Kontribusi Respirasi Heterotrofik Dari Respirasi Tanah Total Dari Hutan Rawa Gambut Dan Perkebunan Kelapa Sawit Di Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia

CONTRIBUTION OF
HETEROTROPHIC RESPIRATION TO TOTAL SOIL
RESPIRATION FROM PEAT SWAMP FOREST AND OIL
PALM PLANTATIONS IN CENTRAL KALIMANTAN,
INDONESIA

DEDE HENDRY TRYANTO

GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2016

STATEMENT OF THESIS, SOURCES OF INFORMATION
AND COPYRIGHT*
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis entitled “Contribution of
heterotrophic respiration to total soil respiration from peat swamp forest and oil
palm plantations in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia” is my original work under the
supervision of academic committee members. Any contribution made to the
research by others, with whom I have worked at Bogor Agricultural University or
Center for International Forestry Research is explicitly acknowledged in the

thesis.
Materials previously published or written by other person mentioned in the
text and listed in the bibliography at the end of this thesis. I declare that no part of
the thesis submitted has been used for any other paper in another higher education
institution, research institution or educational institution. I agree that the copyright
of this article is owned by Bogor Agricultural University.

Bogor, February 2016
Dede Hendry Tryanto
ID P052130551

RINGKASAN
DEDE HENDRY TRYANTO. Kontribusi respirasi heterotrofik dari respirasi
tanah total dari hutan rawa gambut dan perkebunan kelapa sawit di Kalimantan
Tengah, Indonesia. Dibimbing oleh CECEP KUSMANA, KRISTELL
HERGOUALC’H dan YADI SETIADI.
Dalam cadangan karbon global, hutan rawa gambut di kawasan Asia
Tenggara memegang peranan penting sekaligus sebagai mitigasi terkait perubahan
iklim di masa yang akan datang. Hutan gambut tropis menyimpan karbon dalam
jumlah besar di dalam tanah dalam ekosistem tanah gambut. Konversi hutan rawa

gambut menjadi perkebunan kelapa sawit merubah fungsi alami dari ekosistem
hutan sebagai penyerap dan penyimpan karbon akan menjadi sebagai sumber
penghasil karbon (Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2013). Laju kerusakan hutan rawa
gambut di Indonesia sangat tinggi (1.5 - 2.2% per tahun) dibandingkan dengan
type hutan lainnya selama kurun waktu 2000 - 2010 (Miettinen et al. 2012b),
Sebagai akibat pembangunan perkebunan kelapa sawit di ekosistem tanah gambut.
Konversi hutan rawa gambut menjadi perkebunan kelapa sawit berakibat pada
kenaikan emisi dari gas rumah kaca ke atmosfir terutama emisi CO2.
Respirasi tanah sangat penting dalam perhitungan perubahan dalam stock C
atau dalam perubahan C dalam suatu ekosistem (IPCC 2006). Respirasi tanah
merupakan penjumlahan dari respirasi autotrofik (akar dan rizosfir) dan respirasi
heterotrofik (mikroba dan hewan tanah) (Ryan & Law, 2005, Dalun et al 2011).
Akan tetapi, hanya respirasi heterotrofik yang berkontribusi terhadap peningkatan
CO2 terakumulasi di atmosfir (Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2013, Murdiyarso et al.
2010). Dalam penelitian ini metode trenching digunakan untuk mengukur
respirasi heterotrofik (SRh) di hutan gambut dan perkebunana kelapa sawit.
Penelitian ini dilakukan di dua tipe penggunaan lahan yaitu hutan rawa gambut
yang berada di dalam Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting dan dua perkebunan sawit
milik masyarakat dengan perbedaan umur [1 tahun (OP1) dan 5 tahun (OP5)]
dalam kawasan penyangga kawasan taman nasional.

Tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah menghitung seberapa besar
kontribusi dari repirasi heterotofik dari respirasi tanah total. Mengetahui
hubungan faktor yang mempengaruhi dari respirasi tanah dari hutan rawa gambut
dan perkebunan kelapa sawit.
Rataan respirasi tanah heterotrofik sebelum re-trenched di hutan 8.8 ± 0.3
Mg C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1), menghasilkan 57% dari respirasi tanah total (15.4 ± 0.4 Mg
C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1). Setelah re-trenched rataan respirasi tanah heterotrofik di hutan
meningkat menjadi 9.0 ± 0.4 Mg C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1, atau 88% dari respirasi tanah
total (10.3 ± 0.4 Mg C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1). Di OP1 respirasi tanah heterotrofik
berkontribusi sebesar 89% dari respirasi tanah total sebelum re-trenched dan
123% setelah re-trenched. Di OP5, kontrbusi respirasi tanah heterotrofik yang
dihasilakan sebesar 87% dari respirasi tanah total.
Kata kunci
Emisi CO2, gas rumah kaca, trenching, perubahan tata guna lahan

SUMMARY
DEDE HENDRY TRYANTO. Contribution of heterotrophic respiration to total
soil respiration from peat swamp forest and oil palm plantations in Central
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Supervised by CECEP KUSMANA, KRISTELL
HERGOUALC’H and YADI SETIADI

In a global carbon store, tropical peat swamp forests in Southeast Asia play
an important role in future global climate change. Tropical peatlands store a huge
amount of carbon in belowground ecosystem as peat soil. Conversion of
peatswamp forest to oil palm plantation shifts the function of the natural state of
forest from carbon sink to carbon source (Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2013). The rate
of peatswamp forest deforestation in Indonesia has been higher (1.5-2.2% per year)
than that of other forest types during 2000-2010 (Miettinen et al. 2012b), which
mainly due to establishment of oil palm plantation on peat. Consequently, the
conversion of primary peat swamp forests to oil palm plantations is believed to
increase emissions of GHG especially CO2 emission into the atmosphere.
Soil respiration is very important for quantifying either the change in C
stocks or in C fluxes in the ecosystem (IPCC 2006). Soil respiration is the sum of
autotrophic respiration (root and rhizosphere) and heterotrophic respiration
(microbes and soil fauna) (Ryan & Law, 2005, Dalun et al 2011). It should be
noted that only the heterotrophic respiration contributes peat C loss into the
atmosphere (Hergoualch’h & Verchot 2013, Murdiyarso et al. 2010). Trenching
methods was applied to measure heterotrophic respiration (SRh) in this study. Soil
flux rates of carbon dioxide (CO2) were studied under a primary peat swamp
forest inside Tanjung Puting National Park and two smallholder oil palm
plantations [1 year (OP1) and 5 years old (OP5)] in a buffer area of the park.

