ISSUES RELATING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF RECREATIONAL FISHERIES

17.5 ISSUES RELATING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF RECREATIONAL FISHERIES

Despite the importance of recreational fisheries worldwide, there is a general perception that natural fisheries have undergone major, often Despite the importance of recreational fisheries worldwide, there is a general perception that natural fisheries have undergone major, often

17.5.1 Angling practices

Disturbance and damage . Angling, although essentially a quiet and often solitary activity, can result in disturbance to wildlife. Commonly, waterfowl, and coastal and wetland birds, many of which are now rare, are liable to disturbance if access of anglers to waters or shoreline is uncon- trolled (Cryer et al. 1987b). Most damage is done at the nesting time, when birds are disrupted on their nests or prevented from gaining access to their nests (Maitland and Lyle 1992). There are also many mammals commonly found associated with the rivers and lakes, most of which are shy, such as the otter (Lutra lutra), and sensitive to distur- bance. In addition they prefer secure places to rear their young (Jefferies 1987). Closed seasons or protected areas are designed to minimize these impacts, but problems still persist.

Disturbance is also caused by noise and pollu- tion, such as oil leaks from boat engines where fishing takes place from a boat. Boat wakes can also cause erosion of river banks, especially where movements are excessive and uncontrolled (Pygott et al. 1990; Ellis 1998). This leads to col- lapse of banks, loss of riparian vegetation, and, on a moresubtlelevel, change of littoral water tempera- tures, which directly affects juvenile fish growth and recruitment (Hodgson and Eaton 2000).

Habitat management . Anglers also cause physical damage to the habitat, especially riparian vegetation, to gain access to the water. This can lead to loss of sensitive wetland flora and fauna if left uncontrolled and can damage the integrity of the fishery (Swales and O’Hara 1983; Cowx 1994b). Other management practices, as described in Section 17.4.2, can also be damaging; therefore to minimize any problems they should be carefully

planned, taking into account wider environ- mental considerations (Cowx and Welcomme 1998).

Litter . Angling, like other human activities, creates litter, including everyday items such as drink cans, polythene bags and paper cartons. Angling litter is, however, characterized by the in- clusion of items such as discarded bait containers, lead shot, nylon line and fish hooks (Cryer et al. 1987a). The latter, which are either discarded un- intentionally or lost inadvertently during angling, are particularly damaging, because birds and other animal life become entangled. Lead shot has been implicated in the decline of bird species such as swans (Cygnus olor), because they inadvertently ingest discarded items when feeding. This problem has largely been addressed through the introduc- tion of non-lead alternatives in angling.

Groundbaiting . The practice of groundbaiting with cereals, maggots or other bait is commonly practised in Europe and North America to attract fish to the hook. When used excessively, it can lead to a deterioration in water quality (Cryer and Edwards 1987; Edwards 1990), increase phospho- rus loading (Edwards and Fouracre 1983), and lead to a substantial reduction in benthic fauna (Cryer and Edwards 1987). In many places this practice is now discouraged to minimize the problems.

There is a surprising lack of information on the ways in which stocked systems function. The few data sets that exist (see Cowx 1998a for examples) show interplay of two main variables: area of the stocked system and stocking rates. They indicate that the output of stocking is highly variable and that in the majority of cases stocking does not achieve any major increase in fish production or yield (Cowx 1998a). Indeed, anecdotal evidence suggests that the majority of stocking in rivers to enhance fish populations is of marginal value. The notable exceptions are the stocking of migratory salmonids, especially where the river has been heavily degraded, such as in Sweden, or the polluted rivers of Western Europe, such as the Rhine and the Thames, once water quality had been improved. Improvements in catches of non- migratory salmonids have been achieved by stock- ing rainbow trout or brown trout, but these results

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Chapter 17

tend to be short term because the recruitment presented by environmental lobby groups is that bottleneck has not been removed or, as in the case fish may sustain damage, especially from barbed of rainbow trout, the species does not breed suc- hooks, which increases their proneness to disease cessfully in European conditions.

and feeding difficulties. As a consequence, some The stocking of rivers with cyprinids has regions of Europe have now banned put-and-take achieved little success, considering the large num- fisheries, and the use of live bait and keep-nets bers that have been introduced. For example, (e.g. Norway, Netherlands and several Länder in after reviewing over 50 years of stocking activity Germany), and others are looking carefully at in the lower Welsh Dee, Pearce (1983) concluded the issue (Wortley 1995). Whatever the outcome, that ‘stocking on the Dee would not appear to anglers must be aware of animal welfare issues and have been successful, only extremely limited continue to do everything possible to minimize short-term and scarcely any long-term benefits to the impact of the activity on fisheries and wildlife. angling or stock recruitment have resulted’. This is despite there having been some 76 stocking events over the study period, involving approxi-

