12
b. Physical Profile
49 The physical profile of the SLBSC fishery described in this report encompasses the geographic scope for
the fishery and the fishing season. The physical profile also includes a description of the fishing craft and gear used by Sri Lankan fishermen
6
to harvest SLBSC. Reference is also made to legal and illegal fishing gears use to harvest SLBSC, including mesh sizes. The history of the SLBSC fishery is also examined as
recounted by older fishermen oral history, as well as from the records of crab fish catch data collected by the
Depa t e t of Fishe ies a d A uati ‘esou es DFAR extension staff. The physical profile of the SLBSC fishery concludes with an examination of external issues that are perceived as having a
negative impact on the SLBSC fishery and a brief description of fisheries other than the SLBSC that fishermen engage in.
50 Geographic Scope: The SLBSC fishery extends from
Negombo on the southwest coast, 40 km north of the capital Colombo, to an unidentified location off the
coast of Trincomalee District possibly Pulmoodai on the northeast coast, a distance of approximately 600
km see map right. The core area of the SLBSC fishery is located on the Sri Lankan side of the Palk Bay. A
smaller fishery for BSC operates in Portugal Bay, while “LB“C a e also aught as pa t of a ulti spe ies lagoo
fishe i Puttala Lagoo . The SLBSC fishery in all these locations operates in shallow seas of between 3
– 7 fathoms 18 ft – 42 ft 6 m – 14 m. Fishing for SLBSC takes place in coastal waters up to a distance of
2 km to 10 km from the shoreline and in two large
lagoo s - Puttalam Lagoon in Puttalam District and Jaffna Lagoon in Jaffna district.
51 Puttalam Lagoon, which comprises Puttalam Lagoon and Portugal Bay and covers an area of 32,680 ha
is technical not a lagoon, but a bar built estuary. Jaffna Lagoon is low lying area of land submerged by a
combination of the diurnal rise and fall of the sea average tidal amplitude is around 0.7 m and seasonal run off of rainwater from the surrounding land during the northeast monsoon. Puttalam
Lagoon and Jaffna Lagoon undergo marked changes in salinity during the course of the year, from brackish to hypersaline.
52 SLBSC are most common within the geographic range of the fishery over soft substrates i.e., and or
mud. SLBSC are less commonly found over hard substrates such as coral and sandstone reefs as found off the coast of Puttalam District and the north coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Three spot swimming
crabs P. sanguinolentus, for which there is little commercial demand, are more common over coral and sandstone reefs. SLBSC caught in Jaffna Lagoon mainly form part of the bycatch of the prawn stake
net fishery see external issues below and the bottom-set baited trap fishery. The small size of the SLBSC caught in these fisheries 80g ensures that they do not enter the main
– export orientated - supply chain for SLBSC see supply chain below. As such, BSC caught in stake nets and baited traps are
considered part of the SLBSC fishery, for the purpose of the assessment. 53
Each fishing village along the northwest and northern coast has its o fishi g a ea . The a ge of ea h
lo al fishi g a ea is likely to be determined primarily by fuel cost incurred in reaching and returning f o the fishi g g ou ds fo e ha ised fishi g aft , as ell as the ou da ies of lo al fishi g
g ou ds lai ed eigh ou i g illages o illages i adja e t dist i ts. Lo al fishi g a eas a e
located 2 km to 10 km from an individual fishi g o
u it s la di g e t e. It as e ide t that these lo al fishi g a eas , although i fo al e e recognised and adhered to by SLBSC fishing communities.
The traditional right to SLBSC from the fishery is thus shared among fishing communities, by means of smaller
lo al fishi g a eas in the Palk Bay, Portugal Bay and Puttalam Lagoon.
6
Almost without exception individuals catching SLBSC are men, hence the use of the term fishermen throughout. Woman may occasionally be boat owners, for example when husband has died during the conflict.
Core Area
Negombo Pulmoodai
Puttalam Jaffna
13 54
Fishing Season: SLBSC are present in the fishing area throughout the year in all four of the districts. The duration of the
fishi g seaso fo SLBSC in any one area depends on the location of the individual fishing community, the weather, the type of fishing gear used and economic returns from alternative
fisheries see Alternative Fisheries below. The main fishing season for SLBSC starts as early as August in Portugal Bay, the sheltered, northern tip of Puttalam Lagoon. In Jaffna District the fishing season starts
in September each year, while in Mannar and Kilinochchi districts October is the month when fishermen focus their fishing effort on harvesting SLBSC. The peak fishing season occurs over a period of three to
four months in each location. March to June in Kalpitiya; January to April in Jaffna and November to Fe ua i Ma a . The fishi g seaso e ds i Ap il, Ma or June, depending on the location. July,
August and September forms the core of the
offseaso fo the SLBSC fishery in all four districts. 55
The BSC fishing season is closely aligned with the strongly season weather patterns along the northwest and coast of Sri Lanka. There are two main monsoons - the northeast monsoon NEM and the
southwest monsoon SWM – as well as two distinct two inter monsoon seasons associated with
convectional and depressional weather systems. The SLBSC fishery commences with the onset of the second to the two inter monsoonal rains in October, which are caused by cyclonic depressional
meteorological processes in the Bay of Bengal. The SLBSC fishery continues throughout the NEM, which begins in December and continues through to February every year. The peak fishing season is associated
with the end of the NEM and the commencement of the second inter monsoonal rains, which begin in March each. The second inter monsoonal rains are the result of convectional meteorological processes.