The main objective of this study was to quantify the contribution of
heterotrophic component to total soil respiration. In addition, we also determined
controlling factors of soil respirations from peat swamp forest and oil palm
plantation ecosystems.
Mean heterotrophic respiration rate before re-trenched in the forest 8.8 ± 0.3
Mg C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1), amounted to 57% of total respiration (15.4 ± 0.4 Mg C-CO2
ha-1 yr-1). After re-trenched heterotrophic respiration rate in the forest increased to
9.0 ± 0.4 Mg C-CO2 ha-1 yr-1, or 88% of total respiration (10.3 ± 0.4 Mg C-CO2
ha-1 yr-1). In the OP1, heterotrophic respiration contributed to 89% of total soil
respiration before re-trenched and 123% after re-trenched. In the OP5, 87% of
total soil respiration was derived from heterotrophic component.
Keyword
CO2 emissions, greenhouse gas, trenching, land-use change

© Copy Right of IPB, 2016
All right reserved
Unless otherwise indicated, all materials on this thesis are copyrighted by the
Bogor Agricultural University. All rights reserved. No part of these pages, either
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reproduction, modification, storage in a retrieval system or retransmission, in any

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personal use, is strictly prohibited without prior written permission.

CONTRIBUTION OF
HETEROTROPHIC RESPIRATION TO TOTAL SOIL
RESPIRATION FROM PEAT SWAMP FOREST AND OIL
PALM PLANTATIONS IN CENTRAL KALIMANTAN,
INDONESIA

DEDE HENDRY TRYANTO

Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Magister of Science at Natural Resources and Environmental
Management

GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2016

External examiner: Dr Ir Iwan Hilwan, MS

Thesis Title

Name
ID

: Contribution of heterotrophic respiration to total soil respiration
from peat swamp forest and oil palm plantations in Central
Kalimantan, Indonesia
: Dede Hendry Tryanto
: P052130551

Approved by
Supervising committee

Prof Dr Ir Cecep Kusmana, MS
Head

Dr Kristell Hergoualc’h
Member

Dr Ir Yadi Setiadi, M.Sc
Member

Endorsed by

Head of Natural Resources and
Environmental Management

Dean of Graduated School

Prof Dr Ir Cecep Kusmana, MS

Dr Ir Dahrul Syah, MSc.Agr

Defense date:

Graduated date:

FOREWORDS
Praise and gratitude to Allah Subhanahu wa ta’alla and prophet
Muhammad SAW that have provided all the best time in my life. I would like to
thanks my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Ir Cecep Kusmana, MS, Dr Kristell Hergoualc’h
and Dr. Ir. Yadi Setiadi, MSc for their guidance, invaluable suggestions,
constructive comments for my thesis entitled Contribution heterotrophic
respiration to total soil respiration from peat swamp forest and oil palm
plantations in Central Kalimantan. I thank Dr. Ir. Iwan Hilwan, MS as an external
examiner for suggestions and comments on my final defense. I would like to
thank Prof. Daniel Murdiyarso, Prof. Lou Verchot, Prof. Boone J Kauffman, and
Prof. Dudung Darusman for extraordinary supports for this research.
I would also like to thank my parents for their support and best wishes, my
brothers (Tryan Budiarna and Aa Denny Budiarna), who always support me in
any condition. Thank you very much for my beloved wife (Nisa Novita), your
patience, support and motivation give me an extra energy to finish this study.
Thanks to Desti Hertanti for your kindly help for this research. I thank Tanjung
Puting National Park officers for permissions to work on Tanjung Puting National
Park territory. I thank the owners of oil palm plantations (Mr. Marhatab and
Mr.Kero) for allowing me to work on their properties. Finally, I appreciate all

field assistants from Sekonyer village.
The research study is part of a large research SWAMP (Sustainable
Wetlands Adaptation and Mitigation Program), is a collaborative by the CIFOR
(Center for International Forestry Research), the USFS (United State
Development Agency Forest Services) and OSU (Oregon State University) with
support from USAID (United States Agency of International Development) with
(Grand Agreement # MTO 069018).

Bogor, February 2016
Dede Hendry Tryanto
ID P052130551

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

vi

1 INTRODUCTION
Background
Scope of Study
Objective Study
Research Benefits
Hyphotesis
Research Framework

1
2
2
3
3
4

2 LITERATURE RIVIEW
Tropical Peat Swamp Forest
Oil Palm Plantations
Soil Respiration

5
7
9

3 MATERIAL AND METHOD
Site Description
Experimental Design
Soil CO2 respiration measurement
Environmental variables
Statistical Analysis

11
13
14
15
16

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Result
Soil Properties
Soil Respiration
Relationship CO2 Fluxes and Enviromental Variable
Discussion
Environmental variables
Contribution of SRh to SRt

