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exported excluding other possible shipments from other ports to SE Asian destinations is approximately 68,000 bulls, of which about one-third were bull calves exported to Middle Eastern
destinations Table 5. This represents about 8.8 of all cattle exports of 774,000 head in 2004, which had a value of 477
million, with the value of entire male cattle exports in 2004 estimated to be approximately 42 million.
In the case of goats, numbers of entire males are not known with certainty, as this data is not collected. However assuming that at least 90 of goats exported are entire males More and
Brightling 2003, then for 2004 where the total value of exported goats was 4.7 million LiveCorp 2005 entire male shipments would have been valued at about 4.2 million.
Including data for all three species, it is estimated that the export trade in entire males had a value in 2004 of about 70 million, representing about 9.8 of the value of all livestock exports.
In the case of the cattle and goat components, and some sheep components of this trade, domestic markets for the majority of exported animals would either not be available or would be limited and,
but for the export market, it can be assumed that producers would not have received significant returns for these animals.
5 Literature Review
5.1 Background to
review
The review of the scientific literature on aggressive behaviour in entire males, and on identification and evaluation of options for modifications of this behaviour forms one component of the project.
However, because of the paucity of objective data in some areas, this review is not a traditional review of the scientific literature. Rather, it is a combination of relevant published scientific
information, extrapolations from accepted biological principles together with considerable anecdotal information derived from the experience, subjective judgements and assessments of a range of
individuals, commercial interests and organisations involved in the live export trade. Wherever possible, an attempt has been made to verify the latter type of information against published
information, but subjective judgements have been made by the authors when needed.
5.2 Introduction
The live export trade in livestock from Australia traditionally supplies the ‘wet markets’ of importing countries in the Middle East and in many parts of SE Asia. In these regions, where much of the meat
is processed, transported, sold and consumed within 24 hours of slaughter, very little of the product is refrigerated before or after sale. Because of tradition, in some cases religious and cultural
preferences, and as a consequence of the absence of processing and storage capacity for meat, there is a very strong preference for the purchase of livestock to supply such markets, rather than
the use of chilled or frozen meat products. Australian exports of live animals into overseas markets, have however led to flow-on effects including a greater demand for Australian imported meat
products including chilled and frozen lamb, mutton, beef and goat meats Anon 2005. Other indirect benefits from the live export trade in importing countries have included significant improvements in
animal welfare Brown 2005, in slaughtering and processing techniques Brown 2005, Beere 2005
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and in improved food safety Brown 2005. Some of these impacts have also resulted in flow back effects to other sectors of the Australian livestock industries including abattoir design and equipment
supply, refrigerated storage infrastructure developments and feedlot design and operations N Brown pers comm.
Were the supply of Australian livestock to be constrained in our current markets, evidence suggests that these would be quickly supplied by a number of other exporting countries, few of whom are
concerned with animal welfare issues or with improving processing procedures and enhancing the food safety chain Brown 2005.
In all Islamic societies, there is a strong cultural preference for the consumption of red meat from entire male animals Hughes 2000, Brown 2005. In the Middle East this is particularly prominent at
and around the time of the traditional pilgrimage to Mecca, the Haj, where sacrificial slaughterings form part of the ceremonial proceedings. Similarly there is an increased demand in SE Asia for
entire males prior to and around Ramadan and other religious festivals. In addition to these preferences, there is also a preference for the consumption of lean meat showing little fat cover.
Section 4.4. Patterns of behaviour of entire male domestic ruminants are frequently different from those of male
castrates or of females. Overt sexual behaviour is frequently displayed by male ruminants, both to females and to other animals in a group. In extreme cases this translates into aggressive behaviour
to other members of a group, can lead to physical injury both to the aggressed and to the aggressor, can disrupt feeding behaviour, and can reduce performance of other animals in a group, all of which
effects have welfare implications. In natural grazing situations, these abnormal behaviour patterns are not as important a problem, as
challenged animals have more spatial flexibility to avoid conflict scenarios. However once animals are restrained in smaller areas, as during pre-shipment assembly or while penned on board ship,
avoidance of aggressors is often very limited. Aggression problems can then have significant impacts on the welfare of some animals, and in some cases can contribute to higher death rates in
exported livestock.
5.3 Behavioural physiology and endocrinology in entire males