The offseason is associated with the SWM rains in June, July and August. The SWM begins in the southwest of the country and gradually travels up the western coast, but does not reach the core area
of the SLBSC fishery, off the north western coast.
56 The offseaso is likely to be a consequence of the calm weather systems off the northwest coast and
the fishe e s use of lo et to ha est SLBSC. As the turbidity of the water gradually declines after the end of the second inter-monsoons, nylon nets becomes increasingly more visible to the SLBSC. As a
result the crabs are better able to avoid becoming entangled in the nets. The converse is true for the start of the fishing season, as the turbidity of the sea increases with the onset of the second inter-
monsoon in October each year. Strong winds during the NEM hinder but to not prevent fishing activities in December through to February. The relatively weaker weather systems associated with the second
inter monsoon enable fishermen to fish more frequently. The increased turbidity prevents SLBSC from avoiding the
fishe e s nylon nets. One of several advantages of fishing with illegal monofilament gill nets is that these nets are invisible to SLBSC when water turbidity is low. This greatly increases the
efficiency of illegal monofilament gears see below. 57
Fishing Craft: The SLBSC is conducted from traditional Sri Lankan outrigger canoes
oruwa, log
rafts theppam
7
, canoes
vallams and fibre reinforced plastic FRP boats 17½ and 23ft. The larger vallams and
all of the FRP fishing craft see right are powered by small, kerosene fuelled, outboard
motors 8.8 hp and 9 hp.
58 Data describing the total number of fishing craft registered in the four districts was used to estimate the
total number of fishing craft engaged in the SLBSC fishery see Table 3. The analysis suggests as many as 7,000 fishing craft may be involved in the SLBSC fishery. As much as 80 to 90 of fishermen in
SLBSC fishing villages engage in the fishery during the peak fishing season. An analysis of landing site specific boat registration details and fishing licences issued for crab fishing by the respective district
level offices of the DFAR, was not possible during the course of the assessment.
7
Oru and theppams are found in Portugal Bay and Puttalam Lagoon only
14
Table 3: The type and estimated number of fishing craft engaged in the SLBSC Fishery, by district
Type of Fishing Craft Non Mechanised
Traditional Craft Mechanised
Traditional Craft FRP Craft
Estimated No. of SLBSC Fishing Craft
Puttalam District 1,380
216 432
2,028
Mannar District 410
195 ,687
2,292
Kilinochchi District 162
117 324
603
Jaffna District 810
410 858
2078
2,762 938
3,301 7,001
59 Fishing Gear: Bottom-set gill nets crab nets, made of
nylon twine or monofilament plastic, are the main fishing gear used by fishermen to catch SLBSC see right. Since
2006 the use of monofilament nets has been illegal in Sri Lanka
8
. The mesh size of both nylon and monofilament crab nets ranges
f o ½ to . The smaller mesh sizes are used in lagoons and shallow area by fishermen fishing from
non mechanised traditional craft. The larger mesh sizes are used in deeper coastal waters by the mechanised FRP
fishing craft. The commonest mesh sizes are ½, ½ a d
. The thickness of nylon nets ranges from 1ply to 21ply twine. Three ply is commonly used during the NEM, while
6ply and higher is used after the monsoon due to the increase in debris in the water.
60 A single nylon crab net set comprises between 10 and 25
pieces rolls of nylon net. Depending on the size of the fishing craft a fishermen may set two to five crab nets per
fishing trip, equal to around 50 net pieces. Crab nets are set on the seabed, by the use of weighted poles see below
right in the early evening. Crab nets are hauled by fishermen after eight to ten hours. Many fishermen now
use geographic positioning systems GPS to record the location of their crab nets. The use of GPS enables
fishermen to dispense with the need to use surface buoys to identify the location of their nets.
61 There appears to be a strong positive correlation between
mesh size – both nylon and monofilament crab nets - and
the minimum size of crabs that are caught in the nets. As mesh sizes increase, the minimum size of the SLBSC caught
in the crab nets decreases see Table 4.
62 A small number of fishermen harvest SLBSC using baited
t aps. T o a ieties of aited t aps: otto set o t aps a d suspe ded lift et t aps a e used. A e t pe of
fishing net, known locally as neela valai blue net, has recently come into use in Jaffna District.
8
145433 – 2006 Monofilament Nets Prohibition Regulations Prohibiting the use, possession, import, transport, purchase
and sale of Monofilaments nets.
15
Table 4 Summary of the relationship between mesh size, crab size and markets
Size of SLBSC Caught Market
Other Species Caught Mesh Size
½ SLBSC is bycatch
Local Target Lagoon Finfish
½ Small crabs 100g
– 150g. 200g Local Export Finfish
Small crabs 100g – 150g. 200g Local Export
Bycatch ½
Broad range 100g – 500g;
Not many 120g - 150g Export Market
Bycatch 300 g
– 400 g Export Market
Bycatch 300 g
– 400 g Export Market
Bycatch 63
Illegal Fishing Gear: Although monofilament nets are prohibited under the Fisheries Aquatic
Resources Act in Sri Lanka, monofilament crab nets are used to harvest SLBSC, most notably in
Puttalam Lagoon and in Jaffna District see right. In Jaffna District is possible that as much as 75
of the catch is landed using monofilament nets. Monofilament nets are preferred by fishermen
because of their higher catching efficiency, which in turn is a result of the invisibility of
monofilament nets in the water. As noted above, SLBSC are unable to avoid the nets, even when the
visibility is good i.e., when turbidity is low in contrast to nylon nets which are more visible.