17
19
20
24
26
26
27

5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Conclusion
Suggestion

29
29

6 REFERENCES

30

BIOGRAPHY

34

LIST OF TABLES
1 Soil physical and chemical properties in the forest, OP1 and OP5
during the sampling period in Tanjung Puting, Central Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Mean ± SE (n)
2 Monthly average of and annual soil respiration before and after
re-trenching in the forest and 10 month (OP1), 5 year old (OP5)
didn’t included because no apply re-trenching. Total respiration
(SRt) was measured at two distinct spatial position (close to tree CT and far from tree - FT); heterotrophic respiration (SRh)
was monitored in plot without trees. Data are presented as
mean ± SE (n)
3 Cumulated soil total (SRt) and heterotrophic (SRh) respiration rates
(Mg CO2-C ha-1 y-1) and contribution of SRh to SRt (% SRh)
during the whole monitoring period (13 months) and
during the before and after re-trenching periods. The land-uses
are forest (F), one (OP1) and five (OP5) year old oil palm plantations
on peat in Kalimantan, Indonesia

20

23

23

LIST OF FIGURES
1 Research framework
2 Global distribution of tropical peatland in the world
(Page et al. 2011)
3 Oil palm distributions in Sumatra and Kalimantan
(Sources: Miettinen et al. 2012a)
4 Uses of oil palm byproducts and biomass in food
and manufacturing industries (Source: Fairhurst & Mutert 1999)
5 Conceptual model of the component and responses
of CO2 efflux from soil. (Sources: Ryan & Law 2005)
6 Research study in a primary peat swamp forest in national park
area and oil palm plantation in a border national park
7 Position of the soil respiration collars (black circle),
close to tree and far from tree in the forest (top) and
oil palm plantations (bottom) in control (left) and trenched areas
8 Monthly mean air temperature (a), soil temperature (b),
in the forest (dashed line, solid triangle), OP1 (solid line,
open circle) and OP5 (solid line, solid diamond)
9 Monthly mean WFPS (water-filled-pore space) in the forest
(dashed line, solid triangle), OP1 (solid line, open circle)
and OP5 (solid line, solid diamond)
10 Monthly mean range water table depht in 2 in the forest
(dashed line, solid triangle), OP1 (solid line, open circle)
and OP5 (solid line, solid diamond)

4
5
7
8
9
11

13

17

18

19

11 Forest (a), OP1 (b) and OP5 (c). Monthly mean CO2 emission
from SRh (dashed line, solid triangle) and SRt-CT
(solid line, open circle), SRt-FT (solid line, solid diamond)
with SE. T indicate the re-trenching in December 2013
12 Relationship soil respiration and environmental variable
(Data show with P-value < 0.05)
13 Relationship soil respirations and soil temperature (A),
soil respirations and water table depth (B).

21
25
26

1

1 INTRODUCTION

Background
The largest area (68%) of tropical peatlands is located in Southeast Asia
(Yu et al. 2010). Indonesia alone hosts 15-21 million hectares of peatlands and
about 14-18% of them are located in central Kalimantan (Wahyunto et al. 2003,
2004, 2006, Haryono et al. 2011). Peat swamp forests have significant global
carbon (C) pools and store most of their C in the peat (Murdiyarso et al. 2009).
These large amounts of C in the peat have accumulated over millennia as the
result of a simultaneous high primary productivity but low decomposition rates in
waterlogged conditions. Peat C stores of Indonesia, Kalimantan and Central
Kalimantan were recently estimated to amount to 28.1, 9.4 and 6.1 Pg C,
respectively (Warren et al. 2015).
Southeast Asian peat swamp forests are under being converted to
agriculture at high rates. Peat swamp forest deforestation rate has been higher than
that of other forest types during 2000-2010 (1.5-2.2% per year) (Miettinen et al.
2012b). In comparison, during the same period, annual deforestation rates of
mangrove, lowland evergreen forests, lower and upper montane forests were 1.3,
1.2, 0.2 and 0.4%, respectively. At such a rate of deforestation, Southeast Asian
peat forests may disappear by 2030. In Kalimantan, 51% of peatlands were
forested in 2005 but the proportion decreased to 48% in 2010 (Miettinen & Liew
2010, Miettinen et al. 2012a). Limitations for land and increasing demand for
agricultural development especially oil palm plantations are the main reasons
driving the high rates of peat swamp forest conversion. The expansion of
industrial oil palm plantations on peat in Malaysia and Indonesia between 1990
and 2010 was approximately 2.15 million ha (Miettinen et al. 2012b). In
Kalimantan, peat forest conversion to oil palm plantation increased from 3% in
the 1990s to 16% in the 2000s (Carlson et al. 2013).
Peat forest conversion to oil palm plantation implies drastic vegetation
cover changes and drainage of the land, which turns the carbon sink into a source
(Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2013). The conversion is estimated to release as much as
427 Mg C ha-1 over 25 years (Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2011, Hergoualc’h &
Verchot 2013, Drösler et al. 2014). Fires used for land-clearing are sometimes
uncontrolled and release massive emissions of greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere which is the cause of major international concern (Gaveau et al.
2014).
Quantification of peat C losses from forest conversion to oil palm
plantation requires knowledge on the main components contributing to increase or
decrease the pool. Carbon enters the peat in the form of above and belowground
litter, it leaves through peat and litter mineralization (or heterotrophic soil
respiration - SRh), land-clearing fires, methane (CH4) emissions, and dissolved
and particulate organic C (Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2013). Very few studies have
quantified SRh in tropical peatlands (Ishida et al. 2001; Melling et al. 2007;
Jauhainen et al. 2012; Dariah et al. 2014) and studies evaluating peat C loss often
confound total and heterotrophic soil respiration. Soil respiration is made up of
autotrophic respiration (by roots) and heterotrophic respiration (by microbes and

