 2: Green 0.52 - 0.60
Band 3: Red 0.63 - 0.69
Band 4: (Near-IR) 0.76 - 0.90
Source: Satellite Imaging Corporation (2007) with modification)
Resolution 26O Off-Nadir

I

2.4. Geographical Information System (GIs)
GIs is defined as a computerized system that hcilitates the phase of data
entry, data analysis, and data presentation especially in cases when we are d e a l i i
with geo-referenced data (de By, 2000). Related to this meaning, this system has
four main capabilities to handle geographic reference data, they are: data entry,

data management, data manipulate and analyze, and data output (Aeronoff, 1989).
Structure of GIs is described in Figure 2.2.

GIs

Data Storage
and Management

I

I

I

Data Input

Data Manipulation
and Analysis

Data Output

User Interface

Figure 2.2 Structure of GIs (Malczweski, 1999).
The process fiom data input become output is a connecting structure that is

started ftom real world and recorded on image and airborne photo, then by GIs
facility, data are stored and processed to generate output that will be used for
decision making in the real world. In this study, GIs facility is used to analyze
possible location for temperature measurement and present temperature trend
spatially.

2.5. Role and Importance of Geography Information System (GIs) and
Remote Sensing (RS) in Urban Forest Development and Planning
Urban forest development is much related to spatial condition. Therefore,

the effective, efficient and accurate spatial information provided by GIs and RS
are highly required. Several study and research had used GIs and RS to derive,
store, manage and analyze spatial information
Kali, (2006), used satellite image (Landsat ETM 2002) and GIs to identify
the potency and spatial distribution of urban forest development. In her study, she
classified Landsat ETM image in to several classes based on vegetation type as
oxygen supplier. While GIs capabilities are used to develop database
management and spatially analyze the supply of oxygen and production of C02.
Jaelani, (2006), has used IKONOS and geography information system (GIs)
to determine urban forest in North Jakarta and Centre Jakarta Integrating of GIs
capabilities, IKONOS image and other secondary data will provide worthwhile
information about large and distribution of existing urban forest and potential area
for urban forest.
Meanwhile, Giting (2006), developed environment spatial database based
on GIs capabilities, satellite image, field data, secondary data, and developed
spatial model for urban forest distribution.

111. METHODS

3.1. Time and Location
This research was conducted fiom January until August 2007 in Bogor West Java. The study area is located in Bogor City

-

West Java, Indonesia,

approximately between 6' 30' 30" and 6' 41' 00" South Latitude and 106" 43'

30" and 106' 51' 00" East Longitude (Figure 3.1). In Bogor city, number of
population tends to increase every year. Bogor population reached 855,085 at the
end of 2005, and it increased almost 1.2 times bigger than 2001 (Table 3.1).
Meanwhile, number of vehicle also increased especially number of motorcycle.
Total vehicles in 2003 were 66.541 and it increased twice bigger than total vehicle
in 2000 (Table 3.2).
Table 3.1 Number of population in Bogor City based on gender
Year
Male
Female
Total Population
2001
382,896
377,433
760,329
2002
789,423
397,820
391,603
419,252
401,455
2003
820,707
2004
424,819
406,751
831,571
431,861
423,223
855,085
2005
(Source: Badan Pusat Statistik Kota Bogor (2006))
Table 3.2 Number of vehicle in Bogor City
Vehicle types
Total vehicle per year
2002
2000
2001
1
Private car
9244
9661
9948
2
Public car
4516
4756
5103
1 3 ) Motorcycle 1 23.783 1 28.979 1 37.255
(Source: Polresta Kota Bogor (2004))

No

1

2003
10.335
5617
50.589

1

Figure 3.1 The research area

I

3.2. Equipment and Data
3.2.1. Data Collection

The types of data that was used for this research are:
a. Primary data
1. IKONOS 2003.
2. Temperature data derived fiom field measurement.
b. Secondary data used to accomplish this research is Bogor administrative

3.2.2. Equipment Used

The following equipment was used for ground measurement in this study.
Table 3.3List of Equipment used
Name of Equipment

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Function

1 Determine Position
I

Thermometers

For

temperature

and

relative

humidity

I measurement

I

3.3. Selecting Location of Field Measurement

Study on the role of urban forest in term of temperature reduction in
residential area was analyzed using geography information system (GIs). Figure
3.10 depicts the conceptual flow of research approach completely.

3.3.1. Geometric Correction

Bogor administrative map was used for geometric correction as referencing.
A polynomial rectification with linear order was selected and applied using 10

references points 1 Ground Control Points (GCP's). The number of GCP's was
used 10 points which is spread out over study area.
The accuracy of each point is shown in Table 3.4. This can be seen in the

I

resulting average and sum of the RMS errors, average of RMS in this study is
0.23 and total of RMS is 2.3 1. The smaller RMS value indicated that the accuracy

of geometric correction is better. RMS error is standard statistical measure that
attempts to describe the difference between the actual point location and
mathematically estimated point location In general term the KMS error should be
less than 1. This means that the average error in X and Y is less than 1 image cell

Table 3.4 Ground Control Poinb for Geometric Correction

3.3.2. Image Classification

The first step before selecting location of field measurement was digitizing
IKONOS image to produce thematic map. The digitizing process was conducted

by using "digitizing on screen" technique. There were three types of thematic
layer, which produced namely:
1. Urban forest structure
Urban forest structure is vegetation community composing urban forest.
This was classified into two classes, namely:
a. Second-structure urban forest: vegetation community in urban forest only

composed by trees and grasses or other coverage.
b. Multi-structure urban forest: vegetation community in urban forest composed
by trees, grasses, bushes, and other vegetation covering ground.

Based on urban forest structures, there are 139 urban forests classified into
two classes, namely: 40 urban forests are multi s t r u c m and 99 urban forests are
second structures (Figure 3.2)
2. Urban forest form
There are three type of urban forest form (Irwan (1994) in Irwan (2005)):
a. Clustered: urban forest with green community clustered in certain area,

minimal trees are 100 trees and each tree is close each other, which are
unarranged.
h. Dispersed: urban forest which does not have certainpattern, green community
disperses in small group of vegetation.
c. Linear / strip: this form includes trees and shrubs in street side, trees in
riparian areas.
Based on this classification, there are 139 urban forests classified in this
study, they are: 25 urb