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A new instrument, rendering the supply of emission allowances on auction more lexible and making the ETS
more resilient to any future large-scale event that may severely disturb the supply–demand balance was
considered: a Market Stability Reserve of CO
2
MRS, which will be introduced from 2021 onwards EC, 2014b.
2.2.4 India
India, where domestic demand makes up three-quarters of the national economy Damodaran, 2011, has been
relatively unafected by the global inancial recession because this recession in fact stimulated the already
high share of domestic consumption in total national expenditure. Nevertheless, ater an increase of about 10
in 2010, India’s GDP growth has slowed in recent years; in 2012 the GDP increased by 4.7 and in 2013 by 5.0 that
is comparable to a 4 GDP growth in 2008, which was the lowest in a decade World Bank, 2014.
India’s CO
2
emissions in 2013 continued to increase by 4.4 to about 2.1 billion tonnes, making it the fourth
largest CO
2
emiting country, following closely the European Union, and well ahead of the Russian
Federation, which is the ith largest emiting country Figure 2.2. This high ranking is partly caused by the size
of its population and economy; the workforce is expanding in the industry and services sectors, partially
because of international outsourcing World Bank, 2014. Per capita, India’s CO
2
emissions were much lower than those of most developed countries and China Figure 2.4.
The increase in 2013 was mainly caused by a 7.3 increase in coal consumption, which accounted for 59 of India’s
total fossil-fuel primary energy consumption and 55 of its total primary energy consumption BP, 2014. This
growth rate was lower than in the previous year, but much higher than those of 2010 and 2011. Coal-based
power production, accounting for almost 70 of all of India’s coal-related CO
2
emissions, grew by about 13 in 2012, the highest annual growth ever. Both the additional
capacity and generation level were higher Saikia and Sarkar, 2013. This coal share of 59 in India is smaller
than those of China and South Africa 74 share of coal in their fossil-fuel mix but similar to that of Poland and
Kazakhstan, other countries with large coal resources, and larger than the global average share in 2013 of 34.4.
In the last ive years the amount of imported coal and coke rose more than two times reaching 168 million
tonnes in 2013. Over the last four decades, through investment programmes and application of new
technologies, the production of coal increased seven times Coal India, 2014b. In India, further increases are
envisaged in coal demand for the next years. As indicated in the Annual Report 2013–2014 Coal India, 2014a, the
demand will increase by 2 over 2014–2015 and by 25 over 2016–2017. The 12th Five-Year Plan 2012–2017
envisions an increasing coal production to 795 million tonnes by 2016–2017, also fuelling new power plants,
which are planned to deliver an additional 78 GW.
2.2.5 Russian Federation
Russia alone keeps accounting for a share of 5.1 in global CO
2
in 2013 as in 2012 and keeps representing 56 of the emissions of the EIT countries. Ater a big drop in
emissions of 5.7 in 2009, compared to 2008, due to the global recession, Russia recorded the highest increase
of the last 20 years of 5.2 in 2011, compared to 2010. The increase levelled of to only a 1.0 increase in 2012,
compared to 2011, and a 0.8 decrease in 2013, compared to 2012.
Russia toughened the environmental legislation and since 1 January 2012 the associated petroleum gas needs to be
recovered for 95, which ramped up in 2013 the environmental expenditure of half of the companies,
according to Deloite 2014. Other companies delay such investments in anticipation of government support
measures, expected to take the form of preferential tax treatment. Technical regulations require oil companies to
upgrade their facilities by 2016 and switch to the production of modern types of fuel. Oil reineries owned
by large state-owned companies are not prepared to produce higher-quality fuel in the necessary volumes.
Moreover incentives for geologic exploration, Mineral Extraction Tax diferentiation for hard-to-extract
reserves and legislation for Russian continental shelf operations are fostered Skolkovo Moscow School of
Management, 2014.
2.2.6 Japan
The share of Japan in global CO
2
emissions decreased slowly, from 5.2 in the 1990s, to 4.5 in following
decade, to 3.8 in the 2011–2013 period. However, economic recovery following the recession of 2009
and the closure of nuclear power plants ater the Fukushima accident in 2011, led to the highest increases
in CO
2
emissions of the past 20 years, with 6.5 in 2012, compared to 2011, which levelled of by 0.6 in 2013,
compared to 2012. The increase in 2012 was partly due to a 5.4 increase in the use of coal, with consumption
levels back to those of the years 2007 to 2010.