2

soil fauna) (Ryan & Law, 2005, Dalun et.al. 2011) however only the
second component of the respiration contributes to peat C loss to the atmosphere
(Ryan & Law. 2005, Hergoualc’h & Verchot 2011). Determining the contribution
of autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration to total soil respiration is difficult. For
this various methods have been developed and used under both laboratory and
field conditions. These include root trenching, root biomass regression, tree
girdling, measuring respiration of excised or living roots and incubation of rootfree soil. Isotopic methods include continuous or pulse labelling of shoots in
14
CO2, air CO2 enrichment, radiocarbon dating of soil CO2, bomb-14CO2, and 18O
of CO2 (Kuzyakov, 2006). All methods present biases and uncertainties. Isotopic
methods allow non-destructive partitioning but are expensive and not always
applicable (Ryan & Law 2005). Among the non-isotopic methods available only
the trenching and soil incubation methods are adequate for comparatively
evaluating the components of soil respiration in a peat swamp forest and an oil
palm plantation. We opted for the first method that allows a temporal
characterization of soil respiration partitioning “in situ”.
We studied a primary peat swamp forest and 2 oil palm plantations with
different ages (10 month (OP1) and 5 year old (OP5)) in Central Kalimantan,
Indonesia. The main objective of the research was to quantify how peat swamp
forest conversion to oil palm plantation affected soil C losses through
heterotrophic CO2 soil respiration. We combined the trenching method with the
dynamic closed chamber technique to measure total and heterotrophic soil
respiration over a year (from June 2013 to June 2014). We also examined interrelationships between soil respiration and environmental variables, including
climatic variables, physicochemical soil properties and root density.

Scope of Study
This research focused on the contribution of heterotrophic component to
total soil respiration (microbes and soil fauna) from tropical peat swamp forest
and oil palm plantation ecosystems. The influence of environmental variables
such as soil moisture, air and soil peat temperature, water table depth and litterfall
on heterotrophic and total soil respiration was also assessed. Heterotrophic
respiration (SRh) is important C source, which directly related to CO2
concentration in the atmosphere. Soil respiration or CO2 emissions were measured
with two treatments (total respirations and heterotrophic respirations), using a
trenched method.

Objective Study
The objectives in this research were:
1. Quantify heterotrophic and total soil respiration associated with conversion
peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation.
2. Determine correlation between soil respiration and environmental variable in
peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation ecosystems.

3

Research Benefits
The benefits in this research were :
1. Input to the IPPC report to update CO2 emissions factor peat swamp forest and
oil palm plantations.
2. As a robust scientific reference to estimate the contribution of heterotrophic
component to total soil respiration in both land use types.

Hyphotesis
The hypothesis in this research were
1. Contribution heterotrophic respiration in the peat swamp forest is lower than
that in the oil palm plantation.
2. CO2 emissions are strongly related with water table depth in both ecosystems
(tropical peat swamp forest and oil palm plantations).
3. Total soil respiration in oil palm plantation is higher than that in peat swamp
forest.

4

Research Framework

Increase concentration CO2 (Global Warming)







Environmental
variables
Soil moisture
Soil temperature
Air temperature
Water table depth
Literfall

CO2 Emmissions

Total Soil Respiration

Autotrophic Respiration

Heterotrophic Respiration

(Root and rhizosfir)

(Microbes and soil fauna)

Conversion
Tropical Peat Forest,
Sources and Sink CO2

Figure 1 Research framework

Oil Palm (Elais
guineensis) plantations

5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Tropical Peat Swamp Forest
The presence of peatlands in Southeast Asia was first reported by John
Andersen in 1974. In the report, he described the peat deposits in the Riau region
of Sumatra, Indonesia. In the 19th century reported extensive peatlands in other
parts of Sumatra, as well as in Kalimantan and Sarawak (Page et al. 2006). Most
peatlands in Southeast Asia is found in Indonesia 83.5% (206.950 km2), following
Malaysia 10.4% (25.889 km2), Papua New Guinea 4.4% (10.986 km2) and others
such as Philippines 0.3%, Thailand 0.3%, Vietnam 0.2% and Brunei 0.4% (Page
et al. 2011). Southeast Asia have 56.2% from the total global tropical peatland,
followed by South America 24.4%, Africa 12.7%, Central America and Caribbean
5.3% and other Asia 1.4%.
Pacifik, 0
Central
America and
Caribbean,
5.30%
Africa,
12.70%

South
America,
24.40%

Other Asia,
1.40%

Southeast
Asia, 56.20%

Figure 2 Global distribution of tropical peatland in the world (Page et al. 2011)
Peatlands are important terrestrial wetland ecosystems in which the
production of organic matter exceeds its decomposition. Tropical peatland have
stored a large amount carbon in the world because contains biomass highest more
than mineral soils. Moreover, tropical peatland play a significant role in
supporting biodiversity included unique and endemic species. Ecosystem peatland
have developed over millennial time scale and the natural state support a
vegetation cover peat swamp forest (Page et al. 2006). Several factors influence
peat formation and preservation, including a positive climatic moisture balance
(precipitation minus evaporation), high-relative humidity, topographic and
geological conditions that favor water retention, and low substrate pH and nutrient
a viability (Page et al. 2006).
In tropic, these lowland peatlands are almost exclusively ombrogenous (the
peat surface only receives water from precipitation), whereas geogenous
peatlands, that are fed additionally by water that has been in contact with the
mineral bedrock and soils, are or more limited distribution (Page et al. 2006).

