accounted for in the sample tested using the SRT. A small sample of at least five to ten people must be tested for each different combination of demographic factors that the researchers expect to have a
significant effect on bilingual ability. The specific demographic factors are determined by observation, by informal interviewing, and from census data. Our samples were chosen keeping in mind the factors of
sex, education, and age, with the greatest importance placed on education.
SRT results are expressed as a point total out of 45 possible points. They are interpreted according to a corresponding bilingualism proficiency level, or reported proficiency evaluation RPE level. These
RPE levels range from 0+ very minimal proficiency to 4+ approaching the proficiency of a native speaker. Probably at least a level 3 proficiency is required to adequately understand most philosophical
or religious material Kindell 1991:28.
5
A phonetic transcription of the SRT is included in Appendix B, along with a more detailed and practical description of the RPE levels than is presented here. Table 6
relates Hindi SRT score with the equivalent RPE level Varenkamp 1991:9 and Radloff 1991:242. Table 6. Score ranges on Hindi SRT corresponding to RPE levels
SRT Score = out of 45 RPE level
Proficiency descriptions
44–45 = 4+
[Near-native-speaker proficiency] 38–43 =
4 [Excellent proficiency]
32–37 = 3+
[Very good, general proficiency] 26–31 =
3 [Good, general proficiency]
20–25 = 2+
[Good, basic proficiency] 14–19 =
2 [Adequate, basic proficiency]
8–13 = 1+
[Limited, basic proficiency] 4–7 =
1 [Minimal, limited proficiency]
0–3 = 0+
[Very minimal proficiency]
5.2.2 Results
A demographic profile of a community provides the basis for interpreting the results of bilingualism testing. The percentage of the community with certain social characteristics e.g., younger, uneducated,
female should be compared with that social group’s average proficiency. Table 7 gives a demographic profile for Tharu populations in this survey. This profile is based on detailed census figures for Kailali
District in Nepal Government of Nepal 1984a and a Tharu village in Gonda District Singh 1988:16, in addition to general literacy statistics for districts in Uttar Pradesh Bose 1991. The range of percentages
in each social category reflects the approximate spread among the various Tharu areas.
A total of 190 subjects in five Tharu villages were tested on the Hindi sentence repetition test. In each village a stratified sample was selected that was as representative as possible of the overall village
population, based on demographic profiles developed for each village.
5
This assumes that RPE levels can be equated with the FSI foreign service institute proficiency levels referred to in Kindell 1991. The exact relationship between FSI and RPE levels has not yet been demonstrated.
Table 7 Demographic profile of Tharu villages UNEDUCATED PRIMARY ED
HIGHER ED. SEX
AGE 0 YEARS
1–5 YEARS 6+ YEARS
TOTAL MALE
YOUNGER 15–34
17–22 4–7
4–5 29
MALE OLDER
19–22 1–3
0–1 23
35+ MALE
TOTALS 36–44
5–10 4–6
52 FEMALE YOUNGER
15–30 26–28
1–3 0–1
30 FEMALE
OLDER 16–18
0–2 18
35+ FEMALE
TOTALS 42–46
1–5 0–1
48 TOTALS
78–90 6–15
4–7 100
Overall results for each village are compared in table 8, along with results for just the uneducated part of the sample: x= mean average, s= standard deviation, N= sample size, L= equivalent RPE level
of the average. Table 8. Hindi SRT results by village
VILLAGE OVERALL
UNEDUCATED x
s N
L x
s N
L Sisana
RNs 27.7
12.5 42
3 19.9
11.3 21
2+ Mathpuri
BNM 28.5
9.0 47
3 24.7
9.1 26
2+ Bangama
RKB 21.8
11.8 42
2+ 16.1
9.5 27
2 Bhusahar
Hunchawa 19.3
9.4 39
2 14.7
7.3 23
2 Chandenpur
DGC 19.4
13.1 20
2 10.1
6.2 10
1+ Chandenpur was used as a pilot test point. A larger and more representative sample
was tested in the nearby village of Bhusahar Hunchawa. A few comments can be made about this general display of data. There is a slight decline in average
score from west to east: Sisana and Mathpuri are in Nainital District and have the highest scores; Bhusahar Hunchawa and Chandenpur are in Gonda District and have the lowest scores. There are several
reasons for this. Standard Hindi is spoken in Nainital District, but in Gonda District a non-standard
variety of Hindi is spoken. Also, the Tharu villages in Gonda District are more remote with less opportunities for learning Hindi than in Nainital District.
The difference in average score between most pairs of villages is not statistically significant. However, SRT results from Mathpuri are significantly different from Bangama, Bhusahar Hunchawa, and
Chandenpur, but not from Sisana.
7
Figure 3 shows the distribution of bilingual proficiency levels for both Mathpuri and Bhusahar Hunchawa. This figure shows that ability in Hindi is quite varied within a
village, and also between villages.
Figure 3. Distribution of Hindi proficiency in two Tharu villages with percentage of sample at each level. Keeping in mind that there is wide variation in Hindi ability among the villages, detailed results by
social category are presented together in table 9. Table 9. Summary of SRT results
UNEDUCATED 0 YEARS
EDUCATED 1 YEAR OR MORE
AGE GROUP: YOUNGER OLDER YOUNGER OLDER TOTAL
15–34 35+
15–34 35+
MALE x= 25.4
x= 18.7 x= 32.4 x= 27.3 x= 27.2
s= 9.8 s= 11.2 s= 7.8
s= 10.6 s= 10.9 N= 17
N= 30 N= 52
N= 13 N= 113
L= 2+ L= 2
L= 3+ L= 3
L= 3
7
Significant at p.05 on a chi-squared test.
UNEDUCATED 0 YEARS
EDUCATED 1 YEAR OR MORE
FEMALE x= 17.1
x= 13.7 x= 35.6 x= 17.3 x= 19.3
s= 8.4 s= 8.2
s= 6.6 s= 5.5
s= 11.1 N= 34
N= 26 N= 14
N= 3 N= 77
L= 2 L= 2
L= 3+ L= 2
L= 2 TOTAL
x= 18.1 x= 31.7
x= 24.0 s= 10.0
s= 8.7 s=11.6
N= 107 N= 83
N= 190 L= 2
L= 3+ L= 2+
These results show a typical pattern of second-language acquisition: the educated have a significantly better Hindi ability than the uneducated; for those who are uneducated, men have
significantly better Hindi ability than women; and younger people have better Hindi ability than older people. In every social category average Hindi ability is RPE level 2 or higher, characteristic of at least
“adequate, basic proficiency.” Those who have completed at least one year of formal education average RPE level 3+, characteristic of “very good, general proficiency.” Those who are educated can probably
use Hindi satisfactorily in most situations, though they may have some difficulty using Hindi for communication of philosophical or religious subjects.
However, interpretation of these results must consider the extent of education in the Tharu communities. A vast majority of the population, perhaps as much as 90 percent, still falls in the category
of uneducated; this segment of the population will not be able to adequately use Hindi for communication of complex subject matter.
6 Language use and attitudes, and language vitality
6.1 Procedures
