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1 Introduction and background information
This survey was conducted in the eastern part of Kunene Province in southern Angola, specifically in the communities of Ondjiva, Xangongo and Shangalala. The languages that were the main focus of this study
were the local variants of the Wambo group R20 including Kwanyama [kua], and the southernmost Nyaneka variant Nkumbi [khu], all belonging to Bantu Zone R Guthrie 1970:60–61. Fieldwork took
place from April 26 to May 7, 2013 at the invitation of the Instituto de Línguas Nacionais ILN and with the support of the Igreja Evangélica Luterana de Angola IELA. The research was conducted with the full
knowledge and permission of the Kunene provincial culture office. The main purposes of this research were to investigate the relationships among neighbouring speech
varieties in the eastern part of Kunene Province, particularly Mbadja, Kwanyama, Nkumbi and the little- known Ndongona. Information was obtained through observation, informal conversation and interviews
in order to inform the direction of the research and the initial identification of local speech varieties. Dialect mapping exercises were facilitated in each community in order to identify neighbouring speech
varieties and probe the relationship between them. Wordlists were elicited to aid in the identification, description and classification of the Wambo and Nyaneka variants of the province. Finally, data on the
distribution of local variants was collected to aid in the revision of the Ethnologue mapping database for Angola forthcoming.
1.1 Identification of local speech varieties
Most of the speech varieties included in this study fall under the umbrella of Wambo, a macrolanguage of southern Angola and northern Namibia. Several variants of Wambo are considered to be languages in
their own right, namely Kwanyama [kua], Mbalanhu [lmb], Ndonga [ndo], Kwambi [kwm] and Ngandyera [nne]. Of these, only Mbalanhu and Ngandyera remain unwritten. Lewis, Simons and Fennig
2016. Each Wambo subgroup derived its name from an object that stood as a symbol of that group, similar
to a flag or a coat-of-arms. For example, the Ngandyera were represented by a large gourd. These subgroups have maintained their unique identities while still associating with the overall Wambo
ethnolinguistic identity. Nyaneka [nyk] is another large cluster of speech varieties with representatives in the part of Kunene
Province covered by this study. The most notable of those found within the provincial boundaries is Nkumbi [khu], which has some literature already available Lewis et al. 2016 and an ongoing language
development program. The classification of Nyaneka variants farther to the north and west of Nkumbi was treated in earlier studies Jordan 2015, Jordan and Manuel 2013.
The third important linguistic cluster in Kunene Province is Herero [her], here represented by Dhimba [dhm] among others. Herero influence can be observed on the western margins of the groups
included in this study and will be covered in more depth during future fieldwork.
1.1.1 Kwanyama
Kwanyama is the main focus of this study and the most influential Wambo variant of Angola. According to Fernandes and Ntondo 2002:52–53, Kwanyama has the following sub-variants:
• Evale
• Kafima
• Kwanyama
• Kwamato
• Ndombondola
• Kwangali
• Ombadja
A slightly different viewpoint was expressed by the interview group at the provincial office for the Ministry of Culture in Ondjiva. According to them, Evale, Kafima and Kwanyama are the three
historically Kwanyama-speaking groups. The origins of these groups were in three historical kingdoms. The Kafima essentially speak the Kwanyama sub-variant, while the Evale speak their own sub-variant,
which is essentially Kwanyama with some differences in pronunciation, tone and vocabulary. The close relationship of the Kafima to the central group is demonstrated by the fact that Kafima people can
inherit property in the Kwanyama area. The Ondjiva interview group also stated that Ndombondola can be counted as one of the eight
variants of Wambo. However, the Ndombondola people are not included in the list of what are generally accepted to be the eight ethnolinguistic subgroups of Wambo Tirronen 1986, so it is also possible that
their speech variety really is a sub-variant of Kwanyama. Another conflicting piece of information from the Ondjiva interview group is that the Ndombondola live in Calueque and are the same as the
Ndongona see section 1.1.5. They said that despite being considered ethnically Wambo, the Ndombondola are a mixture of Wambo, Nyaneka and Herero. More evidence for the exact identity of this
group will be discussed further in section 3.1. Regarding Kwanyama’s degree of development, two of the group interviewees stated that it is used
in first grade only, and only in some schools. Most adults can read it, while most youth cannot. To date, it is used as a written standard by the Mbadja people as well as speakers of Kwanyama’s sub-variants.