6

Undisturbed, lowland ombrogenous peatlands support peat swamp forest,
freshwater swamp forest are associated with geogenous peatlands. Tropical
peatlands is the large area and carbon storage, although found in all humid
tropical regions (Page et al. 2011).
In Southeast Asia, peatlands in this region cover an area about 247.778 km2
and store approximately 68.5 Gt carbon in the peat, and peat carbon store is
estimated to be 77% of the carbon in all tropical peatland an about 11-14% of the
global peatland carbon pool (Page et al. 2011). Peat swamp forest usually are
found in the lowlands, low altitude in sub coastal zone, are aligotrophic terrestrial
wetland ecosystem and have high soil acidity (pH less than 4) and low nutrient.
Water and nutrient supply to the ecosystem only from rainfall (ombrogenous),
peat swamp forest usually waterlogged conditions represent soil provent dead
leaves and wood from fully decomposing.
Tropical peat swamp forest in Southeast Asia cover very large area at
altitude from sea level to about 50 meter above mean sea level, especially near to
the coast of East Sumatra, Kalimantan, Timor Leste, papua New Guinea, Brunei,
Malaysia and Thailand (Rieley et al. 1996). Peat swamp forest have a unique
characteristic, high rainfall rates, hig temperature, high relative humidity, high
water table during the periode will promote anaeorobic decomposition and peat
breakdown will be slowly (Rieley et al. 1996). Peat swamp forest is formed from
the decay of organic matter, in the field of scence know as a peat soil Histosols, or
popularly known as a peat. According to the Soil Survey Staff (2003), organic soil
materials with a diameter 0,1 g cm-3
with thickness >40 cm (Soil Survey Staff, 2003). Classification peat can know
from maturity level soil:
1. Sapric (mature) its decaying peat already advance and original material
not recognized, dark brown to black, and when crushed fiber content
75% fiber content remaining.

7

Oil Palm Plantations
Oil palm has a Latin name is “Elaesis guineensis” it’s originated from in
West and Central Africa. Oil palm is a native habitat of oil palm in tropical
rainforest with 1780-2280 mm annual rainfall and temperature range of 24-30°C.
Production or grow of Oil palm 3-8 time more oil from a given area than any
other tropical or temperate oil crop and most of crude palm oil is used in foods. In
scale of agricultural, established oil palm usually spacing for planted at a 9 m by
7.5 m and resulting 148 palms per ha and produce one new frond every 3 weeks
(Sheil et al. 2009). Oil palm introduced to Southeast Asia in 1917, and in 1966
Indonesia and Malaysia began to dominate world trade in palm oil taking over
from Nigeria and Congo (Poku, 2002). Southeast Asia is an ideal condition for
productions oil palm because seasonal droughts at highest tropical latitudes
greatly reduce yields (Basiron, 2007).
The first oil palm established in Peninsular Malaysia in 1917 (Sheil et al.
2009). Industry oil palm plantations a threat to the existence and was destroyed
tropical peat forest in Indonesia and Malaysia, profitable businesses values was
contribute essentially to increasing economic, where the NPV (net present values)
of oil palm agriculture reach about $3835-9630 per ha and it is much more
profitable than conserving forest stand (Murdiyarso et.al. 2010). Globally,
Indonesia and Malaysia accounts about 90% of the 36 million tones of CPO
produced per annum (USDA 2008). In 1967 production oil palm in Indonesia
more or less 168.000 tones with lands 105.808 ha, and in 2006 production oil
palm increase 16.4 million tones with land 6.2 million ha. Industry oil palm
growing up following demand to product from palm oil, but the problems arises
when the forest is converted to oil palm plantations especially in peat forest. A
major driver of deforestation peat forest in Indonesia it’s easier to get permit from
government for oil palm development. In figure 3 below showed land use change
from affect oil palm plantations development in peat forest in Sumatra and
Kalimantan.

Figure 3 Oil palm distributions in Sumatra and Kalimantan
(Sources: Miettinen et al. 2012a).

8

Oil palm industry increasing faster because many products depend of palm
oil, product included fruit, nut and trunk with good management would be to
multiple use of byproduct and can increase the value, profit and reduce waste.. Oil
palm industry can achieve almost zero pollution discharge, not disturbance
environmental condition with a combination of reuse, recycling, using solid and
liquid wastes, and appropriate energy management (Chavalparit et al. 2006).
Product of palm oil divided into 3 parts it’s a fruit, nut and trunk show in figure 4.
Fruit from oil palm produce crude palm oil, fibre and sludge where the products
use for food, oleochemichal, particle board and feedstuff. Other part such a nut
produce kernel, palm cake, shell and empty bunch. Trunk with is considered as a
waste can use be a value commodity such as furniture and other.
High value from oil palm industry also impact upon local people to increase
the harvest of the plantations, increase economic value. Addition, for the
industrial development with high economic value, biodiesel as a high value from
oil palm product, converting oil palm into biodiesel is economically a marginal
activity at best. Producers who signed forward contracts to deliver biodiesel to
European or United State of America (USA) buyers are scrambling to secure
vegetable oil inputs at a reasonable price and, for the most part, are meeting
contracts at a loss. Biodiesel producers who are the best off are those with a wellintegrated supply chain who also own large plantations (e.g. Wilmar Holdings,
which is currently establishing a large biodiesel plant in Riau) (Casson et al.
2007).
Food (frying oil, margarine, cocoa butter
substitue
Crude
palm oil

Fruit

Oil palm

Nut

Fibre

Particle board, pulp, paper

Sludge

Feedstuff, soap, fertilizer

Kernel

Frying oil, salad oil, oleochemical

Palm cake

Feedstuff, fertilizer

Shell

Carbon briquette, activated carbon,
particle board

Empty bunch
Trunk

Oleochemical (stearine, soap, detergent,
lubricant, biodiesel)

Pulp, paper, particle board, fertilizer,
energy
Furniture, particle board, feedstuff, starch,
energy

Figure 4 Uses of oil palm byproducts and biomass in food and manufacturing
industries.
(Source: Fairhurst & Mutert 1999)

