In lines 4.10b and 4.28b the phrase yuya wa kani that of stubborn occurs in object position; he had not been explicitly mentioned in the previous clauses 4.10a and 4.28a. This indicates that the use of
the distal demonstrative is not restricted to marking subjects or active participants. In 4.27 he stubborn man is referred to using just the object marker -m; he was the subject in the previous clause and
remained salient enough in 4.27 not to need ‘reactivating’ through the use of a descriptive noun phrase. Finally, in the conclusion 4.29 the stubborn man is referred to using the noun phrase mutu wa kani
person of stubborn.
4.2.3 Minor participant
The group of hunters functions collectively as a minor participant. They are usually referred to simply with an incorporated pronoun, even at the start of a new paragraph, as in 4.4 and 4.23a. In line 4.10a
they are referred to in relation to the antagonist using a distal demonstrative plus a descriptive noun phrase hara ayae osi all those his companions and in 4.19 by a descriptive noun phrase alone: Ayae osi
All his companions. In 4.26a they are referred to as osi all in contrast to the antagonist in 4.26b.
4.2.4 Summary of text 4
In summary, in this text: • major participants are introduced with a locative presentational articulation or with a
descriptive relative clause; • the protagonist is first referred to using a non-proximal demonstrative in the orientation section;
• both major participants are referred to using a distal demonstrative plus noun when there is a change of subject always in the case of the protagonist; half the time in the case of the
antagonist and often at the start of a new paragraph; • the antagonist is also referred to using a distal demonstrative plus noun in object position when
he has not been mentioned in the previous clause; • a descriptive noun phrase without a demonstrative is used the rest of the time for the antagonist
when there is a change of subject; • there is over-specification of participants in the peak episode;
• minor participants are referred to using incorporated pronouns only, except when they are identified in relation to, or in contrast with a major participant, in which case a descriptive noun
phrase is used.
4.3 Participant reference in text 3
Mbodze na Matsozi
In this text the girls Mbodze and Matsozi together function as what I will call the primary major participants; they have been highlighted in red. They are not protagonists in that they do not
consistently initiate the action. The ghost is the secondary major participant; it has been highlighted in yellow. The old woman is an episodic major participant; she has been highlighted in blue. Some
unnamed people at the start of the story and the ghost’s friends near the end of the story highlighted in green are minor participants.
4.3.1 The primary major participants
The primary major participants Mbodze and Matsozi are introduced in 3.1 with a locative presentational construction see section 1.3.1. In the inciting episode see section 1.3.2 they are first
referred to using a noun plus proximal demonstrative 3.2 and subsequently referred to using incorporated pronouns 3.3–3.5.
Reference to the primary major participants through incorporated pronouns continues in paragraph 2 3.10–3.13. In paragraph 3, the old woman enters the story; she is the subject in lines 3.14 and 3.15,
and when the primary major participants become the new subject in line 3.16a, they are referred to using a distal demonstrative plus noun: Hara asichana Those girls, and their names, Mbodze na Matsozi.
The primary major participants are also referred to as hara asichana when they function as objects in lines 3.14b and 3.15a.
Paragraph 4 begins with a reference to the primary major participants as Mbodze na nduguye Matsozi Mbodze and her sister Matsozi. This over-specification may be explained by the fact that this is the
point at which the girls escape from their predicament and leave the story, and is therefore part of the peak episode. For the rest of the story references to the girls are either in object or oblique position
3.19a, 3.24b, and 3.26b, or they are referred to individually by name 3.21 and 3.22.
4.3.2 The secondary major participant
The secondary major participant the ghost is introduced abruptly in line 3.10 after the song at the end of the inciting episode. The ghost is presented as if it has already been mentioned, using the distal
demonstrative yuya in the expression yuya mutu ni zimu that person was a ghost. In the rest of this paragraph and the next, the ghost functions grammatically as an oblique, and never as the subject of a
clause, and is referred to using a bare noun: zimu ghost as in 3.11b, 3.12a, 3.14c, or distal demonstrative plus noun: rira zimu that ghost in 3.13.
In the final two paragraphs before the conclusion, the primary major participants have been dismissed from the story and the ghost is the subject of almost every clause. The ghost is referred to
using a bare noun: zimu ghost in lines 3.19a and 3.24a, at the start of paragraphs 5 and 6, and also in lines 3.23a and 3.26c where there is a change of subject in line 3.26b, the ghost—referred to as myawao
their friend—is the subject of a clause which is dependent on the verb akuta they met in which the subject is the other ghosts. In all other clauses but one where there is no change of subject, the ghost is
referred to using an incorporated pronoun varying between class 1, indicating human entities, and class 5, indicating supernatural or dangerous creatures.
Even though there is no change of subject or new paragraph, the ghost is referred to using a noun in line 3.21 ‘The ghost called Mbodze and she replied from the cooking stones’. This is because 3.21 is not
on the main event line; together with line 3.22 it constitutes an elaboration of the events described in 3.20 ‘That day the ghost called out for those girls and it was answered as usual’. That is, the events
described in 3.21 and 3.22 did not occur after those described in 3.20; instead 3.21 and 3.22 describe in more detail the events summarized in 3.20.
4.3.3 The episodic major participant