64 Monofilaments nets are a little less durable than nylon nets
– two to three months compared to three to four months for nylon nets
– and have to be replaced more often. However, monofilament nets are less expensive than nylon nets. According to fishermen less bycatch is caught using monofilament nets
compared to fishing with nylon nets and monofilament nets are also easier to clean. The higher incidence of monofilament crab nets in Jaffna District can be partly explained by the fishing restrictions
that were in place during most of the recently concluded conflict. For long periods during the past 30 years, Jaffna fishermen were only permitted to fish between 6 am and 6 pm each day. The use of
monofilament nets during this period was the only means by which fishermen were able to harvest fish during the daytime.
65 Political patronage also plays a part in the continued use of illegal monofilament nets in both Jaffna and
Puttalam districts. The assessment was conducted while provincial council elections were being held in the Northern and North Western provinces. The DFAR was subjected to political pressure in both
districts, not to take action against fishermen using monofilament nets during the election period. When free to dos so, newspaper reports over the past year highlight the actions taken by the DFAR
office in Puttalam, against the use of illegal monofilament nets. The DFAR office in Jaffna District has also taken action prior to the provincial council election, to confiscate monofilament nets and arrest the
owners of illegal fishing gears.
16 66
SLBSC Production: The
p odu tio data olle ted the DFA‘ s e te sio offi e s from the SLBSC fishery does not discriminate between commercial crab species. Thus the annual crab production data
presented in Figure 2 below, includes not only SLBSC, but also the landings of other commercial crab species in Sri Lanka, principally the mangrove crab Scylla serrata and the three spot swimming crab P.
sanguinolentus. Despite these limitations, it is clear from DFA‘ s data that the production of crabs in Sri
Lanka - including SLBSC - has increased considerably since 2008. The increase in crab production coincides with the end of the civil conflict in Sri Lanka and the resurgence of the fishery sector in the
coastal districts that comprise the Northern Province i.e., Mannar, Kilinochchi, Jaffna and Mullaitivu. As SLBSC is the main crab species caught by fishermen in the Northern Province, there are reasonable
grounds to infer that the overall increase in national crab production is a consequence of increasing catches of SLBSC.
Figure 2
Annual Sri Lankan crab production for all crab varieties
67 Production data from the four coastal districts that constitute the core geographical area of the SLBSC
fishery i.e., Puttalam, Mannar, Kilinochchi and Jaffna, further underlines the growth of the SLBSC in the northern districts see Figure 3. Here too it should be noted that this data
i ludes all varieties of crab . The data collected by DFAR extension staff indicates that crab production has increased in all four
districts, with the largest increase taking place in Jaffna District. In 2009 crab production in Jaffna District was 240t. In 2012 crab production increased to 4,630t: an increase of 1,829. The
corresponding increases for Kilinochchi, Mannar and Puttalam were 146
9
, 162,000 and 198 respectively.
68 The accuracy of the
o thl statisti al epo ts o piled the DFA‘ s e te sio staff, in the north and nationwide, is a concern. Despite these concerns, the production data is at least indicative of a
considerable increase in crab production in off the northwest coast following the end of the civil conflict in 2009.
9
2011 – 2012. No data was collected by DFAR from Kilinochchi in 2009 due to the security situation.
17
Figure 3 Comparative increases in crab production in four districts since 2009
69 Corroboration of the substantial increase in crab production can be found in the data compiled
independently by the Customs Department for export crab products see Figure 4. According to export destination data compiled by the Customs Department the crab fishery in Sri Lanka has increased by
165 in the three years following the end of the civil conflict. The value of crabs exported from Sri Lanka increased from around LKR 1,000 million US 7.75 million in 2009 to LKR 1,560 million US
12.09 million in 2011. The increase in value of crabs exported from Sri Lankan 56 is widely attributed to the increased catch and export of SLBSC
10
.
Figure 4 Export destinations and value LKRs of crab exports 1990 to 2011
70 Oral testimonies of senior representatives of the fishing communities further substantiate the crab
fishery production data collected by the DFAR. In Kalpitiya Puttalam District, the number of seafood companies purchasing SLBSC was observed to have increased considerably over the past 25 years.
Earlier only one collecting centre was present in Kalpitiya and only one or two seafood companies were directly buying SLBSC. Now there are more than eight collecting centres and a dozen or more seafood
companies are directly involved purchasing SLBSC.
10
The monthly Customs Reports compiled by the Department of Customs make no distinction between crab species. The mud crab Scylla serrata and the three spot swimming crab P. sanguinolentus are the other two main crab species caught exported in Sri Lanka.
18 71
Over the last ten years the number of fishermen and fishing effort was perceived to have increased in Puttalam District. Although the total production is perceived to have increased, fishing communities
expressed concern that the catch per boat has declined. There is also a perception of a downward shift in the size of SLBSC caught. According to local fishermen and traders, ten years ago most SLBSC caught
were large crab 200g. Now the majority of SLBSC caught are medium crabs 150 g
– 199g. 72
Changes in the SLBSC fishery in Mannar District have happened more recently. Only five years ago fishermen regularly used a stick to break the legs and claws of SLBSC entangled in their nets. At the time
there was no dedicated fishery for SLBSC, which were part of the bycatch from various coastal finfish fisheries. As recently as 2008 there was no commercial demand for SLBSC. SLBSC were and are still
ie ed as poo peoples food . “LB“C a e eaten locally, with only weak demand from regional or national markets. SLBSC are not a popular seafood product in Sri Lanka.