9

Soil Respiration
Soil respiration is very important for quantifying either the change in C
stocks or in C fluxes in the ecosystem (IPCC 2006). Soil respiration is the sum of
autotrophic respiration (root and rhizosphere) and heterotrophic respiration
(microbes and soil fauna) (Ryan & Law, 2005, Dalun et al 2011) however only
the heterotrophic respiration contributes peat C loss into the atmosphere
(Hergoualch’h & Verchot 2013, Murdiyarso et al. 2010). Heterotrophic
respiration in each land use change may be assessed by applying to soil respiration
rates a percentage attributed to organic matter decomposition (Hergoualch’h &
Verchot 2013). In terrestrial ecosystems, soil respirations are the major pathway
for carbon loss and input from and to the atmosphere, because we know that plant
metabolism or the decomposition of recently produced organic material. In the
carbon cycle change the belowground carbon pools can have a major impact on
carbon storage and change carbon flux to the atmosphere (Ryan & Law. 2005).
Indicator of ecosystems metabolism and fine-scale process can estimate with
measurement soil respiration. To estimate belowground carbon allocation required
integrated measurement (Ryan & Law. 2005). Soil respiration and aboveground
processes are strongly linked, but the links can be complicated (Figure 5).
Photosynthesis supply carbon substrate for root metabolism and growth and a
decrease in substrate supply can decrease soil respiration within days (Hogberg et.
al. 2001). Production of litter, timing and allocation to roots, mycorrhizae and
exudates can also alter soil respiration and carbon storage belowground. Soil
respiration measurement themselves are poorly linked to changes in belowground
carbon pools or to the controls such change.
CO2
Photosynthesis
Depend on: Nutrient supply,
Temperature, Soil Moisture,
Light, Forest Age
Recent CO2

Autotrophic
Autotrophic
Respiration
Respiration
Depend
Depend on:
on:
Allocation
Allocation
Temperature
Temperature
Soil
Moisture
Soil Moisture
Storage
Storage

Belowground
Allocation
Depend on:
Photosynthesis
Nutrient supply,
Temperature,
Soil Moisture,
Light,
Forest Age, Sp

Recent and older CO2
Organic Soil
Layer

Exudates
Microbes

Live Roots and
Mycorrhizae
Dead Roots and
Mycorrhizae

Recalcitrant
Soil Carbon

Heterotrophic
Respiration
Depend on:
Allocation
Temperature Soil
Moisture
Quality
Labile Soil
Carbon

Figure 5 Conceptual model of the component and responses of CO2 efflux from
soil. (Sources: Ryan & Law 2005)

10

Soil respiration (autotrophic and heterotrophic respirations) represents
biological production in the ecosystems for the CO2 fluxes from the soil surface
and released to the atmosphere (incresases or decreases) from interval time.
Quantify carbon balance of ecosystems is important, the rate that litter (including
large wood componenets), decomposes (above and belowground) can be
estimated (Waring & Running 2007). Tropical peat forests absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere and store in tree biomass, above and below grounds in the peat
ecosystem, but can be sinks for the Green House Gass (GHG) emissions when the
forest converted to other land use change. Forest degradation, deforestation, landuse change and forest fires are main reasons of increasing of CO2 emissions from
tropical peatlands.
CO2 is the most abundant trace gas in the atmosphere (401.30 ppm, parts per
million or μl per liter) in July 2015, (NOAA, 2015). CO2 is produced in soil by
microbial metabolism during organic matter decomposition. Thus the major
controls on its productions are essentially those that influence general
heterotrophic microbial activity (Schimel & Holland 1998). In the context of
understanding CO2 dynamic from a global perspective, climate is the most
important factor, with substrate quality second. Decomposition is slow in cool,
water logged environment, leading to the buildup of thick layer of decaying
material, or peat. Peat accumulation reduces the amount of CO2 returned to the
atmosphere, and peat account for roughly 24 of total soil carbon storage
worldwide (Schimel & Holland. 1998).
Carbon begins its cycle throught forest ecosystem when plant assimilate
atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis into reduced sugar. Usually about half
the gross photosynthesis products produced (GPP) are expended by plants in
autotrophic respiration (Ra) for the the synthesis and maintenance of living cells,
releasing CO2 back into the atmosphere. The remaining carbon products (GPP Ra) go into net primary productions (NPP): foliage, branches, stems, roots, and
plant reproductive organs. As a plant shed leaves and roots, or a killed, the dead
organic matter form detritus, a substrate a support animal and microbes, which
through their heterotrophic metabolism (Rh) released CO2 back into the
atmosphere. On a annual basic, undisturbed forest ecosystems generally show a
small net gain in carbon exchange with the atmosphere. This represents net
ecosystem production (NEP). The ecosystems may lose carbon if photosynthesis
is suddenly reduced or when organic materials are removed as a result of
disturbance (Waring & Running 2007).

11

3 MATERIAL AND METHOD

Site Description
The research site was located in the province of Central Kalimantan (2’35’3’20’ S and 111’50 - 112’15 E) in Indonesia (Figure 6). It is situated about an
hour from downtown in Pangkalan Bun, Kota Waringin Barat districts. Tanjung
Puting National Park is bordered to Java Sea to the west and south, the national
park covered approximately 400.000 ha. The climate categorized as humic
tropical. Tanjung Puting National Park displays minimum and maximum
temperatures of 18 - 21°C and 31 - 33°C (MoEF, 2015). The annual rainfall is
around 2180 mm with a dry month occurring between May and September
(MoEF, 2015).
The park was separated with local community by Sekonyer River to the
north and Seruyan River to the east. Tanjung Puting National Park is a famous as
a place protection, conservation and rehabilitation center for orang-utan (Pongo
pygmaeus), in addition it was found gibbons (Hylobates spp) red langur (Presbytis
rubicunda) and proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus).

Figure 6 Research study in a primary peat swamp forest in national park area and
oil palm plantation in a border national park.