17.5.2 Stock enhancement

mately 400 000 fish with, typically, two or three As previously indicated, stocking, which is used species being used on each occasion.

extensively to enhance fisheries, is frequently car- The stocking of still waters exhibits the ried out with no due regard for the environmental opposite outcome, especially when stocked with or ecological consequences. Stocking can be dam- robust species like rainbow trout and carp. These aging to the native stocks through competition, have been highly successful and constitute fishery

predation, loss of genetic integrity, or the spread of enhancement in a greater proportion of cases. disease and parasites (Cowx 1994a, 1998a; Cowx For example, the numerous put-and-take and and Godkin 2000). Unfortunately there is a rela- catch-and-return fisheries found throughout tively little information about the effects, includ- Europe are based on this premise, and they have ing successes, of various stocking practices (Cowx proved highly successful. Intensive carp fisheries 1998a). If the species is being released in high num- and numerous other cyprinid and specialist fish- bers then changes in the ecosystem are likely to eries are supported in the same way. However, occur via fish species interactions and food web stocking is not always successful, and the few dynamics (see Persson, Chapter 15, Volume 1, and reported examples of where attempts have been Pauly and Christensen, Chapter 10, this volume, made to support commercial fisheries based on for commentary on ecosystem responses to pertur- stocking suggest these are not worthwhile bation). Vulnerable fish species, and aquatic flora (Salojärvi and Mutenia 1994; Löffler 1998).

and fauna, can be eliminated through predation, Animal welfare . There is growing concern that and the stocking, intended to enhance the fishery, the holding of fish at high density in keep-nets, can result in the opposite effect, including elimi- coupled with the hooking, playing and handling nation of species (Cowx 1997). The loss of genetic of the captured fish, causes unnecessary distress integrity of the native stock, which is thought to (Berg and Rösch 1998). Although the impact of have adapted to local environmental conditions catch and return on fish behaviour and populations over many years, is a major issue and is considered is not well understood, there is evidence that to be responsible for a decline of many fisheries, fish do suffer from being caught and handled, especially salmon stocks (Carvalho and Cross procedures which have reduced recruitment suc- 1998). cess (e.g. Bettoli and Osborne 1998; Cooke et al.

The introduction of new species to promote 2000). By contrast, recent studies on holding fish in angling diversity was common practice worldwide keep-nets suggest that the fish are not unduly in the 1960s and 1970s (Welcomme 1988), but con- stressed until the density held is high (Pottinger cerns over the impact of this activity and the im- 1997; Raat et al. 1997). Another argument being plementation of tough regulations has restricted

383 the practice in industrialized countries in recent first instance. In addition, there are many examples

Recreational Fishing

years. Introductions, for example rainbow trout where fish species have been illegally or acciden- and largemouth bass, have proved successful in a tally introduced to increase the diversity of the number of cases but this has usually been at great target species of anglers. Finally, there are many cost, most often expressed through the demise of cases of fish introductions stemming from the use indigenous species or the spread of diseases (Cowx of live bait for catching predators (Cowx 1998a). All 1997, 1998a). Other introductions have been disas- these practices are potentially damaging to fish- trous, with wholesale ecosystem change and elim- eries and have rarely proved successful (Cowx 1997). ination of species (Cowx 1997). With the recent Indeed, they usually lead to the demise of the resi- decline in the status of many fisheries, there is dent fish populations and further deterioration of renewed interest in species introductions. This the stocks. Anglers and managers alike need to be should be prevented at all costs, and the causes of educated in the problems and consequences associ- the deterioration in extant fisheries should be ated with stocking and introduction of fish, whether identified and where possible addressed. If a deliberate or accidental, and all efforts should be species is to be considered for introduction, it made to minimize this management practice. should be carried out under the auspices of the appropriate governmental organization and following guidelines such as those promoted by

17.5.3 Subsector interactions

the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organi- One of the major constraints on the future develop- zation (FAO 1996), the International Council for ment of recreational fisheries is from other users the Exploration of the Seas (ICES 1988) or the and occupiers of the water body. Such activity can European Inland Fisheries Advisory Committee

be classified as cross-sectoral interactions and (EIFAC, see Coates 1998).

mostly arise from conflicts of interest. Within the In reality, stock enhancement practices are development of any activity there is a need to con- often carried out in response to angling pressure sider the overall framework within which the and do not address the underlying problems within activity exists (Fig. 17.2). There is no value in the fishery, such as recruitment bottlenecks or attempting to improve recreational fishing in a overfishing. In this respect stocking exercises are multi-user situation if cross-sectoral issues are not just short-term fixes and maintenance of stock addressed. These issues arise from interactions: (1) size will require continuous intervention. It is between commercial and recreational fishing; (2) thus not necessarily a desirable solution and alter- within recreation fishing groups; and (3) with other native mechanisms should always be sought in the aquatic resource users. Furthermore, recreational