73 The national market for SLBSC is limited to hotels, targeting foreigners and middle class Sri Lankans. In
Mannar District fishermen have switched to SLBSC fishing due to strong export demand for SLBSC from seafood companies. Before the arrival of the seafood companies, a kilo of very large SLBSC 400g was
LKR200.00 kg
1
US1.52. Now the wholesale prices is above LKR500.00 kg
1
US3.81 for large SLBSC 200g. Very large SLBSC 400g are still regularly caught in by fishermen in Mannar District, although
there is no premium price for very large crabs. 74
The rapid increase and continuing strong demand from seafood companies is a key factor driving the expansion of the SLBSC fishery in Kilinochchi District and in Jaffna District. Elder fishermen in both
districts related how as little as four years ago they would curse the sight of shoals of SLBSC. Nets would be hauled and reset elsewhere and crabs would be beaten from the nets at sea because there was no
market for SLBSC in either district. As was the case in Mannar District, there was no dedicated fishery for SLBSC in either district prior to the end of the conflict 2009. In contrast to less than five years ago,
now when fishermen sight a shoal of SLBSC they are pleased. When the net are hauled fishermen are careful when removing the crabs and are mindful to keep them alive.
75 The purchasing price offered by seafood companies is the driving factor behind the change in
fishe e s attitude a d eha iou to a ds SLBSC. Before the arrival of the seafood companies the local wholesale prices for a kilo of large SLBSC was LKR30.00 US0.23 in Jaffna and LKR5.00 US0.04
per crab in Kilinochchi. The same crabs are now sold for LKR500 to LKR600 kg
1
US3.81 – US4.57.
76 Elder fishermen did not report any changes in the size of SLBSC that are currently being caught in Jaffna
District. Very large crabs 400g are still regularly harvested from the fishery. In Kilinochchi District some concerns were raised regarding the prospect of declining catches, now and in the future, if action
is not taken to improve certain aspects of the fishery such as harvesting small crabs 100g and female crabs with eggs.
77 Externalities: The lagoon and near shore stake net fishery for prawns Puthi Velai Kattu Del; illegal
trawling by Indian and Sri Lankan trawlers and irregular migration by fishermen from coastal communities are the key external issues affecting the SLBSC fishery, in the four districts covered by the
assessment.
78 Stake Net Fishing: The prawn stake net fishery is the dominant fishery in Jaffna Lagoon and is common
in shallow waters around along the entire length of the Sri Lankan shoreline of the Palk Bay. It is a concern to the SLBSC fishery because of the retained bycatch of very small SLBSC 80g from the stake
net fishery. Very small SLBSC are sold by stake net fishermen to local vendors for LKR50.00 kg
1
US0.38. Local traders retail the very small SLBSC for around LKR 150 kg
1
US1.14 to poor consumers in the surrounding villages. Although stake net fishing has been banned by the local authorities in
Puttalam Lagoon and Portugal Bay Puttalam District, it is the dominant fishery in shallow, inshore areas in Mannar, Kilinochchi or Jaffna. The catch and bycatch of the stake net fishery is landed live, thus
i iti g the oppo tu it fo olu ta etu . Ho e e , the e o o i osts i u ed stake et fishery are highly likely to militate against this option.
19 79
Indian Trawlers: The maritime agreement signed between GOSL and the Government of India GOI
in 1974, demarcates the International Maritime Boundary Line IMBL between the two countries
in the Palk Bay see right. The agreement states that each country shall have sovereignty and
exclusive jurisdiction and control over the waters, the islands, the continental shelf and sub soil
thereof, falling on its own side of the aforesaid boundary Article 4. Acknowledging the historic
use of the Palk Bay and Islands, notably Kachchativu, by fishermen from south India and
northern Sri Lanka, the agreement ensures that Indian fishermen and pilgrims will enjoy access to
visit Kachchativu as hitherto, and will not be required by Sri Lanka to obtain travel documents
or visas for these purposes Article 5. The agreement goes on to stipulate that the vessels of
India and Sri Lanka will enjoy in each o
ther s waters such rights as they have traditionally
enjoyed therein Article 6. 80
Illegal fishing by Indian fishermen, in the Sri Lankan half of the Palk Bay has been an issue between the two countries since the Palk Bay were officially partitioned in 1974. South Indian trawlers owners, of
which there are more than 2,000 harboured in Nagapatinam, Kodikarai, Thondi, Rameshwaram and Pampan, continue to claim that they have a right to fish on the Sri Lankan side of the IMBL. Throughout
the civil conflict, control of the Sri Lankan side of the Palk Bay was highly contested by the
go e e t s
security forces and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam LTTE. Indian trawlers took advantage of the inability of the GOSL to effective patrol the area and the restrictions placed on Sri Lankan fishermen
during the civil conflict. Sri Lankan fishermen were confined to fishing between 6 am and 6 pm.