12

Our study included 2 land use types: primary peat swamp forest and oil
palm plantation. The forest site (2’49’21” S, 111’50’24” E) was inside the
national park and the two oil palm sites (OP1, 2’47’33” S, 111’48’36” E; OP5,
2’47’28” S, 111’48’7” E) were located about 6 km away from the forest site
across the Sekonyer river. The forest site, locally known as Pesalat, is dominated
by Dipterocarpaceae (Shorea spp, vatica sp), Phyllanthaceae (Baccaurea
macrophylla) and Lauraceae (Litsea sp).
Based on a 100 x 10 meter transect survey, Pesalat consisted of trees with
diameter ranged from 8 cm to 60 cm with peat depths ranged from 115 cm to 280
cm. The forest floor is uneven with the presence of 20 - 30 cm tall hummocks
around tree trunks and hollows in between hummocks. The hummocks which
were formed of roots, accumulated decomposing litter and peat, remain above the
water surface during most the year.
We selected 2 different ages of oil palm plantations: 10 months (OP1) and 5
years (OP5) old. Both plantations were classified as small-scale plantations (1 1.5 ha) and owned by farmers in the Bedaun village. Both plantations received an
average fertilization rate of 97 kg N ha-1 in the form of urea or NPK every three
months, or with annual rates of 300 kg N ha-1 yr-1. Weeds and pests were
controlled by regularly applying herbicides around of the palm with radius
approximately 1 - 2 m from the palm.
We surveyed the study plots in the beginning of June 2012. The survey used
transects methods by 100 x 20 m. Peat depth and composition of vegetation in this
area were assessed. Location forests were chose represented the condition primary
forest with high canopy cover. Characteristic of a primary peat swamp forest
represented hollow and hummock spatial variability. Hummock represented a
drier condition because of root existence around tree that created a highest
elevated area. In addition, hollows are usually saturated during the rainy season.
Both plantations were converted from primary forest, but with slightly
different fires and land use histories. At OP1 plot, the forest was cleared using the
slash and burn technique after the valuable timber were extracted in 1989. The
land was fallowed for 2 years. From 1991 to 1993, the land was cropped with rice
(2 rotations per year) and burnt at the beginning of each rotation (4 times over 2
years). The land remained as fallow from 1993 to 2008, was again cultivated with
rice for 2 years and planted at a density of 178 oil palms ha-1 (about 9 m between
palms in a triangular design) in 2012, after land-clearing with fire. At OP5 plot,
the site was deforested in 1989 for cultivation, fallowed and re-cleared by slash
and burn in 2006. From periods 2006 to 2008, the land was utilized for rice
cultivation and horticulture crops, and it was burnt twice. In 2008, the owner it
was planted at a density of 228 oil palms ha-1 (about 7 m between palms in a
triangular design). Drainage canals with depth 1.57 m in OP5 and OP1 were
constructed around the plantation in order to lowering the water table and improve
palm growth and production. The distance between palm planted with canal was
around 5 - 10 m in the OP1 and OP5.

13

Experimental Design
At each of the 3 study sites, 100 x 50 meter area was delineated in which
two 100 x 10 meter plots were established. Split plot experimental design was
conducted for separated two treatments (control and trenched) (Figure 7). 3
control plots and 3 trenched plots per each plot were used for the measurements
CO2 emission and environmental variables. In each control and trenched plots,
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) collars (10.16 cm) were deployed for soil respiration
measurements and insert in deep 5 cm so flush with the ground. In the control
plot, 1 collar was placed close to a tree (CT) and the other far from the tree (FT).
4m

3m

8m

2m

8m
20 - 30 m

100 m

10 m

10 m

3m 2m

4m
4m

3m

8m

8m

8m
100 m

3m

8m

20 - 30 m

20 - 30 m

8m
8m

20 - 30 m

Drainage canal

Figure 7 Position of the soil respiration collars (black circle), close to tree and far
from tree in the forest (top) and oil palm plantations (bottom) in control (left) and
trenched areas.

14

In the forest, these 2 spatial positions coincided with a hummock and a
hollow. In the plantations the CT position (about 0.3 m from the palm) is where
the fertilizer is applied and the FT position was set at mid-distance between 2
palms (i.e. at about 4 m from the palm trunk). In the trenched plots the 2 spatial
positions were chosen randomly, as these subplots were free of trees. In the oil
palm plantations, the distance between the control subplots was about 8 m in
accordance with palm spacing. A similar design was applied in the forest. The
distance between a control subplot and its trenched pair was about 20-30 m. The
plots were initially trenched in June 2012, 1 year prior to the beginning of the
measurements (June 2013) and re-trenched in December 2013, with the exception
of the OP5, which was not re-trenched because the plantation owner refused. The
trenches were 1 meter deep (depth at which no coarse roots were observed) and
0.2 meter wide and were made using a chainsaw. We lined the inner side of the
trenches with construction plastic and subsequently backfilled them. To minimize
soil disturbance we built boardwalks to access each measurement point. All
equipment was installed at least 1 month before the measurements started.
Soil CO2 respiration measurement
Total soil respiration (SRt) where SRt (SRt-CT and SRt-FT) and
heterotrophic soil respiration (SRh) were monitored monthly from June 2013 to
June 2014 (13 months period) using a portable infra-red analyzer (EGM-4
Environmental Gas Monitor) connected to a Soil Respiration Chamber (SRC-1)
(PP System, Amesburry, USA). At each position a PVC collar (inner diameter of
10.16 cm, height of 5 cm) was inserted into the ground to a 5 cm depth. Before
each measurement the collars were manually fanned in order to remove any
accumulated CO2. Then the soil respiration chamber was placed on top of the
collar and CO2 concentrations were recorded automatically at 4.5 seconds
intervals for 80 to 124 seconds. The CO2 flux was calculated by the EGM from
the linear increase of CO2 concentration in the headspace with time.
Mean monthly soil respiration rates were calculated for each spatial
position (in the control plots only) in each treatment (control and trenched) of
each land use. Annual total and heterotrophic soil respiration rates were calculated
by integration of monthly fluxes using a linear interpolation between
measurement dates (Hergoualc’h et al. 2008) for a 365 day year. Plot-scale
monthly or annual total soil respiration rates were calculated as the average of the
rate from the 2 spatial positions (FT, CT) in the forest.
Field observation indicated an equal share of hummocks and hollows in
the plot. In the plantations, the proportion allocated to each position was based on
the radius of fertilizer application (defined by the farmer) which likely coincides
with the active rooting zone of the palms. In the OP1 and OP5 the fertilizer was
usually applied inside a 1 m and 2 m radius circle around the palm, respectively.
Using the palm density we calculated that in the OP1 the close to a tree and far
from the tree areas represented, respectively, 4% and 96% of the plot surface. In
the OP5 these 2 areas represented, respectively 14% and 86% of the plot surface.