Water resource

development- pollution

Conservation

Urban development

RECREATIONAL

FISHERIES

Fish-eating birds

Navigation

Water quality Fig. 17.2 Factors affecting

Commercial

Flood defence

fisheries

Agricultural

recreational fisheries development.

development

Chapter 17

fishing cannot be treated as an open-access activity damming for power generation and water supply, because it is usually governed by considerable leg- flood alleviation works, weirs, intakes, bridges and islative and administrative protocols. This is often similar structures (Fig. 17.2; Petts 1984; Cowx and tied up with rights to fish, and regulations govern- Welcomme 1998; Kohler and Hubert 1999). All of ing such issues at closed seasons, gear and catch these activities have resulted in a shift in the status restrictions, and licensing, most of which are set of the fisheries and a general decline in the yield. In up to protect the fishing, but others to protect the these circumstances fisheries are not considered of environment. Access is also further complicated sufficiently high priority or value, and thus suffer by social issues such as traditional-use rights and in the face of economically and socially higher family obligations.

priorities, for example agriculture, hydroelectric Commercial and recreation fishing interac- power production or flood prevention. tions . Direct conflicts exist between commercial

Problems relating to pollution are in the main and recreational angling because they exploit the being addressed in Western industrial countries, same resource base. The arguments usually relate and waters that were once fishless or supported to commercial fisheries depleting stocks through poor stocks are now recovering. Such water quality overfishing, and demands from the recreation improvements are, however, rare in Third World sector to restrict commercial exploitation, countries, where the scenario remains one of although many studies indicate that commercial continued environmental degradation and conse- and recreational fisheries can coexist (see Hickley quent demise of the fisheries. Notwithstanding, and Tompkins 1998 for examples), supplementing water quality improvements do not always lead to each other, creating an overall larger output than

a desirable outcome in terms of fishery status. The would have resulted from sport fishing only. When cleaning up of water bodies often results in reduced the commercial and recreational fisheries inter- nutrient input and the loss of productivity, which fere with each other, the allocation of the harvest has a knock-on effect on the fish community generally falls in favour of recreational fishing, as it structure and stock size. This results in a change is perceived to have an overall greater benefit to in the catch composition and reduction in catches, society (Cowx 2001).

which is quickly followed by complaints from Interactions between recreation fishing groups . anglers (Cowx 1991). There is also increasing conflict between groups of

Abstraction of surface or ground water, or the recreational fishermen, for instance between resi- impoundment of rivers, may also damage fisheries dents and non-residents (e.g. Morgan 1999). Rea- through reduced flows downstream of reservoirs, sons for this include: the loss of access to fishing the interruption of migratory pathways and the waters resulting in crowding problems and over- isolation and drowning of spawning and rearing exploitation on the remaining waters; increased areas. Conversely, reservoirs may provide attrac- specialization among anglers, which puts pressure tive fishing opportunities, especially when inten- on attractive waters; and increased focus on tourist sively managed. Resolution of the conflicts caused fishing in many areas, so introducing new angler by the structures is difficult and costly because groups to many districts, which may cause differ- of the high social and economic value of water ent conflicts of interest related to social and alloca- resource schemes. tion controversies (Hickley and Tompkins 1998).

Interactions between other recreational uses of Cross-sectoral interactions . Perhaps the great- water, as well as recreation in the vicinity of water est threats to recreational fisheries come from bodies, are also sources of conflict. The following outside the fisheries sector. Aquatic resources are pursuits can impact on recreational fisheries: bird subject to numerous anthropogenic perturbations, watching, cycling, motor boating, canoeing, cruis- such as pollution discharge from agricultural, ing, rowing, sailing, diving, swimming and domestic and industrial sources, eutrophication, bathing, water-skiing, wind surfing, water bikes acidification, afforestation, mineral extraction, and wild fowling. The problems arise from distur- Interactions between other recreational uses of Cross-sectoral interactions . Perhaps the great- water, as well as recreation in the vicinity of water est threats to recreational fisheries come from bodies, are also sources of conflict. The following outside the fisheries sector. Aquatic resources are pursuits can impact on recreational fisheries: bird subject to numerous anthropogenic perturbations, watching, cycling, motor boating, canoeing, cruis- such as pollution discharge from agricultural, ing, rowing, sailing, diving, swimming and domestic and industrial sources, eutrophication, bathing, water-skiing, wind surfing, water bikes acidification, afforestation, mineral extraction, and wild fowling. The problems arise from distur-