81 An agreement reached between small scale Indian fishermen and Indian trawler owners, currently
restricts Indian trawlers to operating for only three nights per week on both sides of the IMBL: Monday, Wednesday and Saturday. When they cross over into Sri Lankan waters, the much larger Indian
trawlers, towing heavy bottom trawls, dest o o the “ i La ka fishe e s u h lighter fishing
gears. The Indian trawlers also represent a very real threat to the safety Sri Lankan fishing boats. 82
Following the end of the conflict, northern Sri Lankan fishermen have become more vocal in disputing the legal right of Indian trawlers to fish on the Sri Lanka side of the Palk Bay. Recently a number of
articles have appeared in the Sri Lankan press, advocating for the right of northern Sri Lankan to fish freely in Sri Lankan waters of the Palk Bay The GOSL has also stepped up direct action against Indian
trawlers caught fishing in Sri Lankan waters in the Palk Bay. Since 2009, hundreds of Indian fishermen have been arrested and their boats impounded by the GOSL.
83 Illegal fishing by Indian trawlers, which target mainly prawns and sea cucumbers, is the most serious
external issue affecting the SLBSC fishery. Bottom trawling causes widespread damage and destruction to the marine ecosystem and generates enormous amounts of bycatch, the majority of which is
discarded by Indian fishermen. SLBSC are also harvested by Indian trawlers and landed in south India. Concerns about the extent of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing IUU Pramod, G., 2010 are
beginning to be associated with the fishing activities of Indian trawlers in Sri Lankan waters of the Palk Bay.
20 84
Sri Lankan Trawlers: Bottom trawling in Sri Lanka is prohibited by the MFAR, in accordance with paragraphs 31 and Paragraph 32 of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act of 1997. The Act entitles the
Minister to ban or limit any fishing activity that is deemed to be detrimental to the marine ecosystem or the livelihoods of fishing communities, on the advice of the Advisory Committee to the Minister
11
. 85
Ttrawling for resource that are then exported is also prohibited under Regulation No. 4. of the Fishing Import Export Regulations 2010 166516. The Act
states that no person shall engage in any dredging at the sea bed or undertake trawling operations within Sri Lankan Waters in relation to any
activities specified in this regulation for which a fishing operating licence has been issued .
86 In accordance with the directive of the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources and the regulation
cited above, the DFAR does not issue boat or fishing licences for bottom trawling in Sri Lanka. The operation of Sri Lankan trawlers and the use of bottom trawls is thus illegal.
87 Despite the ban on trawling, around 300 or so trawlers
see right continue to operate from harbours and anchorages in Kalpitiya Puttalam District, Pesalai
Mannar and Kurunagar Jaffna District. Political patronage is believed to be the reason for the trawlers
continued ability to operate. The Kalpitiya trawlers fish mainly for prawns, but also harvest cuttlefish and
SLBSC from Portugal Bay. Jaffna trawlers also target prawns, cuttlefish, SLBSC and squid. Jaffna trawlers fish
off the coast of Mannar and Kilinochchi, as well as the Jaffna coastline.
88 Although smaller than their Indian counterparts, Sri
Lanka trawlers cause damage to the marine ecosystem: through the action of bottom trawling and
as a result of the bycatch landed or discarded by the trawlers. Sri Lankan trawlers are also implicated in the
damage and destruction of crab nets and are a threat to the safety of smaller Sri Lankan fishing craft. Sri
Lankan trawlers operate on the same nights as the Indian trawlers, taking advantage of their larger
counterpart s greater threat to the lives and livelihoods of small scale fishermen.
89
Migration: Migration by fishermen and women from coastal communities along the northwest coast, is also an external factor affected the SLBSC fishery. Regular and irregular migration from the north, by
people seeking political asylum, has been a persistent feature throughout the 30 year long civil conflict in Sri Lanka. There are now large expatriate Sri Lankan communities, both Sinhalese and Tamil, in
Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Norway and Switzerland. Since the end of the conflict there has been a rise in irregular migration to Australia, on aboard Sri Lankan multiday fishing boats. In 2011 over
5,000 people were arrested by Sri Lankan Navy, onboard multiday boats heading for Australia. More 1,300 Sri Lankans, Sinhalese and Tamils, had reached Australia and claimed asylum, as of July 2013.
90 40 fishermen from Jaffna had been arrested off the southern coast of Galle, in the week prior to the
field survey in Jaffna District. Representatives of fishing communities and reports in the press suggest that the motivation for undertaking irregular migration is primarily economic, regardless of the risks
involved. Despite the economic recovery associated with the end of the civil conflict, fishing communities are well positioned to engage with agents in the fishery sector, who continue to promote
irregular migration as viable way out of social and financial hardships faced by fishing households in the north west of Sri Lanka.
11
pers., com. Nuwan Gunewardena, Assistant Director, Fishing Industries Division, DFAR
21 91
Alternative Fisheries: Fishermen in all four districts are not solely dependent on the SLBSC fishery for their livelihoods. Other economically important fisheries include jacks and trevallies carangids, Indian
Mackerel scombroids, prawns and cuttlefish, needlefish Belondae, silverbiddies Gerres spp., rabbitfish Signathus spp., emperor fish Letherinds, mullet, sardinellas and trenched sardines. SLBSC
fishermen switch gears and fisheries throughout the year, depending on the availability and wholesale value of different fisheries.
c. Social Profile
92 The social profile of the SLBSC fishery includes an overview of the fishing communities engaged in the
exploitation of the SLBCs and the organisation of fishermen and women at the village, divisional, district and national level. The social profile also examines the role of women in the SLBSC fishery and draws
attention to the key issue of indebtedness faced by fishing communities and the role played by investment made by traders and seafood companies in individual SLBSC fishery operations.