In 2013 Japan became the world’s largest importer of liqueied natural gas, and the second-largest coal
importer behind China and the third largest net oil importer, because Japan has very limited domestic
energy resources and, according to the EIA, can only
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produce 3 of its domestic gas consumption and 0.3 of its domestic oil consumption EIA, 2014a. By 2013 Japan
had a bilateral agreement with New Zealand that allowed it to hold oil stocks on New Zealand’s behalf IEA, 2013a.
2.2.7 Other OECD and eastern European countries
In ‘other OECD-1990’ countries
5
, not included in the group of six largest emiting countriesregions, CO
2
emissions ater a decline of 1.3 in 2012 continued to decrease by
0.6 in 2013. Their share in global CO
2
emissions was 4 in 2013, with the largest contributions from Canada 1.6,
Australia 1.1 and Turkey 0.9. Over the course of 2013 compared to 2012, emissions dropped in Turkey by 1.1
and in Australia by 2.8, and increased in Canada by 0.7. The eastern European countries, excluding the Russian
Federation and the EU’s 13 new Member States, recorded a decrease of only 0.9 in 2013, following an increase of
0.6 in 2012 and large increases in CO
2
emissions in 2010 and 2011 of about 8.3 and 4.6, respectively. This group
of countries accounted for a share of 2.8 in global CO
2
, with the largest emiting countries being the Ukraine
0.9 and Kazakhstan 0.7 with an emission decrease of 2.6 and an increase of 2.3 in 2013, respectively.
2.2.8 Other developing countries
In 2013, emissions from the category of ‘other big developing countries’
6
represented 12 of the total in global CO
2
emissions, and the other developing countries
7
Figure 2.3
China United States
EU28 India
Russian Federation Japan
Germany South Korea
Canada Brazil
Indonesia United Kingdom
Saudi Arabia Mexico
Iran Italy
Australia France
South Africa Poland
Ukraine Taiwan
Thailand Spain
Netherlands 2000
4000 6000
8000 10000
12000 million tonnes CO
2
Source: EDGAR 4.2FT2010 JRCPBL 2012; BP 2014; NBS China 2014; USGS 2014; WSA 2014; NOAA 2012
pbl.nl jrc.eu.europa.eu
Industrialised countries Annex I
1990 2000
2013 Developing countries
1990 2000
2013
CO
2
emissions per country from fossil-fuel use and cement production
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Table 2.2 Trends in CO
2
emissions per regioncountry, 1990–2013 unit: billion tonnes of CO2, also available on htp:edgar.jrc.ec.europa.euoverview.php?v=CO2ts1990-2013
1990 1991
1992 1993
1994 1995
1996 1997
1998 1999
United States 5.0
5.0 5.0
5.18 5.3
5.3 5.4
5.6 5.7
5.7 EU28
4.3 4.3
4.1 4.1
4.0 4.1
4.2 4.1
4.1 4.0
France 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 Germany
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.9 0.9
0.9 0.9
0.9 0.9
Italy 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.4 Netherlands
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
Poland 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 Spain
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.3
United Kingdom 0.6
0.6 0.6
0.6 0.6
0.6 0.6
0.6 0.6
0.5 Japan
1.2 1.2
1.2 1.2
1.2 1.3
1.3 1.3
1.2 1.3
Other Annex II 0.8
0.8 0.9
0.9 0.9
0.9 0.9
1.0 1.0
1.0 Australia
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
Canada 0.5
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5 Russian Federation
2.4 2.3
2.1 2.0
1.8 1.8
1.7 1.6
1.6 1.6
Other Annex I-EIT 1.6
1.5 1.3
1.2 1.0
1.0 0.9
0.9 0.9
0.8 Ukraine
0.8 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
China 2.5
2.7 2.8
3.0 3.2
3.5 3.6
3.6 3.7
3.6 0.1
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2 0.2
0.2 Other Big DC
1.8 1.9
2.0 2.0
2.2 2.2
2.4 2.5
2.5 2.6
India 0.7