15

Environmental variables
Rainfall data were monitored daily using weather station (Delta Ohm
HD2013R, Padova, Italy) located in the OP1 and OP5. Annual rainfall was
calculated as the average of cumulated annual rainfall rate from the 2 stations.
Soil temperature at a 10 cm soil depth was measured using a soil thermometer
probe (Reotemp Digital TM99-A, USA). Air temperature was recorded manually
using a digital thermometer. The water table depth was measured in PVC tubes
(2.5 cm in diameter, 2 m in length) inserted into the peat. Each of these
parameters was measured at each respiration collar and concomitantly with CO2
fluxes. The gravimetric water content, bulk density and water-filled pore space
(WFPS) were also determined monthly by collecting at a 10 cm depth six soil
samples using a metallic ring (10.16 cm in diameter x 10 cm long). The samples
were collected outside of the soil respiration subplots in order to not disturb longterm measurements and included 3 replicates located close to tree and 3 replicates
located far from tree 3. The soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) was calculated
based on Haney & Haney (2010):

S l wat
S l bul
S l

t

S

t

ht
lu
S l at l

wat

nt nt
lu

l
ht

n t
t

lu

ht

nt nt

n

ht

n
l

l

nt nt bul

n t

n
l

l
S l bul
n t
n t a u
t b
a

t

wat

t wat
nt nt
S l
t

Soil moisture was calculated from the fresh weight measured in the field and
the dry weight after oven-drying at 60° for 2-3 days. Litterfall was collected
monthly in the forest using 12 permanent litter baskets (area = 0.28 m 2) randomly
positioned on trees. The litter was subsequently oven-dried at 60°C for 2 days and
weighted. Annual litterfall rate was calculated by cumulating monthly litterfall
over the 13 month monitoring period and annualizing the cumulative value to 12
months. Root density was measured from 6 replicates in each spatial position (CT
and FT) by using a plastic cylinder (area = 0.20 m2 at) inserted to 10 cm depth.
We did not collect root density in the trenched area, as we assumed that it is a free

16

root area. Root samples were separately into died-roots and living-roots, and then
the samples were oven-dried at 60° for 2 - 3 days to determine the dry mass.
At each site, we collected 3 composite soil samples (CT and FT confounded)
at a 10 cm depth for soil chemical analysis at the Forestry Faculty of Bogor
Agricultural Institute (IPB). The soil pH was determined in potassium chloride
(KCl) and water (H2O). Exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, Na and Ka), Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC) and base saturation were determined by displacing
these ions from the soil colloids with ammonium acetate adjusted to pH 7
(Chapman, 1965). Concentrations of C and N from dried peat samples were
analyzed using an induction furnace C/N analyzer (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph
MI, USA). In addition we collected 3 soil samples respectively from CT, FT and
T plots to quantifiying microbial biomass. The microbial biomass was analyzed
by the Indonesian Soil Research Institute (ISRI), Bogor using a plate-count
method.
Statistical Analysis
Mean monthly soil respiration (SRt and SRh) and environmental parameters
were compared according to their spatial position, treatment (control and
trenched) and land use type. A probability threshold of 0.05 was used to determine
the significance of the effects. Statistical analysis was performed using the
software Infostat. All of the measured variables were tested for normality of
distribution using the Shapiro-Wilks test.
For multiple comparisons, ANOVA and the non-parametric KruskalWallis test were applied for normally and non-normally distributed data,
respectivey. The t-test or non-parametric Mann Whitney test were applied for
normal and non-normally distributed data, respectively, to compare variables
between close tree (CT) and far tree (FT) treatments.
Relationships between soil respiration and environmental variables were
performed using simple and multiple linear (MANOVA) or non-linear regression
models. Simple linear regressions were used to assess the dependence of
heterotrophic and total respiration on environmental parameters. Correlations
were calculated with the monthly average for each variable.

17

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Result
Across the 3 sites studied, the OP1 displayed the highest mean air
temperature (37.4°C) which ranged from 32.3 to 45.2°C (Fig. 8). The mean of air
temperature in the forest (29.74°C ± 0.25) and the OP5 (29.87°C ± 0.26) were not
significantly different from each other (P < 0.0001). The air temperature ranged
from 27.7 to 31.9°C and 26.0-33.9°C, in the forest and in the oil palm plantations,
respectively. Peat temperature exhibited a greater difference between the forest
and the oil palm plantation than air temperature. Mean peat soil temperature was
the lowest in the forest (25.5°C), followed by the OP5 (26.1°C) and the OP1
(28.2°C) (P < 0.0001).
48
45

(a)

Air Temp (°C)

42
39
36
33
30
27

(b)

Soil Temp (°C)

24
33

30

27

Jun-14

May-14

Apr-14

Mar-14

Feb-14

Jan-14

Dec-13

Nov-13

Oct-13

Sep-13

Aug-13

Jul-13

Jun-13

24

Figure 8 Monthly mean air temperature (a), soil temperature (b), in the forest
(dashed line, solid triangle), OP1 (solid line, open circle) and OP5 (solid line,
solid diamond).

18

The WFPS data was normally distributed. There was no significant different
across sites ( P = 0.51) (Fig. 9). The spatial position influenced WFPS in the forest
and OP5 sites. A significant higher WFPS was observed at FT than CT in forest (
P < 0.001) and OP5 (P = 0.001). In contrast, spatial positions (CT and FT) did not
significantly affect WFPS at OP1 (P = 0.45). Across sites, the highest WFPS was
recorded in the OP5 (51.4%), followed by the forest 49.8%, and OP1 (47.6%).

90

WFPS

70

50

30

Jun-14

May-14

A