93 Fishing Communities: Sinhalese, Tamil and Muslim fishing communities are engaged in the exploitation
of SLBSC off the northwest coast of Sri Lanka. Fishermen representing all three communities are present in Kalpitiya and Wannathawiluwa Puttalam District. Tamil and Muslim communities are found in
Mannar and Kilinochchi districts. In Jaffna District the fishing community is exclusively of Tamil origin, as a esult of the LTTE s fo ed e pulsio of al ost ,
Musli s f o Jaffna District on 15
th
October 1993. Following the end of the conflict, Muslim households have begun to return to their villages on
peninsular. 94
An analysis of the consolidated data provided by the Statistical Unit of the MFAR suggests that as many as 20,000 fishing household may be dependent on the SLBSC fishery in the four the districts. Detailed
district and divisional data are available with the DFAR offices at the district level and with the MFAR in Colombo. The Consultant was unable to obtain and analyse these data due to administrative procedures
and the timeframe of the assessment.
95 Organisation:
There are
two parallel
organisational structures
representing the
interests of fishermen and women in Sri Lanka: Fishe e s Coope ati e “o ieties FC“ a d ‘u al
Fisheries Organisations RFO. FCS fall under the administrative jurisdiction of the Department of
Cooperative Development DCD. The DFAR
s support and input to FCS is restricted to technical
assistance and registration related to fishing and includes social welfare.
96 The subject of cooperative development falls
under the Concurrent List of the 13
th
Amendment to the Constitution and thus is shared subject
between the central government and provincial ad i ist atio s DCD. FCSs represent fishermen
and women at the village level. In Mannar, Kilinochchi and Jaffna districts, divisional level
federations of FCS represent the interests of fishermen
and women
at the
divisional administrative level.
97 District level Fishermen Cooperative Society Unions FCSU represent the interests of fishermen and
women at the district level. FCSU are present in Mannar, Kilinochchi and Jaffna districts.
22 98
RFOs fall under the administrative jurisdiction of the MFAR. RFO were established by the MFAR in 2008, however a legislative framework, gazette notification and regulation under the Fisheries and Aquatic
Resource Act has yet to be formulated regularising ‘FO. Dist i t Fishe e s Federations DFF
represent the interests of fishermen and women who are members of RFO at the district level. RFO were present in all fishing villages in the four districts visited during the assessment. DFF have been
formed and presidents appointed in the four districts.
99 Often fishermen and women are members of both the village FCS and the RFO. The relationship
between the FCSU and DFF was cordial in Mannar District and Kilinochchi District, but less so in Jaffna District.
100 Women the SLBSC Fishery: Women feature prominently on two areas of the SLBSC fishery: post
harvest processing and net cleaning. Wo e s ai ole i the SLBSC fishery is as daily or permanent
employees with seafood companies processing SLBSC and other seafood products. Around 80 of the daily and permanent employees in seafood companies are women. Women are involved in the more
pricewise food handling aspects of processing seafood products. Male employees are more likely to be involved in heavy lifting, packing, freezing and loading activities. Management and administrative staff
make up around 5 of seafood company employees. Men and women are equally represented in management and administrative positions.
101 The number and type i.e., daily or permanent of staff employed by seafood companies varies considerably depending on the portfolio of seafood products processed by the company. Seafood
companies that process a more diverse range of products are likely to employ more permanent staff, compared to seafood companies focusing on only two or three products. 30 to 60 of women
employed in seafood companies processing a variety of seafood products are likely to be permanent staff, compared to 10 to 20 in seafood companies specialising in two or three products.
102 The five leading SLBSC seafood processing companies see Section d. Economic Profile below employ between 100
– 500 staff
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. Another ten to fifteen companies buy and process SLBSC intermittently. Only one of the five leading SLBSC seafood processing companies has processing facilities located in the
Northern Province. This company employs up to 450 daily or permanent employees, from coastal village in the proximity of the SLBSC resource.
103 All permanent staff employed by seafood companies are enrol led i the GO“L s ai so ial se u it
s he e, the E plo ees T ust Fu d ETF a d E plo ees Provident Fund EPF. Several seafood companies have also enrolled daily workers in the EPF and the ETF scheme. However, not all daily
workers engaged in processing SLBSC receive these benefits.
104 The relatively high prevalence of daily workers in the seafood industry reflects the uncertainty of the raw material. The strong seasonality associated with the SLBSC fishery and the fishery sector per se; the
unpredictability of the weather and competition for SLBSC raw material means that the amount of SLBSC purchased can change quickly, during a short period of time. This unpredictability of raw
materials necessitates a certain measure of flexibility on the part of the workforce engaged in processing SLBSC.
105 Permanent employees are paid a fixed month salary, often with various production and time bonuses. Daily workers are paid either a fixed daily rate or per piece. The piece rate is usually based on the
amount of SLBSC processed per day. Salaries of both permanent and daily employees are paid monthly. 106 Working hours are either set 8 to 9 hours per day or flexible, depending on the seafood company
concerned. All working hours include breaks for tea and lunch. Free transport is often provided for daily and permanent workers, to bring them from their villages to the processing factory. No indication of
overtime payments being paid was observed. Contracts for employees were also not observed in some instances, even for management and administrative staff.
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Staff are eengaged in processing other types of seafood products, not only SLBSC.
23 107 Regulation and food safety issues associated with the seafood sector in Sri Lanka is undertaken by
Fishery Product Quality and Control Division of the DFAR, under the MFAR. Regulations and safety issues are implemented in accordance with the directives set out in the Fisheries Aquatic Resource
Act 1996 and subsequent amendments thereof Box A 108 Staff from the Fishery Product Quality and Control Division of the DFAR inspect seafood processing
facilities every four months. The Fishery Product Quality and Control Division is the primary regulatory authority for ensuring compliance with European Union Standards. The Sri Lankan Standards Institute is
the secondary regulatory authority for all seafood quality control parameters including CODEX Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points HACCP for food safety. HACCP must also comply with the Sri Lankan
Food Drink Administration compliance standards. At the local level, mini processing factories are checked and certified by Public Health Inspectors of the Divisional Secretariat and or Pradeshya Sabha
and the Environmental Division of the District Secretary.
109 In view of the stringent food safety standards applied to all seafood processing facilities in Sri Lanka, daily and permanent employees engaged in processing SLBSC receive both intensive and extensive
training on personal health and hygiene. These include company medical checks, sanitation, handing dipping, chlorination and the use of sanitizers. Several seafood companies provide daily and permanent
employees with uniforms, boots and hair nets and separate changing facilities for male and female staff.
Box A: Regulations regarding Food Safety Issues Associated with the Seafood Sector in Sri Lanka
Regulation Amendment Year No.
Description
Fish Processing Establishment Regulations.
1998 103613
Requiring a license for those who wish to operate fish processing establishments
Fish Products Export Regulations
1998 10451
Ensuring proper hygienic standards are maintained of all fish products intended for
export
Fish Product Export Regulation
2000
An amendment to the Fish Product export Regulation of 1998
Fish Product Export Regulations Amendment
2002 Amendment to the Fish Product Export
Regulations of 1998
Fish Processing Establishment Regulations No. 1
2003 132017
Making it compulsory for those who operate fish processing establishments to acquire a
license from the DG of fisheries and aquatic resources.
Fish Products Export Regulations Amendment
2007 15287
An amendment to the Fish Products Export Regulations of 1998 and 2002.
The Fishing Import Export Regulations
2010 166516
Requiring a license for persons who wish to collect, harvest, take, fish products or aquatic
resources for import or export purposes.
110 Indebtedness: High levels of indebtedness incurred by fishing communities and the consequences of
investments made by traders and seafood companies in individual SLBSC fishery operations, was a recurrent social issue in all four districts. According to ongoing research by a the Centre for Poverty
Analysis CEPA, 75 of fishing households in the north have some form of debt, of which 50 was derived from informal lenders, their employer or other family members. Concerns about the absence of
savings and or the reluctance of fishermen to regularly save a portion of their income were common in all four districts.
24 111 Allied to this observation, fishermen and fishing households were often held to blame for their
dependency on informal credit obtained from fish traders and seafood companies. Informal loans form fish traders or seafood companies are used to pre-finance the purchase of fishing gear at the
commencement of a new fishing season. Informal loans are also used to meet expenses such as religious ceremonies and social celebrations and to meet unexpected situations such as illness and
bereavement.
112 The positive aspects of readily available informal credit and investments in fishing operations by fish traders and seafood companies were broadly appreciated, the resulting bond between fishermen and
fish trader, often going back generations, was often perceived as being detrimental to the long term financial interests of the fishermen. In Jaffna for instance, it was estimated that less than 10 of
fishe e e e i depe de t operators: free of any financial obligations or bonds with fish traders or seafood companies. Only independent fishermen are free to sell their catch to the buyer offering the
highest price each day.
d. Economic Profile
113 The economic profile of the SLBSC fishery is derived from qualitative and semi quantitative data describing the daily catch of SLBSC;
fishe e s e pe se elated to SLBSC fishing operations; the structure and function of the supply chain for SLBSC; the grading systems used by traders and seafood
companies and data describing crab products exported by Sri Lankan seafood companies.
114 Daily Catch:
A a e age da s a fishi g, du i g the si to eight months of the crab fishing season yields around 20 kg to 40 kg of SLBSC per boat per day, for an FRP fishing craft operating five sets of
crab nets, with each set containing 10 net pieces. During the peak fishing season, the average daily catch increases to 50 kg to 70 kg per boat per day, with catches of over 100 kg not uncommon among
fishermen targeting SLBSC in deeper waters closer to the IMBL. Catches of around 150 kg to 180 kg per boat per day are considered exceptional. During the offseason the daily catch falls below 20 kg per boat
per day, to around 5kg to 15kg per boat per day and can be as low as 2 kg to 5 kg in some locations. SLBSC are present in the fishery area throughout the year, but fishermen are unable to catch SLBSC
when the sea is calm and the water clears, most likely because the crabs are able to avoid the nylon nets.
115 Daily Income:
No atte pt as ade to olle t i fo atio o fishe e s dail i o e du i g the field survey, because it is notoriously difficult to collect accurate information about individual incomes by
directly asking anyone what they earn. Daily income was calculated indirectly by assuming that the average price paid per kg of SLBSC is LKR 300.00 see Grading Systems below. According to this
assumption fishe e s dail i ome range from LKR 6,000.00 to LKR 12,000.00 during the fishing
season, increasing to LKR 15,000.00 to LKR21,000.00 during the peak fishing season. Daily incomes of LKR 30,000.00 are not uncommon
. A e eptio al da s fishi g ould et a oat o e i e ess of LKR 45,000.00
fo a ight s fishi g. During the offseason daily income from SLBSC fishing falls to as little as LKR 600.00 to LKR 4,500.00 per boat per day.
116 Fishing Expenditure: The cost of a single fishing trip depends on the type of craft used and the distance
travelled to the fishing grounds. No expenditure is incurred by non mechanised traditional craft i.e., oru, theppam, vallams fishing 2 km to 3 km from the shore. Expenditure on fuel by mechanised
traditional and FRP fishing craft ranges from LKR 2,000.00 to LKR 5,400.00 per fishing trip, with each fishing trip consuming 15 l to 40 l of kerosene and oil, at LKR 130 to LKR 135 per litre to reach fishing
ground 6 km to 20 km from the landing centre.
25 117 Boat owners incur the additional daily cost of hiring fishworkers, at the rate of LKR 1,000.00 per day,
which increases the cost of the fishing operation by LKR 2,000.00, if the boat owner does not engage in fishing. SLBSC fishing craft are operated by a fishermen and fishworker or by two fishworkers. The
average cost of a single fishing trip, for mechanised SLBSC fishing craft, is thus in the region of LKR 3,000.00 to LKR 7,500.00 per day.
118 The ost of a set of ½ lo a ets i.e., pie es of et, stit hed i to t o o o e su sets is
around LKR 80,000.00. A further LKR 20,000.00 is required to purchase poles, flags, weights and anchors. The life time of a nylon crab net set is around two to three months. Fishermen and boat
owners expect to purchase a minimum of two crab net sets per season. A new FRP fishing craft retails for about LKR 150,000.00 and a similar amount or slightly more is required to purchase a new 8.8 hp or
9 hp outboard motor. The total investment required to commence SLBSC fishing, using a mechanised FRP craft is around LKR 450,000.00.
119 The Supply Chain: A summary of the overall analysis of the value chain for the marine fisheries supply sector in Sri Lanka, conducted by USAID in 2008 is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5
Sri Lanka Marine Fisheries Value Chain Map USAID 2008
26 120 The structure of the local, national and international supply chain for SLBSC is shown schematically in
Figure 6. The supply chain is initially dependent on a discrimination based on crab size. All crabs weighing less than 80 g and some crabs weighting less than 100g are sold to wholesale traders and
retailers motorcycle or bicycle vendors who supply the local i.e., district level and regional markets for small sized SLBSC. These markets are mainly Tamil populations in hill country towns, as well as in
Vavuniya, Batticaloa, Trincomalee and in Colombo. Bycatch from the stake net fishery and Sri Lankan bottom trawlers are important sources of very small crabs for the local market. SLBSC weighing more
than 80g enter the national i.e., Colombo and international market see Figure 6a.
121 The structure of the national and international supply chain for SLBSC for small, medium and large crabs comprises direct and indirect supply chains. Direct supply chains link fishermen with seafood
companies, through collecting centres established by the seafood companies at the district level. Indirectly SLBSC caught by fishermen are sold to seafood companies through local traders. Local traders
may in turn use mini collectors to aggregated catches, before selling these on to seafood companies. Traders may have either single or multiple trading relationships with seafood companies. Fishermen
a also sell thei at h to fishe e s o ga isatio s, hi h i tu sell the at h to seafood o pa ies. The supply chains for SLBSC are different in each district, with the relative importance of the direct and
indirect supply chains varying according to district. 122 The demand for SLBSC from seafood companies is driven entirely by international demand for SLBSC
products. The national market for SLBSC is extremely small. It is restricted to a small number of top class hotels and restaurants and a very small number of Sri Lankan consumers. As a consequence, the
national market supply chain – from local traders to hotels, restaurants and Sri Lankan consumers - is
not consider further in this report. 123 The largest number of seafood company owned collecting centres - 8 to 10
– was present in Kalpitiya. Each collecting centre purchasing SLBSC directly from fishermen and boat owners. In Mannar, two or
three seafood companies operate collecting centres for seafood, including SLBSC. No collecting centres have been established by seafood companies in Kilinochchi District and only one company was observed
to have set up a collecting centre in Jaffna District.
124 Two local traders are responsible for the bulk of SLBSC purchasing in Jaffna District. The two traders supply raw material to several seafood companies. The two main local traders in Jaffna District also
purchase SLBSC from fishermen and boat owners in Kilinochchi District. In Mannar District, two local traders are responsible for purchasing for the bulk of SLBSC purchasing in the district. The two traders in
Mannar District supply raw material to several seafood companies. In Kalpitiya five or six local traders, together with as many as 20 mini suppliers purchase SLBSC from fishermen and boat owners. In
Kilinochchi District, the FCS in Irainamadanagar purchases SLBSC from its members and supplies crab to a single seafood company
125 The Supply Chain – Local Traders: Local traders operating in all four districts establish their trading
relationship with individual fishermen and boat owners by means of a financial bond. The bond is a form of advance given to the fishermen or boat owner. It can also be seen as an investment made by
the local trader into the fishing operation of the fishermen or boat owner concerned. At another level the payment of a bond between a fisherman or boat owner and a local trader may be viewed as
financial obligation on the part of the local trader, in order to secure the right to purchase fish from the fishermen or boat owner concerned.
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Figure 6 Schematic representation of supply chains for small, very small and very very small SLBSCs
a. Small, Very Small and Very Very Small Crabs
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